<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20250043i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction Beyond the Myocardium: Systemic Inflammation as the Central Axis of Pathophysiology</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0341-8675</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Ideta</surname>
						<given-names>Mylena Miki Lopes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-5034-3227</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Nihei</surname>
						<given-names>Camile Miyuki Ishikawa</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0696-0208</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Moreira</surname>
						<given-names>Paulo Henrique Brites</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0262-6635</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Freitas</surname>
						<given-names>Ana Karyn Ehrenfried de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Paraná</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital de Clínicas</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paraná – Hospital de Clínicas, Curitiba, PR – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital da Cruz Vermelha Brasileira</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital da Cruz Vermelha Brasileira, Curitiba, PR – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label> Mylena Miki Lopes Ideta • Rua Gen. Carneiro, 181. Postal Code 80060-900, Alto da Glória, Curitiba, PR –Brazil. E-mail: <email>mylena.miki15@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
					<p> Ana Karyn Ehrenfried de Freitas - Participation in events/classes for Astra and Bayer.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p> Germano Souza</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>31</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>5</volume>
			<issue>4</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20250043</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>14</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>24</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>21</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Heart failure (HF) with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is currently the most prevalent subtype of HF, particularly among older women with multiple metabolic comorbidities. Despite recent therapeutic advances, its pathophysiology remains incompletely understood and markedly heterogeneous. In 2025, Milton Packer proposed a new conceptual framework: the adipokine hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, HFpEF is a condition primarily driven by the expansion and dysfunction of visceral adipose tissue. This remodeling of adipose tissue results in altered secretion of adipokines, which are biologically active molecules with endocrine and paracrine effects on the heart, kidneys, and vascular system. The imbalance between cardioprotective and proinflammatory adipokines promotes systemic inflammation, sodium retention, volume overload, myocardial hypertrophy, and fibrosis, ultimately leading to diastolic dysfunction and exercise intolerance, which are hallmarks of HFpEF. This article reviews the main pathophysiological foundations of this hypothesis as well as the experimental and clinical evidence and therapeutic implications, which propose a unifying paradigm for understanding and managing HFpEF.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Adipokines</kwd>
				<kwd>Obesity</kwd>
				<kwd>Inflammation</kwd>
				<kwd>Adiponectin</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="6"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="75"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: art Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction Beyond the Myocardium: Systemic Inflammation as the Central Axis of Pathophysiology</title>
							<p>ICFEP: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada; NO: óxido nítrico; ROS: espécies reativas de oxigênio; SRAA: sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona; TAE: tecido adiposo epicárdico; TAV: tecido adiposo visceral.</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250043-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Heart failure (HF) with preserved ejection fraction (EF) (HFpEF) accounts for approximately half of HF cases worldwide and currently represents the most prevalent subtype of the syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> HFpEF is associated with high morbidity and mortality, particularly among older women with obesity and multiple metabolic comorbidities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In contrast to HF with reduced EF (HFrEF), whose pathophysiology is well established and largely explained by the neurohormonal hypothesis, HFpEF has traditionally been considered a multifactorial syndrome. In this model, conditions such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, aging, and systemic inflammation act relatively independently, promoting myocardial remodeling and diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> However, interpreting such factors as isolated mechanisms does not satisfactorily explain the relative uniformity of clinical manifestations or the variability in therapeutic responses<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Main hypotheses of HFpEF pathophysiology</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="20%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="left">Hypothesis</th>
								<th>Pathophysiological mechanisms</th>
								<th>Observational/Experimental evidence</th>
								<th>Proposed preatment</th>
								<th>Therapeutic evidence (trials)</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Hypertension-hypertrophy-diastolic dysfunction<sup>5</sup></bold></td>
								<td align="center">Hypertension induces myocardial hypertrophy</td>
								<td align="center">Hypertension is predominantly associated with HFrEF, although experimental studies suggest an association with HFpEF in early stages</td>
								<td align="center">Strict blood pressure control</td>
								<td align="center">CHARM-Preserved, PEP-CHF, and I-Preserve did not demonstrate significant mortality reduction, only modest symptomatic improvement<sup>65-67</sup></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Microvascular inflammation associated with NO-cGMP deficiency<sup>17</sup></bold></td>
								<td align="center">Microvascular inflammation with reduced NO, cGMP, and PKG, favoring hypertrophy and interstitial fibrosis</td>
								<td align="center">It is not clearly established how comorbidities (diabetes, dyslipidemia, and COPD) trigger selective coronary microvascular inflammation</td>
								<td align="center">Drugs that increase NO or cGMP (isosorbide mononitrate, inorganic nitrite); stimulators of the cGMP pathway (vericiguat, praliciguat)</td>
								<td align="center">NEAT-HFpEF did not demonstrate improvement in exercise tolerance with isosorbide mononitrate; meta-analyses showed no benefit with inorganic nitrite; VITALITY-HFpEF and CAPACITY-HFpEF were negative for vericiguat and praliciguat<sup>67,72-74</sup></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Phenotypic mapping<sup>75</sup></bold></td>
								<td align="center">Associated comorbidities (diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and CKD) considered determinants of distinct HFpEF subphenotypes</td>
								<td align="center">Phenotypic categorization into subgroups has not demonstrated consistent reproducibility</td>
								<td align="center">Phenotype-directed treatment (atrial phenotype: rhythm control; metabolic: SGLT2 inhibitors; vascular: antihypertensives)</td>
								<td align="center">EMPEROR-Preserved and DELIVER demonstrated benefit of SGLT2 inhibitors regardless of ejection fraction, suggesting an effect on the metabolic/inflammatory phenotype<sup>47,48</sup></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Adipokines<sup>4</sup></bold></td>
								<td align="center">Increased proinflammatory and profibrotic adipokines (leptin, resistin, TNF-α, IL-6) and reduced adiponectin, promoting systemic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, increased cardiomyocyte stiffness, and extracellular matrix remodeling; paracrine effect of epicardial adipose tissue</td>
								<td align="center">Central adiposity is present in &gt; 95% of patients with HFpEF, associated with disease development and severity</td>
								<td align="center">Interventions that reduce visceral adiposity and modulate adipokine production</td>
								<td align="center">STEP-HFpEF (semaglutide) and DELIVER/EMPEROR-Preserved (dapagliflozin, empagliflozin) demonstrated improvement in symptoms and functional capacity, reinforcing the metabolic-adipose role<sup>47-49</sup></td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p><italic>CKD: chronic kidney disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction.</italic></p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>The adipokine hypothesis has thus emerged as a potential unifying axis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> According to this proposal, expansion of visceral adipose tissue (VAT) promotes its transformation into a proinflammatory endocrine organ capable of secreting mediators with direct effects on the heart, kidneys, and vascular system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Such alterations result in an imbalance between cardioprotective and proinflammatory adipokines, favoring systemic inflammation, sodium retention, volume overload, myocardial hypertrophy, and fibrosis, ultimately leading to the characteristic clinical phenotype of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The adipokine hypothesis does not replace previous models but rather integrates them into a broader immunometabolic framework. HFpEF is characterized by chronic systemic inflammation sustained by several sources, including VAT, endothelial dysfunction, cellular senescence, kidney and bowel alterations, and persistent immunometabolic activation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> These mechanisms converge toward microvascular rarefaction, oxidative stress, increased ventricular stiffness, and impaired lusitropic reserve, which are central elements in the pathophysiology of the syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The hypothesis of a central role for adiposity in HFpEF was initially supported by clinical observations showing that most patients with this syndrome present central obesity associated with systemic inflammation. Longitudinal studies, such as the UK Biobank and the Framingham Heart Study, have demonstrated that visceral adiposity, assessed by imaging methods or by the waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), is an independent predictor of HFpEF development, but not of HFrEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Additionally, a WHtR ≥ 0.5 is present in &gt; 95% of patients with HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> These findings have been corroborated by recent analyses of large clinical trials, such as the PARAGON-HF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> which have shown a direct association between central adiposity, disease severity, and prognosis in HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In 2018, Milton Packer et al. described the leptin-aldosterone-neprilysin axis as one of the main mediators of the interaction between adipose tissue and the cardiovascular system. This axis helps explain classic manifestations of HFpEF, such as sodium retention, volume overload, and myocardial fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Therefore, the aim of this article is to comprehensively review the main inflammatory pathways involved in the development and progression of HFpEF, placing the adipokine hypothesis within the broader context of the immunometabolic processes that characterize this syndrome.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Sources of systemic inflammation in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Visceral adipose tissue as a central inflammatory organ</title>
				<p>Current evidence indicates that HFpEF is more strongly associated with central adiposity, often assessed by a WHtR ≥ 0.5, than with the traditional obesity criterion based on body mass index (BMI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>VAT constitutes an important endocrine organ and, under conditions of nutritional excess, becomes metabolically active and proinflammatory. Adipocyte expansion leads to tissue hypoxia, macrophage activation, and the secretion of adipokines with endocrine and paracrine effects. Among the systemic consequences are increased kidney and splanchnic sympathetic activity, activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, sodium retention, volume expansion, and the development of systemic and pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Concurrently, inflammatory mediators promote impairment of the coronary microcirculation and remodeling of the extracellular matrix. As a result, there is increased ventricular stiffness and decreased diastolic compliance, without significant loss of myocytes, which is a hallmark of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> These findings are summarized in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Central Illustration</xref>.</p>
				<p>VAT acts as an initial trigger of systemic inflammation and neurohormonal dysregulation, establishing the substrate for subsequent cardiovascular alterations.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Endothelial dysfunction, senescence, and inflammaging</title>
				<p>Adipokines correspond to a group of bioactive molecules secreted by adipocytes, with endocrine and paracrine actions, including the subtypes described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Classification and description of adipokines</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="50%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Class</th>
									<th align="left">Subtypes/Description</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Polypeptides and proteins</bold></td>
									<td>Adiponectin, leptin, and other proteins with endocrine and paracrine functions</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Steroids and eicosanoids</bold></td>
									<td>Aldosterone, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Lipokines</bold></td>
									<td>Products derived from lipolysis, such as free fatty acids</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Metabokines</bold></td>
									<td>Metabolites derived from cellular energy metabolism with signaling activity</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Adipoexosomes</bold></td>
									<td>Extracellular nanovesicles containing proteins and microRNAs that modulate gene expression in distant tissues</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Circulating mesenchymal stem cells</bold></td>
									<td>Cells derived from adipose tissue or bone marrow progenitors, with the ability to interact with cardiac tissue</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The leptin-angiotensin II-aldosterone axis is hyperactivated in central obesity. Leptin stimulates adrenal aldosterone production and may also be locally secreted by hypertrophied adipocytes through a calcineurin-dependent pathway.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Sustained activation of mineralocorticoid receptors intensifies sodium retention and vascular remodeling.</p>
				<p>Simultaneously, there is increased tubular sodium reabsorption mediated by kidney sympathetic hyperactivity. Patients with obesity exhibit decreased levels of natriuretic peptides, attributed to increased neprilysin expression and enhanced peptide clearance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Within the vascular bed, leptin and aldosterone promote increased arterial stiffness and dysfunction of perivascular adipose tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Systemic inflammation also results in generalized endothelial dysfunction, including the coronary microcirculation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Franssen et al. demonstrated that, in HFpEF, there is coronary endothelial hyperactivation, increased oxidative stress, and uncoupling of endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase, which begins to produce reactive oxygen species instead of NO. As a result, there is a significant reduction in NO bioavailability in the left ventricular (LV) myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> The vasodilatory response to acetylcholine is decreased, contributing to diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
				<p>This process, characterized by accelerated cellular senescence, is known as inflammaging and has been associated with the pathophysiology of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Cytokines and proteases amplify tissue damage, promoting hypertrophy, apoptosis, fibrosis, and abnormal myocardial repair. Endothelial inflammation is also associated with increased p53 acetylation, a pathway that plays a critical role in the transition from compensatory hypertrophy to HF. In addition, cytokine release may induce senescence in adjacent cells, establishing a feedback loop that links systemic inflammation, microvascular dysfunction, and increased ventricular stiffness, which are central mechanisms in the pathophysiology of HFpEF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Systemic and cardiorenal effects of adipokine-mediated inflammation in HFpEF. Visceral adipose tissue imbalance leads to systemic inflammation, promoting kidney effects (e.g., sodium retention and fibrosis) and cardiac effects (e.g., myocardial hypertrophy and microvascular dysfunction). These alterations result in increased ventricular filling pressures and ultimately culminate in the development of HFpEF (Adapted from Milton Packer, 2025). HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250043-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Effects of inflammation on the heart</title>
				<p>The convergence of inflammatory mechanisms results in three main alterations: endothelial dysfunction of the coronary microcirculation with capillary rarefaction, progressive interstitial fibrosis, and loss of LV lusitropic reserve.</p>
				<p>Endothelial inflammation reduces NO bioavailability and impairs the NO-cGMP-PKG pathway, which is essential for adequate titin phosphorylation, resulting in increased cardiomyocyte stiffness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Decreased microvascular flow, associated with increased oxidative stress, promotes fibroblast activation and excessive extracellular matrix deposition and culminates in diffuse fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In parallel, impairment of the lusitropic pathway limits the diastolic capacity to accommodate increases in preload, particularly during exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The leptin-aldosterone-neprilysin axis predisposes to sodium retention, volume overload, and myocardial fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Obesity is also associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, decreased the production of adenosine triphosphate, and intracellular calcium overload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Oxidation of RyR2 favors calcium leak from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which may contribute to the occurrence of ventricular ectopy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Leptin, angiotensin II, and aldosterone activate prohypertrophic and profibrotic pathways and promote increased ventricular mass.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Left atrial (LA) enlargement, associated with profibrotic changes that predispose to atrial myopathy, increases the prevalence of atrial fibrillation in this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Thus, obesity promotes increased volume overload through sodium retention and decreased venous capacitance, while simultaneously reducing the myocardium’s adaptive capacity to this overload due to stimulation of hypertrophy and fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> This mechanism explains the increase in filling pressures and LA volume in individuals with obesity, alterations that may be clinically relevant even in the absence of formal diagnostic criteria for HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Experimental studies demonstrate that the development of HFpEF is associated with increased levels of specific proinflammatory adipokines in adipose tissue. Conversely, selective modulation of these adipokines may be associated with clinical improvement. In addition to preceding the development of the syndrome, alterations in levels of adipokine are also associated with greater disease severity and have prognostic value in this group of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>The role of adipokines and Packer’s hypothesis</title>
				<p>The contemporary understanding of HFpEF has evolved to incorporate not only inflammation and microvascular dysfunction but also a profound disruption of energy-sensing pathways. Adipokines and their associated pathways thus emerge as a direct link between nutrient excess, metabolic dysfunction, and the maladaptive cardiac response.</p>
				<p>Under conditions of nutrient scarcity, adipose tissue functions as an energy reservoir, and its capacity for regeneration and maintenance depends on mesenchymal stem cell homeostasis. Low-energy sensors, including SIRT1, AMPK, and PGC-1α, are then activated. These pathways promote gluconeogenesis and ketogenesis, preserve mitochondrial stability, reduce oxygen consumption, and stimulate autophagy, thereby ensuring cellular renewal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In contrast, in states of nutrient excess, expansion of VAT promotes downregulation of these pathways, resulting in oxidative stress and functional alterations of local mesenchymal cells. Consequently, adipokines are released that sustain the activation of proliferative, prohypertrophic, proinflammatory, and profibrotic pathways, both locally and systemically.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Experimental studies demonstrate that mesenchymal cells derived from adipose tissue of obese mice have the potential to induce inflammation and senescence, whereas those from healthy animals exhibit immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Another important regulator of cellular longevity is the PI3K/Akt/mTOR axis, which is essential for growth signaling and cellular proliferation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> This axis is stimulated under conditions of nutritional excess and once activated increases mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species, facilitating cellular proliferation. Although it is fundamental during fetal development and adaptive processes, its chronic activation in adulthood promotes cellular senescence and maladaptive hypertrophy.</p>
				<p>Energy-sensing pathways are highly interconnected and inversely regulated. Activation of the Akt/mTOR axis, associated with suppression of SIRT1/PGC-1α pathways modulated by adipokines released in the context of nutrient excess, shows a remarkable parallel with the alterations observed in cardiomyocytes in HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
				<p>These metabolic alterations help explain why adipokine imbalance is not merely a marker but a central mediator of inflammation, fibrosis, and cardiac dysfunction. In this context, the model proposed by Milton Packer integrates coherently into the pathophysiological framework of HFpEF by classifying adipokines into three functional domains<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>):</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Molecular mechanism of the interaction between adipose tissue and the myocardium in HFpEF. Obesity and visceral adiposity promote biological transformation of adipose tissue, resulting in an imbalance in adipokine secretion. This disruption leads to inhibition of the SIRT1/AMPK/PGC-1α pathways and activation of the Akt/mTOR pathway. Together, these processes promote oxidative stress, inflammation, fibrosis, and myocardial hypertrophy, ultimately culminating in the clinical phenotype of HFpEF (Adapted from Milton Packer, 2025). HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250043-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<list list-type="order">
					<list-item>
						<p><bold>Domain I:</bold> cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, natriuretic, and insulin-sensitizing molecules (e.g., adiponectin, omentin-1, and neuregulin-4), secreted by healthy adipocytes and suppressed in HFpEF;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p><bold>Domain II:</bold> compensatory adipokines that increase in response to visceral adiposity (e.g., FGF21, vaspin, and IL-10), with cardioprotective effects, including inhibition of cellular stress, hypertrophy, and inflammation in white adipose tissue and the heart;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p><bold>Domain III:</bold> predominantly proinflammatory, prohypertrophic, and profibrotic adipokines (e.g., the leptin-angiotensin II-aldosterone-neprilysin axis, autotaxin, resistin, and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1), whose expression is increased in visceral adiposity.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p>In visceral obesity, there is suppression of Domain I adipokines, compensatory upregulation of Domain II adipokines, and overexpression of Domain III adipokines. This imbalance establishes a proinflammatory and profibrotic hormonal environment that integrates metabolic (e.g., insulin resistance), hemodynamic (e.g., volume expansion and increased vascular resistance), and structural (e.g., myocardial hypertrophy and stiffness) alterations observed in HFpEF and its associated comorbidities. These changes may precede the clinical development of the syndrome by years, and the magnitude of adipokine imbalance correlates with disease severity and prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In lean individuals, adipocytes secrete small amounts of Domain II adipokines. In visceral obesity, however, there is a marked increase in their production. Despite their cardioprotective effects, these adipokines become insufficient to prevent the development of HFpEF due to obesity-induced resistance to their biological actions. Nevertheless, patients with established HF and increased levels of these adipokines exhibit a relatively more favorable prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Leptin is the most extensively studied of the Domain III adipokines. Under physiological conditions, it has beneficial short-term effects, such as promoting satiety, decreasing blood pressure, and protecting cardiomyocytes. However, in chronic hyperleptinemia, these effects become maladaptive, leading to the activation of the adrenergic system, increased tubular sodium reabsorption, and the induction of systemic inflammatory responses. These responses include ventricular hypertrophy, diastolic dysfunction, endothelial dysfunction, and myocardial fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The coordinated activation of the leptin-angiotensin II-aldosterone-neprilysin axis in obesity, together with the mutual amplification of its effects and signaling pathways, plays a central role in mediating the causal impact of obesity on HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Therapeutic interventions targeting the reduction of visceral adiposity, suppression of Domain III adipokines, or activation of SIRT1/AMPK/PGC-1α pathways have demonstrated clinical and prognostic benefits in HFpEF. Among these strategies are bariatric surgery, incretin receptor agonists, SGLT2 inhibitors, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, and neprilysin and renin-angiotensin system inhibitors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Clinical and therapeutic evidence</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Relationship between inflammatory markers and prognosis</title>
				<p>Chronic activation of the inflammatory cascade, often originating from cardiometabolic comorbidities, promotes coronary endothelial dysfunction, increased vascular permeability, fibroblast activation, and interstitial remodeling, resulting in ventricular stiffness and diastolic dysfunction, as previously discussed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> This process is sustained by proinflammatory cytokines and mediators derived from VAT, particularly IL-6, TNF-α, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> These mediators have emerged not only as disease markers but also as prognostic determinants in HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>IL-6 is a pleiotropic cytokine produced by multiple cell types, including adipocytes, macrophages, endothelial cells, and stressed cardiomyocytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Its action occurs through binding to the IL-6 receptor alpha and activation of the gp130 coreceptor, triggering the JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway, in addition to modulating intracellular metabolic pathways such as mTOR and AMPK/SIRT1. From a pathophysiological perspective, IL-6 promotes TGF-β-mediated fibroblast activation, reduces titin phosphorylation, and suppresses the NO-cGMP-PKG pathway, culminating in myocardial hypertrophy, interstitial fibrosis, diastolic dysfunction, and increased oxidative stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In a multicenter study of 374 patients with HFpEF, higher levels of IL-6 were associated with higher BMI, greater prevalence of obesity, higher levels of N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), worse kidney function, lower levels of hemoglobin, and higher levels of hs-CRP and TNF-α as well as a higher prevalence of diabetes. Such patients also exhibited lower peak VO<sub>2</sub> and shorter distance in the 6-minute walk test,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> which suggests a direct association between decreased IL-6 and impaired functional and hemodynamic capacity.</p>
				<p>Additional evidence is provided by a study involving 1,086 patients (506 with HFpEF and 580 with HFrEF), conducted by Berger et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> In this study, increased levels of IL-6 were significantly associated with cardiovascular mortality only in patients with HFpEF, whereas this association was not significant in HFrEF. hs-CRP showed a similar trend but did not remain significant after multivariable adjustment. There was also a significant interaction between IL-6 and NT-proBNP in predicting cardiovascular mortality. Furthermore, genotypic analysis demonstrated that individuals homozygous for the IL6-receptor p.Asp358Ala variant (rs2228145) had significantly lower levels of NT-proBNP among patients with HFpEF, but not among those with HFrEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In a prospective study, patients recently hospitalized for HFpEF who had increased levels of IL-6 at discharge exhibited a higher risk of rehospitalization and mortality at 180 days.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> In a population-based cohort of 8,534 individuals without prior HF, Chia et al. demonstrated that increased plasma IL-6 concentrations predicted the development of HFpEF but not HFrEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> These findings establish IL-6 as an independent prognostic marker and a potential pathophysiological mediator in HFpEF, representing the first inflammatory biomarker with differential prognostic discrimination between HFpEF and HFrEF. Moreover, data suggest IL-6 is not only associated with disease progression but also participates in its early stages, which supports a possible causal relationship.</p>
				<p>TNF-α in turn is a central cytokine of the inflammatory response, produced mainly by activated macrophages, T lymphocytes, and endothelial cells. It acts by promoting cardiomyocyte apoptosis, fibroblast activation, and mitochondrial dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> In a comparative study, Putko et al. evaluated 140 patients with HF and observed that plasma levels of TNF-α and TNFR2 were significantly higher in patients with HFpEF compared with those with HFrEF, suggesting pathophysiological differences between the phenotypes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Although longitudinal studies specifically focused on HFpEF remain limited, data from mixed cohorts indicate that increased levels of TNF-α are associated with increased all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, even after adjustment for NT-proBNP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
				<p>hs-CRP is an acute-phase protein synthesized by the liver in response to IL-6. Despite its low specificity, hs-CRP is widely used as an accessible marker of systemic inflammation and demonstrates modest but consistent prognostic value in HFpEF. In the meta-analysis by Lakhani et al., which included 19 studies and more than 4,000 patients, increased levels of hs-CRP were associated with increased cardiovascular and all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> In the study by Berger et al., hs-CRP showed lower prognostic power compared with IL-6, which suggests it reflects global systemic inflammation rather than myocardial processes specific to HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> In addition, its association with prognosis appears to be influenced by metabolic status and visceral adiposity, as hs-CRP correlates with BMI and insulin resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Most of the evidence linking IL-6, TNF-α, and hs-CRP to prognosis in HFpEF derives from observational studies, cohort analyses, and substudies of clinical trials. These designs allow identification of consistent associations but do not, in isolation, establish a direct causal relationship. Therefore, increase of such biomarkers should be interpreted as an expression of a chronic systemic inflammatory state, closely related to the cardiometabolic comorbidities that characterize HFpEF.</p>
				<p>Definitive confirmation of the causal role of these mediators requires randomized clinical trials specifically designed for this population. In the case of IL-6, however, this limitation is partially mitigated by the convergence of multiple lines of evidence, including experimental studies demonstrating the impact of modulation of this pathway on key processes in HFpEF pathophysiology (e.g., interstitial fibrosis, endothelial dysfunction, and increased myocardial stiffness) and genetic data associating functional variants of the IL-6 receptor with decreased levels of NT-proBNP in patients with HFpEF.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Targeted anti-inflammatory therapies</title>
				<p>The identification of the central role of inflammation in HFpEF has, over the past two decades, driven the development of therapeutic strategies aimed at blocking proinflammatory cytokines. The evolution of these approaches reflects an important conceptual shift: from systemic and nonspecific blockade (anti-TNF) to more selective and targeted interventions (anti-IL-1β and anti-IL-6).</p>
				<p>TNF-α was the first therapeutic target investigated in patients with chronic HF. In the early 2000s, two major clinical trials evaluated agents blocking this pathway: etanercept (RENEWAL) and infliximab (ATTACH).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> The RENEWAL study, which integrated the RECOVER and RENAISSANCE substudies, included 2,048 patients with moderate to severe systolic HF treated with etanercept, a soluble TNF-α receptor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> It was terminated early after interim analysis showed no benefit in mortality or hospitalization, along with a trend toward increased adverse cardiovascular events.</p>
				<p>Similarly, the ATTACH study evaluated the monoclonal antibody infliximab in 150 patients with advanced HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> There was worsening of the composite outcomes of mortality and rehospitalization in the groups treated with higher doses, which suggests complete TNF-α blockade may negatively interfere with the physiological immune response and exacerbate endothelial and mitochondrial dysfunction.</p>
				<p>In light of these results, the therapeutic focus shifted to the IL-1β/IL-6 pathway. The CANTOS trial evaluated selective IL-1β blockade with canakinumab in 10,061 patients with established atherosclerotic disease and hs-CRP ≥ 2 mg/L.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> In addition to reducing atherothrombotic events, secondary analyses demonstrated a 26% decrease in HF hospitalizations and a 17% decrease in cardiovascular mortality. These findings provided the first clinical evidence that selective modulation of inflammation can alter the course of HF. IL-1β blockade reduces liver production of hs-CRP and consequently IL-6–mediated signaling, interrupting the proinflammatory cascade associated with myocardial remodeling and fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Experimental models support these findings. In a preclinical study, pharmacological IL-6 blockade in mice subjected to subtotal nephrectomy and salt overload significantly decreased cardiac inflammatory infiltration and interstitial fibrosis, with improvement in diastolic function and reduction in oxidative stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Among IL-6-targeted therapies, the monoclonal antibody ziltivekimab stands out, as it selectively blocks this pathway. The RESCUE study demonstrated a significant reduction in levels of hs-CRP and fibrinogen in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and persistent inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> In 2024, the HERMES trial was initiated to evaluate ziltivekimab versus placebo in patients with HFpEF and systemic inflammation (hs-CRP ≥ 2 mg/L).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> This is an ongoing study with the primary objective of assessing the impact of selective IL-6 inhibition on hard clinical outcomes, such as cardiovascular mortality and HFpEF hospitalizations.</p>
				<p>To date, data on clinical outcomes in patients with HFpEF treated with anti-IL-1 or anti-IL-6 therapies remain limited, as most evidence derives from secondary analyses, intermediate studies, or trials conducted in broader HF populations. Thus, the results of the HERMES study will be essential to determine whether selective cytokine inhibition translates into consistent clinical benefit in a population characterized by high clinical and pathophysiological heterogeneity.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Indirect anti-inflammatory strategies: metabolic therapies and functional immunomodulation</title>
				<p>The adipokine hypothesis redefines the therapeutic target in HFpEF, shifting the focus from the myocardium to VAT. Strategies that modulate this tissue have demonstrated clinically relevant benefits.</p>
				<p>Among these approaches are SGLT2 inhibitors, GLP-1 receptor agonists, selective mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (e.g., finerenone), and interventions that promote sustained weight loss. All have shown evidence of reducing inflammatory markers, such as IL-6, TNF-α, and hs-CRP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The EMPEROR-Preserved and DELIVER trials demonstrated that empagliflozin and dapagliflozin, respectively, reduce the composite outcome of HF hospitalization and cardiovascular death in patients with HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Secondary analyses of these studies showed reductions in IL-6, TNF-α, and hs-CRP, suggesting a systemic anti-inflammatory effect mediated by metabolic reprogramming and immunomodulation. SGLT2 inhibition promotes increased ketogenesis and activation of AMPK/SIRT1 pathways, reducing oxidative stress and inflammatory macrophage activation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
				<p>GLP-1 receptor agonists have also demonstrated benefits in patients with obesity-related HFpEF. In the STEP-HFpEF study, semaglutide improved functional capacity by 20%, with a significant increase in the 6-minute walk test distance (21.5 m), in addition to marked reductions in hs-CRP (–39%) and IL-6 (–26%) after 52 weeks.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> These effects appear to be at least in part independent of weight loss, which suggests a direct effect on systemic inflammation and improvement in microvascular function.</p>
				<p>Finerenone, a nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist, has demonstrated antifibrotic and anti-inflammatory effects in patients with HF associated with CKD. In the FIDELIO-DKD and FIGARO-DKD studies, significant reductions in inflammatory markers (IL-6, hs-CRP, and MCP-1) and major cardiovascular events were observed, reinforcing its potential as an indirect anti-inflammatory therapy in HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Recent proteomic analyses have expanded the understanding of its molecular effects. In a FIGARO-DKD substudy, finerenone decreased biomarkers associated with fibrosis (e.g., osteopontin and fibronectin), inflammation, and remodeling (e.g., ANGPTL2 and CD69), in addition to suppressing neuropeptide Y, which is associated with sympathetic activation and progression of cardiac remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Complementarily, data presented at the ESC Congress 2025, derived from proteomic analysis of the FINEARTS-HF study, demonstrated decreased expression of profibrogenic proteins, such as CTHRC1 and CSPG4 as well as reductions in NT-proBNP and osteopontin, suggesting a direct antifibrotic and antiremodeling effect. These findings reinforce that the clinical benefits of finerenone derive not only from mineralocorticoid receptor blockade but also from integrated modulation of inflammatory pathways and the extracellular matrix, aligning with the concept of systemic inflammation and integrated remodeling in HFpEF.</p>
				<p>Finally, reduction of VAT represents one of the main determinants of inflammatory modulation in HFpEF. Studies demonstrate that sustained weight loss, whether through dietary intervention or bariatric surgery, reduces levels of hs-CRP and IL-6, accompanied by improvement in diastolic function and myocardial stiffness. Reductions of approximately 10% in body weight may decrease serum levels of IL-6 by up to 30%, demonstrating a dose-dependent relationship between visceral adiposity and inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Bariatric surgery in turn decreased visceral adipose mass, increased adiponectin, and decreased leptin, PAI-1, and Gal-3, and is associated with improved functional capacity and regression of ventricular hypertrophy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>The understanding of HFpEF pathophysiology has evolved significantly in recent decades, accompanying the emergence of new paradigms in response to its high degree of conceptual and therapeutic complexity. After successive attempts to explain the condition based predominantly on hemodynamic or structural mechanisms, accumulating evidence has redirected the focus of investigation: HFpEF is not exclusively a myocardial disease but rather the cardiac manifestation of a systemic inflammatory-metabolic syndrome, in which the pathological process originates outside the heart.</p>
			<p>The adipokine hypothesis proposed by Milton Packer represents an important conceptual milestone in understanding HFpEF. Chronic low-grade inflammation, primarily sustained by VAT dysfunction and endothelial dysfunction, provides a unifying axis capable of integrating the clinical manifestations and comorbidities associated with the syndrome. This perspective allows the interrelationship between obesity, systemic inflammation, and HF to be understood within a single pathophysiological framework.</p>
			<p>Within this integrative model, IL-6 stands out not only as a biomarker but also as a potential active mediator of diastolic dysfunction, myocardial fibrosis, and neurohormonal activation, with direct impact on disease prognosis. Complementarily, TNF-α/TNFR and hs-CRP, although less specific, reinforce the existence of a complex and interdependent systemic inflammatory network.</p>
			<p>Analogous to the transformative impact of the neurohormonal hypothesis on the management of HFrEF, the adipokine hypothesis has the potential to redefine therapeutic strategies in HFpEF. However, consolidation of this new paradigm depends on evidence from randomized clinical trials specifically designed to evaluate interventions targeting visceral adiposity and associated systemic inflammation. Studies such as CANTOS and HERMES represent initial steps in this direction by investigating the clinical effects of targeted anti-inflammatory therapies.</p>
			<p>At the same time, indirect therapies (e.g., SGLT2 inhibitors, GLP-1 receptor agonists, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, and interventions aimed at reducing visceral adiposity, including weight loss and bariatric surgery) demonstrate that metabolic modulation can lead to decreased systemic inflammation and functional improvement.</p>
			<p>Taken together, these findings reinforce the notion that understanding and managing HFpEF require an integrated approach in which metabolism, inflammation, hemodynamics, and microvascular function represent interdependent components of a single systemic syndrome.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ref-list>
			<title>References</title>
			<ref id="B1">
				<label>1</label>
				<mixed-citation>1. Cannata A, McDonagh TA. Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. N Engl J Med. 2025;392(2):173-84. doi: 10.1056/NEJMcp2305181.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cannata</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McDonagh</surname>
							<given-names>TA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2025</year>
					<volume>392</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>173</fpage>
					<lpage>184</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMcp2305181</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B2">
				<label>2</label>
				<mixed-citation>2. Kittleson MM, Panjrath GS, Amancherla K, Davis LL, Deswal A, Dixon DL, et al. 2023 ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on Management of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Solution Set Oversight Committee. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2023;81(18):1835-78. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2023.03.393.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kittleson</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Panjrath</surname>
							<given-names>GS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Amancherla</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Davis</surname>
							<given-names>LL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Deswal</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dixon</surname>
							<given-names>DL</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>2023 ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on Management of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Solution Set Oversight Committee</article-title>
					<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>81</volume>
					<issue>18</issue>
					<fpage>1835</fpage>
					<lpage>1878</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2023.03.393</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B3">
				<label>3</label>
				<mixed-citation>3. Packer M. The Neurohormonal Hypothesis: A Theory to Explain the Mechanism of Disease Progression in Heart Failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;20(1):248-54. doi: 10.1016/0735-1097(92)90167-l.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Packer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The Neurohormonal Hypothesis: A Theory to Explain the Mechanism of Disease Progression in Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
					<year>1992</year>
					<volume>20</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>248</fpage>
					<lpage>254</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/0735-1097(92)90167-l</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B4">
				<label>4</label>
				<mixed-citation>4. Packer M. The Adipokine Hypothesis of Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Novel Framework to Explain Pathogenesis and Guide Treatment. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2025;86(16):1269-373. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2025.06.055.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Packer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The Adipokine Hypothesis of Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Novel Framework to Explain Pathogenesis and Guide Treatment</article-title>
					<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
					<year>2025</year>
					<volume>86</volume>
					<issue>16</issue>
					<fpage>1269</fpage>
					<lpage>1373</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2025.06.055</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B5">
				<label>5</label>
				<mixed-citation>5. Packer M, Butler J, Lam CSP, Zannad F, Vaduganathan M, Borlaug BA. Central Adiposity or Hypertension: Which Drives Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2025;86(20):1935-49. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2025.08.036.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Packer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Butler</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lam</surname>
							<given-names>CSP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zannad</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vaduganathan</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Borlaug</surname>
							<given-names>BA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Central Adiposity or Hypertension: Which Drives Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction?</article-title>
					<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
					<year>2025</year>
					<volume>86</volume>
					<issue>20</issue>
					<fpage>1935</fpage>
					<lpage>1949</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2025.08.036</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B6">
				<label>6</label>
				<mixed-citation>6. Sorimachi H, Obokata M, Takahashi N, Reddy YNV, Jain CC, Verbrugge FH, et al. Pathophysiologic Importance of Visceral Adipose Tissue in Women with Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction. Eur Heart J. 2021;42(16):1595-605. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa823.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Sorimachi</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Obokata</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Takahashi</surname>
							<given-names>N</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Reddy</surname>
							<given-names>YNV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jain</surname>
							<given-names>CC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Verbrugge</surname>
							<given-names>FH</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Pathophysiologic Importance of Visceral Adipose Tissue in Women with Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>Eur Heart J</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>42</volume>
					<issue>16</issue>
					<fpage>1595</fpage>
					<lpage>1605</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa823</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B7">
				<label>7</label>
				<mixed-citation>7. Gharagozloo K, Mehdizadeh M, Heckman G, Rose RA, Howlett J, Howlett SE, et al. Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction in the Elderly Population: Basic Mechanisms and Clinical Considerations. Can J Cardiol. 2024;40(8):1424-44. doi: 10.1016/j.cjca.2024.04.006.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gharagozloo</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mehdizadeh</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Heckman</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rose</surname>
							<given-names>RA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Howlett</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Howlett</surname>
							<given-names>SE</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction in the Elderly Population: Basic Mechanisms and Clinical Considerations</article-title>
					<source>Can J Cardiol</source>
					<year>2024</year>
					<volume>40</volume>
					<issue>8</issue>
					<fpage>1424</fpage>
					<lpage>1444</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.cjca.2024.04.006</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B8">
				<label>8</label>
				<mixed-citation>8. Gevaert AB, Kataria R, Zannad F, Sauer AJ, Damman K, Sharma K, et al. Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: Recent Concepts in Diagnosis, Mechanisms and Management. Heart. 2022;108(17):1342-50. doi: 10.1136/heartjnl-2021-319605.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gevaert</surname>
							<given-names>AB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kataria</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zannad</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sauer</surname>
							<given-names>AJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Damman</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sharma</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: Recent Concepts in Diagnosis, Mechanisms and Management</article-title>
					<source>Heart</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>108</volume>
					<issue>17</issue>
					<fpage>1342</fpage>
					<lpage>1350</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/heartjnl-2021-319605</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B9">
				<label>9</label>
				<mixed-citation>9. Oguntade AS, Taylor H, Lacey B, Lewington S. Adiposity, Fat-Free Mass and Incident Heart Failure in 500 000 Individuals. Open Heart. 2024;11(2):e002711. doi: 10.1136/openhrt-2024-002711.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Oguntade</surname>
							<given-names>AS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Taylor</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lacey</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lewington</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Adiposity, Fat-Free Mass and Incident Heart Failure in 500 000 Individuals</article-title>
					<source>Open Heart</source>
					<year>2024</year>
					<volume>11</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<elocation-id>e002711</elocation-id>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/openhrt-2024-002711</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B10">
				<label>10</label>
				<mixed-citation>10. Peikert A, Vaduganathan M, Claggett BL, Kulac IJ, Litwin S, Zile M, et al. Near-Universal Prevalence of Central Adiposity in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: The PARAGON-HF Trial. Eur Heart J. 2025;46(25):2372-90. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaf057.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Peikert</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vaduganathan</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Claggett</surname>
							<given-names>BL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kulac</surname>
							<given-names>IJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Litwin</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zile</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Near-Universal Prevalence of Central Adiposity in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: The PARAGON-HF Trial</article-title>
					<source>Eur Heart J</source>
					<year>2025</year>
					<volume>46</volume>
					<issue>25</issue>
					<fpage>2372</fpage>
					<lpage>2390</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehaf057</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B11">
				<label>11</label>
				<mixed-citation>11. Ramirez MF, Lau ES, Parekh JK, Pan AS, Owunna N, Wang D, et al. Obesity-Related Biomarkers are Associated with Exercise Intolerance and HFpEF. Circ Heart Fail. 2023;16(11):e010618. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.123.010618.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ramirez</surname>
							<given-names>MF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lau</surname>
							<given-names>ES</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Parekh</surname>
							<given-names>JK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pan</surname>
							<given-names>AS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Owunna</surname>
							<given-names>N</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wang</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Obesity-Related Biomarkers are Associated with Exercise Intolerance and HFpEF</article-title>
					<source>Circ Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>16</volume>
					<issue>11</issue>
					<elocation-id>e010618</elocation-id>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.123.010618</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B12">
				<label>12</label>
				<mixed-citation>12. Packer M. Leptin-Aldosterone-Neprilysin Axis: Identification of Its Distinctive Role in the Pathogenesis of the Three Phenotypes of Heart Failure in People with Obesity. Circulation. 2018;137(15):1614-31. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.032474.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Packer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Leptin-Aldosterone-Neprilysin Axis: Identification of Its Distinctive Role in the Pathogenesis of the Three Phenotypes of Heart Failure in People with Obesity</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2018</year>
					<volume>137</volume>
					<issue>15</issue>
					<fpage>1614</fpage>
					<lpage>1631</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.032474</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B13">
				<label>13</label>
				<mixed-citation>13. Packer M. Derangements in Adrenergic-Adipokine Signalling Establish a Neurohormonal Basis for Obesity-Related Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction. Eur J Heart Fail. 2018;20(5):873-8. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1167.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Packer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Derangements in Adrenergic-Adipokine Signalling Establish a Neurohormonal Basis for Obesity-Related Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>Eur J Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2018</year>
					<volume>20</volume>
					<issue>5</issue>
					<fpage>873</fpage>
					<lpage>878</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/ejhf.1167</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B14">
				<label>14</label>
				<mixed-citation>14. Swainson MG, Batterham AM, Tsakirides C, Rutherford ZH, Hind K. Prediction of Whole-Body Fat Percentage and Visceral Adipose Tissue Mass from Five Anthropometric Variables. PLoS One. 2017;12(5):e0177175. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177175.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Swainson</surname>
							<given-names>MG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Batterham</surname>
							<given-names>AM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tsakirides</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rutherford</surname>
							<given-names>ZH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hind</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Prediction of Whole-Body Fat Percentage and Visceral Adipose Tissue Mass from Five Anthropometric Variables</article-title>
					<source>PLoS One</source>
					<year>2017</year>
					<volume>12</volume>
					<issue>5</issue>
					<elocation-id>e0177175</elocation-id>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0177175</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B15">
				<label>15</label>
				<mixed-citation>15. Sorimachi H, Burkhoff D, Verbrugge FH, Omote K, Obokata M, Reddy YNV, et al. Obesity, Venous Capacitance, and Venous Compliance in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. Eur J Heart Fail. 2021;23(10):1648-58. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.2254.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Sorimachi</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Burkhoff</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Verbrugge</surname>
							<given-names>FH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Omote</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Obokata</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Reddy</surname>
							<given-names>YNV</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Obesity, Venous Capacitance, and Venous Compliance in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>Eur J Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>23</volume>
					<issue>10</issue>
					<fpage>1648</fpage>
					<lpage>1658</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/ejhf.2254</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B16">
				<label>16</label>
				<mixed-citation>16. Mohammed SF, Hussain S, Mirzoyev SA, Edwards WD, Maleszewski JJ, Redfield MM. Coronary Microvascular Rarefaction and Myocardial Fibrosis in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. Circulation. 2015;131(6):550-9. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.009625.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Mohammed</surname>
							<given-names>SF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hussain</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mirzoyev</surname>
							<given-names>SA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Edwards</surname>
							<given-names>WD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Maleszewski</surname>
							<given-names>JJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Redfield</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Coronary Microvascular Rarefaction and Myocardial Fibrosis in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2015</year>
					<volume>131</volume>
					<issue>6</issue>
					<fpage>550</fpage>
					<lpage>559</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.009625</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B17">
				<label>17</label>
				<mixed-citation>17. Paulus WJ, Tschöpe C. A Novel Paradigm for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: Comorbidities Drive Myocardial Dysfunction and Remodeling Through Coronary Microvascular Endothelial Inflammation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;62(4):263-71. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2013.02.092.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Paulus</surname>
							<given-names>WJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tschöpe</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>A Novel Paradigm for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: Comorbidities Drive Myocardial Dysfunction and Remodeling Through Coronary Microvascular Endothelial Inflammation</article-title>
					<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
					<year>2013</year>
					<volume>62</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>263</fpage>
					<lpage>271</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2013.02.092</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B18">
				<label>18</label>
				<mixed-citation>18. Hall JE, Carmo JM, Silva AA, Wang Z, Hall ME. Obesity-Induced Hypertension: Interaction of Neurohumoral and Renal Mechanisms. Circ Res. 2015;116(6):991-1006. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.305697.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Hall</surname>
							<given-names>JE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Carmo</surname>
							<given-names>JM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Silva</surname>
							<given-names>AA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wang</surname>
							<given-names>Z</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hall</surname>
							<given-names>ME</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Obesity-Induced Hypertension: Interaction of Neurohumoral and Renal Mechanisms</article-title>
					<source>Circ Res</source>
					<year>2015</year>
					<volume>116</volume>
					<issue>6</issue>
					<fpage>991</fpage>
					<lpage>1006</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.305697</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B19">
				<label>19</label>
				<mixed-citation>19. Huby AC, Antonova G, Groenendyk J, Gomez-Sanchez CE, Bollag WB, Filosa JA, et al. Adipocyte-Derived Hormone Leptin is a Direct Regulator of Aldosterone Secretion, Which Promotes Endothelial Dysfunction and Cardiac Fibrosis. Circulation. 2015;132(22):2134-45. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018226.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Huby</surname>
							<given-names>AC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Antonova</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Groenendyk</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gomez-Sanchez</surname>
							<given-names>CE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bollag</surname>
							<given-names>WB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Filosa</surname>
							<given-names>JA</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Adipocyte-Derived Hormone Leptin is a Direct Regulator of Aldosterone Secretion, Which Promotes Endothelial Dysfunction and Cardiac Fibrosis</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2015</year>
					<volume>132</volume>
					<issue>22</issue>
					<fpage>2134</fpage>
					<lpage>2145</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018226</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B20">
				<label>20</label>
				<mixed-citation>20. Briones AM, Cat AND, Callera GE, Yogi A, Burger D, He Y, et al. Adipocytes Produce Aldosterone Through Calcineurin-Dependent Signaling Pathways: Implications in Diabetes Mellitus-Associated Obesity and Vascular Dysfunction. Hypertension. 2012;59(5):1069-78. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.190223.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Briones</surname>
							<given-names>AM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cat</surname>
							<given-names>AND</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Callera</surname>
							<given-names>GE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Yogi</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Burger</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>He</surname>
							<given-names>Y</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Adipocytes Produce Aldosterone Through Calcineurin-Dependent Signaling Pathways: Implications in Diabetes Mellitus-Associated Obesity and Vascular Dysfunction</article-title>
					<source>Hypertension</source>
					<year>2012</year>
					<volume>59</volume>
					<issue>5</issue>
					<fpage>1069</fpage>
					<lpage>1078</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.190223</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B21">
				<label>21</label>
				<mixed-citation>21. Nagase M. Activation of the Aldosterone/Mineralocorticoid Receptor System in Chronic Kidney Disease and Metabolic Syndrome. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2010;14(4):303-14. doi: 10.1007/s10157-010-0298-8.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nagase</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Activation of the Aldosterone/Mineralocorticoid Receptor System in Chronic Kidney Disease and Metabolic Syndrome</article-title>
					<source>Clin Exp Nephrol</source>
					<year>2010</year>
					<volume>14</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>303</fpage>
					<lpage>314</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10157-010-0298-8</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B22">
				<label>22</label>
				<mixed-citation>22. Standeven KF, Hess K, Carter AM, Rice GI, Cordell PA, Balmforth AJ, et al. Neprilysin, Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome. Int J Obes. 2011;35(8):1031-40. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2010.227.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Standeven</surname>
							<given-names>KF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hess</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Carter</surname>
							<given-names>AM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rice</surname>
							<given-names>GI</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cordell</surname>
							<given-names>PA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Balmforth</surname>
							<given-names>AJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Neprilysin, Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome</article-title>
					<source>Int J Obes</source>
					<year>2011</year>
					<volume>35</volume>
					<issue>8</issue>
					<fpage>1031</fpage>
					<lpage>1040</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/ijo.2010.227</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B23">
				<label>23</label>
				<mixed-citation>23. Poh KK, Shabbir A, Ngiam JN, Lee PSS, So J, Frampton CM, et al. Plasma Clearance of B-Type Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) Before and after Bariatric Surgery for Morbid Obesity. Clin Chem. 2021;67(4):662-71. doi: 10.1093/clinchem/hvaa308.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Poh</surname>
							<given-names>KK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Shabbir</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ngiam</surname>
							<given-names>JN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lee</surname>
							<given-names>PSS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>So</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Frampton</surname>
							<given-names>CM</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Plasma Clearance of B-Type Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) Before and after Bariatric Surgery for Morbid Obesity</article-title>
					<source>Clin Chem</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>67</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>662</fpage>
					<lpage>671</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/clinchem/hvaa308</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B24">
				<label>24</label>
				<mixed-citation>24. Fleenor BS, Carlini NA, Ouyang A, Du B, Harber MP. Greater Aortic Perivascular Adipose Tissue Density is Associated with Aging, Aortic Stiffness, and Central Blood Pressure in Humans. J Appl Physiol. 2023;134(3):703-9. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00745.2022.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Fleenor</surname>
							<given-names>BS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Carlini</surname>
							<given-names>NA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ouyang</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Du</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Harber</surname>
							<given-names>MP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Greater Aortic Perivascular Adipose Tissue Density is Associated with Aging, Aortic Stiffness, and Central Blood Pressure in Humans</article-title>
					<source>J Appl Physiol</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>134</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>703</fpage>
					<lpage>709</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1152/japplphysiol.00745.2022</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B25">
				<label>25</label>
				<mixed-citation>25. Liu IF, Lin TC, Wang SC, Yen CH, Li CY, Kuo HF, et al. Long-Term Administration of Western Diet Induced Metabolic Syndrome in Mice and Causes Cardiac Microvascular Dysfunction, Cardiomyocyte Mitochondrial Damage, and Cardiac Remodeling Involving Caveolae and Caveolin-1 Expression. Biol Direct. 2023;18(1):9. doi: 10.1186/s13062-023-00363-z.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Liu</surname>
							<given-names>IF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lin</surname>
							<given-names>TC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wang</surname>
							<given-names>SC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Yen</surname>
							<given-names>CH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Li</surname>
							<given-names>CY</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kuo</surname>
							<given-names>HF</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Long-Term Administration of Western Diet Induced Metabolic Syndrome in Mice and Causes Cardiac Microvascular Dysfunction, Cardiomyocyte Mitochondrial Damage, and Cardiac Remodeling Involving Caveolae and Caveolin-1 Expression</article-title>
					<source>Biol Direct</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>18</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<size units="pages">9</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s13062-023-00363-z</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B26">
				<label>26</label>
				<mixed-citation>26. Zhao H, Huang R, Jiang M, Wang W, Chai Y, Liu Q, et al. Myocardial Tissue-Level Characteristics of Adults with Metabolically Healthy Obesity. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2023;16(7):889-901. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2023.01.022.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Zhao</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Huang</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jiang</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wang</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chai</surname>
							<given-names>Y</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Liu</surname>
							<given-names>Q</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Myocardial Tissue-Level Characteristics of Adults with Metabolically Healthy Obesity</article-title>
					<source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>16</volume>
					<issue>7</issue>
					<fpage>889</fpage>
					<lpage>901</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2023.01.022</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B27">
				<label>27</label>
				<mixed-citation>27. Franssen C, Chen S, Unger A, Korkmaz HI, De Keulenaer GW, Tschöpe C, et al. Myocardial Microvascular Inflammatory Endothelial Activation in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. JACC Heart Fail. 2016;4(4):312-24. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2015.10.007.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Franssen</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chen</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Unger</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Korkmaz</surname>
							<given-names>HI</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>De Keulenaer</surname>
							<given-names>GW</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tschöpe</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Myocardial Microvascular Inflammatory Endothelial Activation in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>JACC Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2016</year>
					<volume>4</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>312</fpage>
					<lpage>324</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jchf.2015.10.007</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B28">
				<label>28</label>
				<mixed-citation>28. Gevaert AB, Shakeri H, Leloup AJ, Van Hove CE, De Meyer GRY, Vrints CJ, et al. Endothelial Senescence Contributes to Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction in an Aging Mouse Model. Circ Heart Fail. 2017;10(6):e003806. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.116.003806.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gevaert</surname>
							<given-names>AB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Shakeri</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Leloup</surname>
							<given-names>AJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Van Hove</surname>
							<given-names>CE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>De Meyer</surname>
							<given-names>GRY</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vrints</surname>
							<given-names>CJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Endothelial Senescence Contributes to Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction in an Aging Mouse Model</article-title>
					<source>Circ Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2017</year>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<issue>6</issue>
					<elocation-id>e003806</elocation-id>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.116.003806</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B29">
				<label>29</label>
				<mixed-citation>29. Shinmura K. Cardiac Senescence, Heart Failure, and Frailty: A Triangle in Elderly People. Keio J Med. 2016;65(2):25-32. doi: 10.2302/kjm.2015-0015-IR.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Shinmura</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Cardiac Senescence, Heart Failure, and Frailty: A Triangle in Elderly People</article-title>
					<source>Keio J Med</source>
					<year>2016</year>
					<volume>65</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>25</fpage>
					<lpage>32</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2302/kjm.2015-0015-IR</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B30">
				<label>30</label>
				<mixed-citation>30. Borlaug BA. Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2020;17(9):559-73. doi: 10.1038/s41569-020-0363-2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Borlaug</surname>
							<given-names>BA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>Nat Rev Cardiol</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>17</volume>
					<issue>9</issue>
					<fpage>559</fpage>
					<lpage>573</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/s41569-020-0363-2</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B31">
				<label>31</label>
				<mixed-citation>31. Jhuo SJ, Lin YH, Liu IH, Lin TH, Wu BN, Lee KT, et al. Sodium Glucose Cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitor Ameliorate Metabolic Disorder and Obesity Induced Cardiomyocyte Injury and Mitochondrial Remodeling. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(7):6842. doi: 10.3390/ijms24076842.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Jhuo</surname>
							<given-names>SJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lin</surname>
							<given-names>YH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Liu</surname>
							<given-names>IH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lin</surname>
							<given-names>TH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wu</surname>
							<given-names>BN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lee</surname>
							<given-names>KT</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Sodium Glucose Cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitor Ameliorate Metabolic Disorder and Obesity Induced Cardiomyocyte Injury and Mitochondrial Remodeling</article-title>
					<source>Int J Mol Sci</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>24</volume>
					<issue>7</issue>
					<size units="pages">6842</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/ijms24076842</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B32">
				<label>32</label>
				<mixed-citation>32. Ruiz-Ramírez A, López-Acosta O, Barrios-Maya MA, El-Hafidi M. Cell Death and Heart Failure in Obesity: Role of Uncoupling Proteins. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2016;2016:9340654. doi: 10.1155/2016/9340654.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ruiz-Ramírez</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>López-Acosta</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Barrios-Maya</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>El-Hafidi</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Cell Death and Heart Failure in Obesity: Role of Uncoupling Proteins</article-title>
					<source>Oxid Med Cell Longev</source>
					<year>2016</year>
					<volume>2016</volume>
					<size units="pages">9340654</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1155/2016/9340654</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B33">
				<label>33</label>
				<mixed-citation>33. Joseph LC, Subramanyam P, Radlicz C, Trent CM, Iyer V, Colecraft HM, et al. Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress during Cardiac Lipid Overload Causes Intracellular Calcium Leak and Arrhythmia. Heart Rhythm. 2016;13(8):1699-706. doi: 10.1016/j.hrthm.2016.05.002.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Joseph</surname>
							<given-names>LC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Subramanyam</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Radlicz</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Trent</surname>
							<given-names>CM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Iyer</surname>
							<given-names>V</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Colecraft</surname>
							<given-names>HM</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress during Cardiac Lipid Overload Causes Intracellular Calcium Leak and Arrhythmia</article-title>
					<source>Heart Rhythm</source>
					<year>2016</year>
					<volume>13</volume>
					<issue>8</issue>
					<fpage>1699</fpage>
					<lpage>1706</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.hrthm.2016.05.002</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B34">
				<label>34</label>
				<mixed-citation>34. Alpert MA, Karthikeyan K, Abdullah O, Ghadban R. Obesity and Cardiac Remodeling in Adults: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2018;61(2):114-23. doi: 10.1016/j.pcad.2018.07.012.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Alpert</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Karthikeyan</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Abdullah</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ghadban</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Obesity and Cardiac Remodeling in Adults: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications</article-title>
					<source>Prog Cardiovasc Dis</source>
					<year>2018</year>
					<volume>61</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>114</fpage>
					<lpage>123</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.pcad.2018.07.012</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B35">
				<label>35</label>
				<mixed-citation>35. Zemancikova A, Torok J, Balis P, Valovic P, Ulicna O, Chomova M. Modulation of Sympathoadrenergic Contractions by Perivascular Adipose Tissue in Mesenteric Arteries of Rats with Different Level of Body Adiposity. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2020;71(4). doi: 10.26402/jpp.2020.4.14.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Zemancikova</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Torok</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Balis</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Valovic</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ulicna</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chomova</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Modulation of Sympathoadrenergic Contractions by Perivascular Adipose Tissue in Mesenteric Arteries of Rats with Different Level of Body Adiposity</article-title>
					<source>J Physiol Pharmacol</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>71</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.26402/jpp.2020.4.14</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B36">
				<label>36</label>
				<mixed-citation>36. Pascual M, Pascual DA, Soria F, Vicente T, Hernández AM, Tébar FJ, et al. Effects of Isolated Obesity on Systolic and Diastolic Left Ventricular Function. Heart. 2003;89(10):1152-6. doi: 10.1136/heart.89.10.1152.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Pascual</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pascual</surname>
							<given-names>DA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Soria</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vicente</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>AM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tébar</surname>
							<given-names>FJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Effects of Isolated Obesity on Systolic and Diastolic Left Ventricular Function</article-title>
					<source>Heart</source>
					<year>2003</year>
					<volume>89</volume>
					<issue>10</issue>
					<fpage>1152</fpage>
					<lpage>1156</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/heart.89.10.1152</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B37">
				<label>37</label>
				<mixed-citation>37. Alpert MA, Omran J, Bostick BP. Effects of Obesity on Cardiovascular Hemodynamics, Cardiac Morphology, and Ventricular Function. Curr Obes Rep. 2016;5(4):424-34. doi: 10.1007/s13679-016-0235-6.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Alpert</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Omran</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bostick</surname>
							<given-names>BP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Effects of Obesity on Cardiovascular Hemodynamics, Cardiac Morphology, and Ventricular Function</article-title>
					<source>Curr Obes Rep</source>
					<year>2016</year>
					<volume>5</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>424</fpage>
					<lpage>434</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s13679-016-0235-6</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B38">
				<label>38</label>
				<mixed-citation>38. Packer M. Role of Deranged Energy Deprivation Signaling in the Pathogenesis of Cardiac and Renal Disease in States of Perceived Nutrient Overabundance. Circulation. 2020;141(25):2095-105. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.045561.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Packer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Role of Deranged Energy Deprivation Signaling in the Pathogenesis of Cardiac and Renal Disease in States of Perceived Nutrient Overabundance</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>141</volume>
					<issue>25</issue>
					<fpage>2095</fpage>
					<lpage>2105</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.045561</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B39">
				<label>39</label>
				<mixed-citation>39. Al-Sammarraie SHA, Ayaz-Güner S, Acar MB, Simsek A, Siniksaran BS, Bozalan HD, et al. Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Adipose Tissue Prone to Lose their Stemness Associated Markers in Obesity Related Stress Conditions. Sci Rep. 2024;14(1):19702. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-70127-w.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Al-Sammarraie</surname>
							<given-names>SHA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ayaz-Güner</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Acar</surname>
							<given-names>MB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Simsek</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Siniksaran</surname>
							<given-names>BS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bozalan</surname>
							<given-names>HD</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Adipose Tissue Prone to Lose their Stemness Associated Markers in Obesity Related Stress Conditions</article-title>
					<source>Sci Rep</source>
					<year>2024</year>
					<volume>14</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<size units="pages">19702</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/s41598-024-70127-w</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B40">
				<label>40</label>
				<mixed-citation>40. Acar MB, Ayaz-Güner S, Di Bernardo G, Güner H, Murat A, Peluso G, et al. Obesity Induced by High-Fat Diet is Associated with Critical Changes in Biological and Molecular Functions of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Present in Visceral Adipose Tissue. Aging. 2020;12(24):24894-913. doi: 10.18632/aging.202423.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Acar</surname>
							<given-names>MB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ayaz-Güner</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Di Bernardo</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Güner</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Murat</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Peluso</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Obesity Induced by High-Fat Diet is Associated with Critical Changes in Biological and Molecular Functions of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Present in Visceral Adipose Tissue</article-title>
					<source>Aging</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>12</volume>
					<issue>24</issue>
					<fpage>24894</fpage>
					<lpage>24913</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18632/aging.202423</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B41">
				<label>41</label>
				<mixed-citation>41. Packer M. Longevity Genes, Cardiac Ageing, and the Pathogenesis of Cardiomyopathy: Implications for Understanding the Effects of Current and Future Treatments for Heart Failure. Eur Heart J. 2020;41(39):3856-61. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa360.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Packer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Longevity Genes, Cardiac Ageing, and the Pathogenesis of Cardiomyopathy: Implications for Understanding the Effects of Current and Future Treatments for Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>Eur Heart J</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>41</volume>
					<issue>39</issue>
					<fpage>3856</fpage>
					<lpage>3861</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa360</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B42">
				<label>42</label>
				<mixed-citation>42. Berezina TA, Berezin OO, Novikov EV, Lichtenauer M, Berezin AE. Irisin Predicts Poor Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction and Low Levels of N-Terminal Pro-B-Type Natriuretic Peptide. Biomolecules. 2024;14(12):1615. doi: 10.3390/biom14121615.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Berezina</surname>
							<given-names>TA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Berezin</surname>
							<given-names>OO</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Novikov</surname>
							<given-names>EV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lichtenauer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Berezin</surname>
							<given-names>AE</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Irisin Predicts Poor Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction and Low Levels of N-Terminal Pro-B-Type Natriuretic Peptide</article-title>
					<source>Biomolecules</source>
					<year>2024</year>
					<volume>14</volume>
					<issue>12</issue>
					<size units="pages">1615</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/biom14121615</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B43">
				<label>43</label>
				<mixed-citation>43. Berezin AA, Lichtenauer M, Boxhammer E, Fushtey IM, Berezin AE. Serum Levels of Irisin Predict Cumulative Clinical Outcomes in Heart Failure Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Front Physiol. 2022;13:922775. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2022.922775.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Berezin</surname>
							<given-names>AA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lichtenauer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Boxhammer</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Fushtey</surname>
							<given-names>IM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Berezin</surname>
							<given-names>AE</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Serum Levels of Irisin Predict Cumulative Clinical Outcomes in Heart Failure Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus</article-title>
					<source>Front Physiol</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>13</volume>
					<size units="pages">922775</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3389/fphys.2022.922775</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B44">
				<label>44</label>
				<mixed-citation>44. Berezin AA, Obradovic AB, Fushtey IM, Berezina TA, Lichtenauer M, Berezin AE. Low Plasma Levels of Irisin Predict Acutely Decompensated Heart Failure in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients with Chronic Heart Failure. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2023;10(4):136. doi: 10.3390/jcdd10040136.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Berezin</surname>
							<given-names>AA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Obradovic</surname>
							<given-names>AB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Fushtey</surname>
							<given-names>IM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Berezina</surname>
							<given-names>TA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lichtenauer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Berezin</surname>
							<given-names>AE</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Low Plasma Levels of Irisin Predict Acutely Decompensated Heart Failure in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients with Chronic Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>J Cardiovasc Dev Dis</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<size units="pages">136</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/jcdd10040136</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B45">
				<label>45</label>
				<mixed-citation>45. Tanaka H, Sun T, Kinashi H, Kamiya K, Yamaguchi M, Nobata H, et al. Interleukin-6 Blockade Reduces Salt-Induced Cardiac Inflammation and Fibrosis in Subtotal Nephrectomized Mice. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2022;323(6):F654-65. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00396.2021.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Tanaka</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sun</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kinashi</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kamiya</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Yamaguchi</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nobata</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Interleukin-6 Blockade Reduces Salt-Induced Cardiac Inflammation and Fibrosis in Subtotal Nephrectomized Mice</article-title>
					<source>Am J Physiol Renal Physiol</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>323</volume>
					<issue>6</issue>
					<fpage>F654</fpage>
					<lpage>F665</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1152/ajprenal.00396.2021</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B46">
				<label>46</label>
				<mixed-citation>46. Petrie MC, Borlaug BA, Buchholtz K, Ducharme A, Hvelplund A. HERMES: Effects of Ziltivekimab versus Placebo on Morbidity and Mortality in Patients with Heart Failure with Mildly Reduced or Preserved Ejection Fraction and Systemic Inflammation. J Card Fail. 2024;30(1):126. doi:10.1016/j.cardfail.2023.10.024.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Petrie</surname>
							<given-names>MC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Borlaug</surname>
							<given-names>BA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Buchholtz</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ducharme</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hvelplund</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>HERMES: Effects of Ziltivekimab versus Placebo on Morbidity and Mortality in Patients with Heart Failure with Mildly Reduced or Preserved Ejection Fraction and Systemic Inflammation</article-title>
					<source>J Card Fail</source>
					<year>2024</year>
					<volume>30</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<size units="pages">126</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.cardfail.2023.10.024</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B47">
				<label>47</label>
				<mixed-citation>47. Anker SD, Butler J, Filippatos G, Ferreira JP, Bocchi E, Böhm M, et al. Empagliflozin in Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(16):1451-61. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2107038.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Anker</surname>
							<given-names>SD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Butler</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Filippatos</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ferreira</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bocchi</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Böhm</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Empagliflozin in Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>385</volume>
					<issue>16</issue>
					<fpage>1451</fpage>
					<lpage>1461</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa2107038</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B48">
				<label>48</label>
				<mixed-citation>48. Solomon SD, McMurray JJV, Claggett B, Boer RA, DeMets D, Hernandez AF, et al. Dapagliflozin in Heart Failure with Mildly Reduced or Preserved Ejection Fraction. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(12):1089-98. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2206286.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Solomon</surname>
							<given-names>SD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McMurray</surname>
							<given-names>JJV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Claggett</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Boer</surname>
							<given-names>RA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>DeMets</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hernandez</surname>
							<given-names>AF</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Dapagliflozin in Heart Failure with Mildly Reduced or Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>387</volume>
					<issue>12</issue>
					<fpage>1089</fpage>
					<lpage>1098</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa2206286</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B49">
				<label>49</label>
				<mixed-citation>49. Kosiborod MN, Abildstrøm SZ, Borlaug BA, Butler J, Rasmussen S, Davies M, et al. Semaglutide in Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction and Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(12):1069-84. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2306963.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kosiborod</surname>
							<given-names>MN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Abildstrøm</surname>
							<given-names>SZ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Borlaug</surname>
							<given-names>BA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Butler</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rasmussen</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Davies</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Semaglutide in Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction and Obesity</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>389</volume>
					<issue>12</issue>
					<fpage>1069</fpage>
					<lpage>1084</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa2306963</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B50">
				<label>50</label>
				<mixed-citation>50. Filippatos G, Anker SD, Agarwal R, Pitt B, Ruilope LM, Rossing P, et al. Finerenone and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease and Type 2 Diabetes. Circulation. 2021;143(6):540-52. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.051898.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Filippatos</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Anker</surname>
							<given-names>SD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Agarwal</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pitt</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ruilope</surname>
							<given-names>LM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rossing</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Finerenone and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease and Type 2 Diabetes</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>143</volume>
					<issue>6</issue>
					<fpage>540</fpage>
					<lpage>552</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.051898</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B51">
				<label>51</label>
				<mixed-citation>51. Netea MG, Joosten LA, Latz E, Mills KH, Natoli G, Stunnenberg HG, et al. Trained Immunity: A Program of Innate Immune Memory in Health and Disease. Science. 2016;352(6284):aaf1098. doi: 10.1126/science.aaf1098.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Netea</surname>
							<given-names>MG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Joosten</surname>
							<given-names>LA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Latz</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mills</surname>
							<given-names>KH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Natoli</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Stunnenberg</surname>
							<given-names>HG</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Trained Immunity: A Program of Innate Immune Memory in Health and Disease</article-title>
					<source>Science</source>
					<year>2016</year>
					<volume>352</volume>
					<issue>6284</issue>
					<elocation-id>aaf1098</elocation-id>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1126/science.aaf1098</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B52">
				<label>52</label>
				<mixed-citation>52. Berger M, März W, Niessner A, Delgado G, Kleber M, Scharnagl H, et al. IL-6 and hsCRP Predict Cardiovascular Mortality in Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. ESC Heart Fail. 2024;11(6):3607-15. doi: 10.1002/ehf2.14959.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Berger</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>März</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Niessner</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Delgado</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kleber</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Scharnagl</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>IL-6 and hsCRP Predict Cardiovascular Mortality in Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>ESC Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2024</year>
					<volume>11</volume>
					<issue>6</issue>
					<fpage>3607</fpage>
					<lpage>3615</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/ehf2.14959</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B53">
				<label>53</label>
				<mixed-citation>53. Alogna A, Koepp KE, Sabbah M, Espindola JM Netto, Jensen MD, Kirkland JL, et al. Interleukin-6 in Patients with Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction. JACC Heart Fail. 2023;11(11):1549-61. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2023.06.031.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Alogna</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Koepp</surname>
							<given-names>KE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sabbah</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Espindola</surname>
							<given-names>JM Netto</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jensen</surname>
							<given-names>MD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kirkland</surname>
							<given-names>JL</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Interleukin-6 in Patients with Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>JACC Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>11</volume>
					<issue>11</issue>
					<fpage>1549</fpage>
					<lpage>1561</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jchf.2023.06.031</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B54">
				<label>54</label>
				<mixed-citation>54. Mooney L, Jackson CE, Adamson C, McConnachie A, Welsh P, Myles RC, et al. Adverse Outcomes Associated with Interleukin-6 in Patients Recently Hospitalized for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. Circ Heart Fail. 2023;16(4):e010051. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.122.010051.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Mooney</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jackson</surname>
							<given-names>CE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Adamson</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McConnachie</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Welsh</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Myles</surname>
							<given-names>RC</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Adverse Outcomes Associated with Interleukin-6 in Patients Recently Hospitalized for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>Circ Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>16</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<elocation-id>e010051</elocation-id>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.122.010051</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B55">
				<label>55</label>
				<mixed-citation>55. Chia YC, Kieneker LM, van Hassel G, Binnenmars SH, Nolte IM, van Zanden JJ, et al. Interleukin 6 and Development of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction in the General Population. J Am Heart Assoc. 2021;10(11):e018549. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.120.018549.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Chia</surname>
							<given-names>YC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kieneker</surname>
							<given-names>LM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>van Hassel</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Binnenmars</surname>
							<given-names>SH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nolte</surname>
							<given-names>IM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>van Zanden</surname>
							<given-names>JJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Interleukin 6 and Development of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction in the General Population</article-title>
					<source>J Am Heart Assoc</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<issue>11</issue>
					<elocation-id>e018549</elocation-id>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/JAHA.120.018549</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B56">
				<label>56</label>
				<mixed-citation>56. Shirazi LF, Bissett J, Romeo F, Mehta JL. Role of Inflammation in Heart Failure. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2017;19(6):27. doi: 10.1007/s11883-017-0660-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Shirazi</surname>
							<given-names>LF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bissett</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Romeo</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mehta</surname>
							<given-names>JL</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Role of Inflammation in Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>Curr Atheroscler Rep</source>
					<year>2017</year>
					<volume>19</volume>
					<issue>6</issue>
					<size units="pages">27</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s11883-017-0660-3</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B57">
				<label>57</label>
				<mixed-citation>57. Testa M, Yeh M, Lee P, Fanelli R, Loperfido F, Berman JW, et al. Circulating Levels of Cytokines and their Endogenous Modulators in Patients with Mild to Severe Congestive Heart Failure Due to Coronary Artery Disease or Hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28(4):964-71. doi: 10.1016/s0735-1097(96)00268-9.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Testa</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Yeh</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lee</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Fanelli</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Loperfido</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Berman</surname>
							<given-names>JW</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Circulating Levels of Cytokines and their Endogenous Modulators in Patients with Mild to Severe Congestive Heart Failure Due to Coronary Artery Disease or Hypertension</article-title>
					<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
					<year>1996</year>
					<volume>28</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>964</fpage>
					<lpage>971</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/s0735-1097(96)00268-9</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B58">
				<label>58</label>
				<mixed-citation>58. Putko BN, Wang Z, Lo J, Anderson T, Becher H, Dyck JR, et al. Circulating Levels of Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha Receptor 2 are Increased in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction Relative to Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction: Evidence for a Divergence in Pathophysiology. PLoS One. 2014;9(6):e99495. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099495.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Putko</surname>
							<given-names>BN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wang</surname>
							<given-names>Z</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lo</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Anderson</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Becher</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dyck</surname>
							<given-names>JR</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Circulating Levels of Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha Receptor 2 are Increased in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction Relative to Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction: Evidence for a Divergence in Pathophysiology</article-title>
					<source>PLoS One</source>
					<year>2014</year>
					<volume>9</volume>
					<issue>6</issue>
					<elocation-id>e99495</elocation-id>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0099495</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B59">
				<label>59</label>
				<mixed-citation>59. Lakhani I, Wong MV, Hung JKF, Gong M, Waleed KB, Xia Y, et al. Diagnostic and Prognostic Value of Serum C-Reactive Protein in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Heart Fail Rev. 2021;26(5):1141-50. doi: 10.1007/s10741-020-09927-x.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Lakhani</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wong</surname>
							<given-names>MV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hung</surname>
							<given-names>JKF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gong</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Waleed</surname>
							<given-names>KB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Xia</surname>
							<given-names>Y</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Diagnostic and Prognostic Value of Serum C-Reactive Protein in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis</article-title>
					<source>Heart Fail Rev</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>26</volume>
					<issue>5</issue>
					<fpage>1141</fpage>
					<lpage>1150</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10741-020-09927-x</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B60">
				<label>60</label>
				<mixed-citation>60. Dutka M, Bobinski R, Ulman-Wlodarz I, Hajduga M, Bujok J, Pajak C, et al. Various Aspects of Inflammation in Heart Failure. Heart Fail Rev. 2020;25(3):537-48. doi: 10.1007/s10741-019-09875-1.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Dutka</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bobinski</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ulman-Wlodarz</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hajduga</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bujok</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pajak</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Various Aspects of Inflammation in Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>Heart Fail Rev</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>25</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>537</fpage>
					<lpage>548</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10741-019-09875-1</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B61">
				<label>61</label>
				<mixed-citation>61. Mann DL, McMurray JJ, Packer M, Swedberg K, Borer JS, Colucci WS, et al. Targeted Anticytokine Therapy in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure: Results of the Randomized Etanercept Worldwide Evaluation (RENEWAL). Circulation. 2004;109(13):1594-602. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000124490.27666.B2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Mann</surname>
							<given-names>DL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McMurray</surname>
							<given-names>JJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Packer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Swedberg</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Borer</surname>
							<given-names>JS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Colucci</surname>
							<given-names>WS</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Targeted Anticytokine Therapy in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure: Results of the Randomized Etanercept Worldwide Evaluation (RENEWAL)</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2004</year>
					<volume>109</volume>
					<issue>13</issue>
					<fpage>1594</fpage>
					<lpage>1602</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/01.CIR.0000124490.27666.B2</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B62">
				<label>62</label>
				<mixed-citation>62. Chung ES, Packer M, Lo KH, Fasanmade AA, Willerson JT; Anti-TNF Therapy Against Congestive Heart Failure Investigators. Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Pilot Trial of Infliximab, a Chimeric Monoclonal Antibody to Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha, in Patients with Moderate-to-Severe Heart Failure: Results of the Anti-TNF Therapy Against Congestive Heart Failure (ATTACH) Trial. Circulation. 2003;107(25):3133-40. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000077913.60364.D2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Chung</surname>
							<given-names>ES</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Packer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lo</surname>
							<given-names>KH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Fasanmade</surname>
							<given-names>AA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Willerson</surname>
							<given-names>JT</given-names>
						</name>
						<collab>Anti-TNF Therapy Against Congestive Heart Failure Investigators</collab>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Pilot Trial of Infliximab, a Chimeric Monoclonal Antibody to Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha, in Patients with Moderate-to-Severe Heart Failure: Results of the Anti-TNF Therapy Against Congestive Heart Failure (ATTACH) Trial</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2003</year>
					<volume>107</volume>
					<issue>25</issue>
					<fpage>3133</fpage>
					<lpage>3140</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/01.CIR.0000077913.60364.D2</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B63">
				<label>63</label>
				<mixed-citation>63. Everett BM, Cornel JH, Lainscak M, Anker SD, Abbate A, Thuren T, et al. Anti-Inflammatory Therapy with Canakinumab for the Prevention of Hospitalization for Heart Failure. Circulation. 2019;139(10):1289-99. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.038010.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Everett</surname>
							<given-names>BM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cornel</surname>
							<given-names>JH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lainscak</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Anker</surname>
							<given-names>SD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Abbate</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Thuren</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Anti-Inflammatory Therapy with Canakinumab for the Prevention of Hospitalization for Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2019</year>
					<volume>139</volume>
					<issue>10</issue>
					<fpage>1289</fpage>
					<lpage>1299</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.038010</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B64">
				<label>64</label>
				<mixed-citation>64. Ridker PM, Rane M. Interleukin-6 Signaling and Anti-Interleukin-6 Therapeutics in Cardiovascular Disease. Circ Res. 2021;128(11):1728-46. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.121.319077.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ridker</surname>
							<given-names>PM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rane</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Interleukin-6 Signaling and Anti-Interleukin-6 Therapeutics in Cardiovascular Disease</article-title>
					<source>Circ Res</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>128</volume>
					<issue>11</issue>
					<fpage>1728</fpage>
					<lpage>1746</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.121.319077</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B65">
				<label>65</label>
				<mixed-citation>65. Yusuf S, Pfeffer MA, Swedberg K, Granger CB, Held P, McMurray JJ, et al. Effects of Candesartan in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure and Preserved Left-Ventricular Ejection Fraction: The CHARM-Preserved Trial. Lancet. 2003;362(9386):777-81. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14285-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Yusuf</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pfeffer</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Swedberg</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Granger</surname>
							<given-names>CB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Held</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McMurray</surname>
							<given-names>JJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Effects of Candesartan in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure and Preserved Left-Ventricular Ejection Fraction: The CHARM-Preserved Trial</article-title>
					<source>Lancet</source>
					<year>2003</year>
					<volume>362</volume>
					<issue>9386</issue>
					<fpage>777</fpage>
					<lpage>781</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14285-7</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B66">
				<label>66</label>
				<mixed-citation>66. Cleland JG, Tendera M, Adamus J, Freemantle N, Polonski L, Taylor J, et al. The Perindopril in Elderly People with Chronic Heart Failure (PEP-CHF) Study. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(19):2338-45. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehl250.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cleland</surname>
							<given-names>JG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tendera</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Adamus</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Freemantle</surname>
							<given-names>N</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Polonski</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Taylor</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The Perindopril in Elderly People with Chronic Heart Failure (PEP-CHF) Study</article-title>
					<source>Eur Heart J</source>
					<year>2006</year>
					<volume>27</volume>
					<issue>19</issue>
					<fpage>2338</fpage>
					<lpage>2345</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehl250</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B67">
				<label>67</label>
				<mixed-citation>67. Massie BM, Carson PE, McMurray JJ, Komajda M, McKelvie R, Zile MR, et al. Irbesartan in Patients with Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(23):2456-67. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0805450.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Massie</surname>
							<given-names>BM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Carson</surname>
							<given-names>PE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McMurray</surname>
							<given-names>JJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Komajda</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McKelvie</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zile</surname>
							<given-names>MR</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Irbesartan in Patients with Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2008</year>
					<volume>359</volume>
					<issue>23</issue>
					<fpage>2456</fpage>
					<lpage>2467</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa0805450</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B68">
				<label>68</label>
				<mixed-citation>68. Redfield MM, Anstrom KJ, Levine JA, Koepp GA, Borlaug BA, Chen HH, et al. Isosorbide Mononitrate in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(24):2314-24. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1510774.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Redfield</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Anstrom</surname>
							<given-names>KJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Levine</surname>
							<given-names>JA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Koepp</surname>
							<given-names>GA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Borlaug</surname>
							<given-names>BA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chen</surname>
							<given-names>HH</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Isosorbide Mononitrate in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2015</year>
					<volume>373</volume>
					<issue>24</issue>
					<fpage>2314</fpage>
					<lpage>2324</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa1510774</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B69">
				<label>69</label>
				<mixed-citation>69. Berger M, MacNamara A, Ferreira JP, Kolkhof P, Voss S, Skubala A, et al. Finerenone Effects on Biomarkers: An Analysis from the FIGARO-DKD Trial. Eur Heart J. 2025;46(34):3382-6. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaf316.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Berger</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>MacNamara</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ferreira</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kolkhof</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Voss</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Skubala</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Finerenone Effects on Biomarkers: An Analysis from the FIGARO-DKD Trial</article-title>
					<source>Eur Heart J</source>
					<year>2025</year>
					<volume>46</volume>
					<issue>34</issue>
					<fpage>3382</fpage>
					<lpage>3386</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehaf316</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B70">
				<label>70</label>
				<mixed-citation>70. Aksit MZ, Arslan FD, Karakoyun I, Aydin C, Turgut E, Parildar H, et al. Galectin-3 Levels and Inflammatory Response in Patients Undergoing Bariatric Surgery. Cytokine. 2022;151:155793. doi: 10.1016/j.cyto.2022.155793.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Aksit</surname>
							<given-names>MZ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Arslan</surname>
							<given-names>FD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Karakoyun</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Aydin</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Turgut</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Parildar</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Galectin-3 Levels and Inflammatory Response in Patients Undergoing Bariatric Surgery</article-title>
					<source>Cytokine</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>151</volume>
					<size units="pages">155793</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.cyto.2022.155793</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B71">
				<label>71</label>
				<mixed-citation>71. Askarpour M, Alizadeh S, Hadi A, Symonds ME, Miraghajani M, Sheikhi A, et al. Effect of Bariatric Surgery on the Circulating Level of Adiponectin, Chemerin, Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1, Leptin, Resistin, and Visfatin: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Horm Metab Res. 2020;52(4):207-15. doi: 10.1055/a-1129-6785.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Askarpour</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Alizadeh</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hadi</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Symonds</surname>
							<given-names>ME</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Miraghajani</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sheikhi</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Effect of Bariatric Surgery on the Circulating Level of Adiponectin, Chemerin, Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1, Leptin, Resistin, and Visfatin: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis</article-title>
					<source>Horm Metab Res</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>52</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>207</fpage>
					<lpage>215</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1055/a-1129-6785</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B72">
				<label>72</label>
				<mixed-citation>72. Lv F, Zhang J, Tao Y. Efficacy and Safety of Inorganic Nitrate/Nitrite Supplementary Therapy in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2023;10:1054666. doi: 10.3389/fcvm.2023.1054666.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Lv</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zhang</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tao</surname>
							<given-names>Y</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Efficacy and Safety of Inorganic Nitrate/Nitrite Supplementary Therapy in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>Front Cardiovasc Med</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<size units="pages">1054666</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3389/fcvm.2023.1054666</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B73">
				<label>73</label>
				<mixed-citation>73. Armstrong PW, Lam CSP, Anstrom KJ, Ezekowitz J, Hernandez AF, O'Connor CM, et al. Effect of Vericiguat vs Placebo on Quality of Life in Patients with Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction: The VITALITY-HFpEF Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2020;324(15):1512-21. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.15922.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Armstrong</surname>
							<given-names>PW</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lam</surname>
							<given-names>CSP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Anstrom</surname>
							<given-names>KJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ezekowitz</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hernandez</surname>
							<given-names>AF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>O'Connor</surname>
							<given-names>CM</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Effect of Vericiguat vs Placebo on Quality of Life in Patients with Heart Failure and Preserved Ejection Fraction: The VITALITY-HFpEF Randomized Clinical Trial</article-title>
					<source>JAMA</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>324</volume>
					<issue>15</issue>
					<fpage>1512</fpage>
					<lpage>1521</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1001/jama.2020.15922</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B74">
				<label>74</label>
				<mixed-citation>74. Udelson JE, Lewis GD, Shah SJ, Zile MR, Redfield MM, Burnett J Jr, et al. Effect of Praliciguat on Peak Rate of Oxygen Consumption in Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: The CAPACITY HFpEF Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2020;324(15):1522-31. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.16641.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Udelson</surname>
							<given-names>JE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lewis</surname>
							<given-names>GD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Shah</surname>
							<given-names>SJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zile</surname>
							<given-names>MR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Redfield</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Burnett</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
							<suffix>Jr</suffix>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Effect of Praliciguat on Peak Rate of Oxygen Consumption in Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: The CAPACITY HFpEF Randomized Clinical Trial</article-title>
					<source>JAMA</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>324</volume>
					<issue>15</issue>
					<fpage>1522</fpage>
					<lpage>1531</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1001/jama.2020.16641</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B75">
				<label>75</label>
				<mixed-citation>75. Shah SJ, Katz DH, Selvaraj S, Burke MA, Yancy CW, Gheorghiade M, et al. Phenomapping for Novel Classification of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. Circulation. 2015;131(3):269-79. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.010637.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Shah</surname>
							<given-names>SJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Katz</surname>
							<given-names>DH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Selvaraj</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Burke</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Yancy</surname>
							<given-names>CW</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gheorghiade</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Phenomapping for Novel Classification of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2015</year>
					<volume>131</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>269</fpage>
					<lpage>279</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.010637</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Study Association</label>
				<p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
				<p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<label>Sources of Funding</label>
				<p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20250043</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Insuficiência Cardíaca Com Fração de Ejeção Preservada Além do Miocárdio: A Inflamação Sistêmica como Eixo Central da Fisiopatologia</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0341-8675</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Ideta</surname>
						<given-names>Mylena Miki Lopes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-5034-3227</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Nihei</surname>
						<given-names>Camile Miyuki Ishikawa</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0696-0208</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Moreira</surname>
						<given-names>Paulo Henrique Brites</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0262-6635</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Freitas</surname>
						<given-names>Ana Karyn Ehrenfried de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paraná – Hospital de Clínicas, Curitiba, PR – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital da Cruz Vermelha Brasileira, Curitiba, PR – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência</label>: Mylena Miki Lopes Ideta • Rua. Gen. Carneiro, 181. CEP 80060-900, Alto da Glória, Curitiba, PR – Brasil. E-mail: mylena.miki15@gmail.com </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
					<p>Ana Karyn Ehrenfried de Freitas - Participação em eventos/aulas para Astra e Bayer.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p> Germano Souza</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEP) é atualmente o subtipo mais prevalente de IC, sobretudo em mulheres idosas com múltiplas comorbidades metabólicas. Apesar dos recentes avanços terapêuticos, sua fisiopatologia permanece incompletamente elucidada e marcadamente heterogênea. Em 2025, Milton Packer propôs uma nova estrutura conceitual: a hipótese das adipocinas. Segundo essa hipótese, a ICFEP seria uma condição primariamente impulsionada pela expansão e disfunção do tecido adiposo visceral. Essa remodelação do tecido adiposo resulta em uma secreção alterada de adipocinas, que são moléculas biologicamente ativas com efeitos endócrinos e parácrinos sobre o coração, os rins e o sistema vascular. O desequilíbrio entre adipocinas cardioprotetoras e pró-inflamatórias favorece a inflamação sistêmica, a retenção de sódio, a sobrecarga volêmica, a hipertrofia e a fibrose miocárdica, culminando na disfunção diastólica e na intolerância ao exercício, que são características da ICFEP. Este artigo revisa os principais fundamentos fisiopatológicos dessa hipótese, bem como as evidências experimentais e clínicas e as implicações terapêuticas, que propõem um paradigma unificador para a compreensão e o tratamento da ICFEP.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Adipocinas</kwd>
				<kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
				<kwd>Inflamação</kwd>
				<kwd>Adiponectina</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central:</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Insuficiência Cardíaca Com Fração de Ejeção Preservada Além do Miocárdio: A Inflamação Sistêmica como Eixo Central da Fisiopatologia</title>
							<p><italic>ICFEP: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada; NO: óxido nítrico; ROS: espécies reativas de oxigênio; SRAA: sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona; TAE: tecido adiposo epicárdico; TAV: tecido adiposo visceral.</italic></p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250043-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) com fração de ejeção (FE) preservada (ICFEP) é responsável por aproximadamente metade dos casos de IC no mundo, constituindo atualmente o subtipo mais prevalente da síndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A ICFEP está associada a elevada morbimortalidade, sobretudo entre mulheres idosas com obesidade e múltiplas comorbidades metabólicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Ao contrário da IC com FE reduzida (ICFER), cuja fisiopatologia é bem estabelecida e amplamente explicada pela hipótese neuro-hormonal, a ICFEP tem sido tradicionalmente considerada como uma síndrome multifatorial. Nesse modelo, condições como hipertensão arterial, diabetes melito, obesidade, envelhecimento e inflamação sistêmica atuariam de forma relativamente independente, promovendo remodelamento miocárdico e disfunção diastólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> No entanto, a interpretação desses fatores como mecanismos isolados não explica de maneira satisfatória a relativa uniformidade das manifestações clínicas, nem a variabilidade das respostas terapêuticas observadas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1002">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Principais hipóteses da fisiopatologia da ICFEP</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="20%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Hipótese</th>
									<th>Mecanismos fisiopatológicos</th>
									<th>Evidências observacionais/experimentais</th>
									<th>Tratamento proposto</th>
									<th>Evidências terapêuticas (ensaios)</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Hipertensão-hipertrofia-disfunção diastólica<sup>5</sup></bold></td>
									<td align="center">Hipertensão arterial induz hipertrofia miocárdica</td>
									<td align="center">A hipertensão associa-se predominantemente à ICFER, embora estudos experimentais sugiram associação com ICFEP em fases iniciais</td>
									<td align="center">Controle rigoroso da pressão arterial</td>
									<td align="center">CHARM-Preserved, PEP-CHF e I-Preserve não demonstraram redução significativa de mortalidade, apenas melhora sintomática discreta<sup>65-67</sup></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Inflamação microvascular associada à deficiência de NO-cGMP<sup>17</sup></bold></td>
									<td align="center">Inflamação microvascular com redução de NO, cGMP e PKG, favorecendo hipertrofia e fibrose intersticial</td>
									<td align="center">Não está claramente estabelecido como comorbidades (diabetes, dislipidemia e DPOC) desencadeiam inflamação seletiva da microcirculação coronariana</td>
									<td align="center">Fármacos que aumentam NO ou cGMP (mononitrato de isossorbida, nitrito inorgânico); estimuladores da via cGMP (vericiguat, praciliguat)</td>
									<td align="center">NEAT-HFpEF não demonstrou melhora na tolerância ao exercício com mononitrato de isossorbida; metanálises não evidenciaram benefício com nitrito inorgânico; VITALITY-HFpEF e CAPACITY-HFpEF foram negativos para vericiguat e praciliguat<sup>67,72-74</sup></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Mapeamento fenotípico<sup>75</sup></bold></td>
									<td align="center">Comorbidades associadas (diabetes melito, HAS e DRC) consideradas determinantes de subfenótipos distintos de ICFEP</td>
									<td align="center">A categorização fenotípica em subgrupos não demonstrou reprodutibilidade consistente</td>
									<td align="center">Tratamento direcionado por fenótipo (fenótipo atrial: controle de ritmo; metabólico: inibidores da SGLT2; vascular: anti-hipertensivos)</td>
									<td align="center">EMPEROR-Preserved e DELIVER demonstraram benefício dos inibidores da SGLT2 independentemente da fração de ejeção, sugerindo efeito sobre o fenótipo metabólico/inflamatório<sup>47,48</sup></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Adipocinas<sup>4</sup></bold></td>
									<td align="center">Aumento de adipocinas pró-inflamatórias e pró-fibróticas (leptina, resistina, TNF-α, IL-6) e redução de adiponectina, promovendo inflamação sistêmica, disfunção endotelial, aumento da rigidez miocitária e remodelamento da matriz extracelular; efeito parácrino do tecido adiposo epicárdico</td>
									<td align="center">A adiposidade central está presente em &gt; 95% dos paciente com ICFEP, associando-se ao desenvolvimento e à gravidade da doença</td>
									<td align="center">Intervenções que reduzem a adiposidade visceral e modulam a produção de adipocinas</td>
									<td align="center">STEP-HFpEF (semaglutida) e DELIVER/EMPEROR-Preserved (dapagliflozina, empagliflozina) demonstraram melhora de sintomas e capacidade funcional, reforçando o papel metabólico-adipocitário<sup>47-49</sup></td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1002">
								<p><italic>DPOC: doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica; DRC: doença renal crônica; HAS: hipertensão arterial sistêmica; ICFEP: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada; ICFER: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Nesse contexto, a hipótese das adipocinas emergiu como um possível eixo unificador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> De acordo com essa proposta, a expansão do tecido adiposo visceral (TAV) promove sua transformação em um órgão endócrino pró-inflamatório, capaz de secretar mediadores com efeitos diretos sobre o coração, os rins e o sistema vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Essas alterações resultam em desequilíbrio entre adipocinas cardioprotetoras e pró-inflamatórias, favorecendo a inflamação sistêmica, a retenção de sódio, a sobrecarga volêmica, a hipertrofia e a fibrose miocárdica, culminando no fenótipo clínico característico da ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A hipótese das adipocinas não substitui os modelos prévios, mas os integra em um arcabouço imunometabólico mais abrangente. A ICFEP caracteriza-se por inflamação sistêmica crônica, sustentada por múltiplas fontes, incluindo TAV, disfunção endotelial, senescência celular, alterações renais e intestinais, além de ativação imunometabólica persistente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Esses mecanismos convergem para rarefação microvascular, estresse oxidativo, aumento da rigidez ventricular e comprometimento da reserva lusitrópica, elementos centrais na fisiopatologia da síndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A hipótese de um papel central da adiposidade na ICFEP foi inicialmente sustentada por observações clínicas de que a maioria dos pacientes com essa síndrome apresenta obesidade central associada à inflamação sistêmica. Estudos longitudinais, como o UK Biobank e o Framingham Heart Study, demonstraram que a adiposidade visceral, avaliada por métodos de imagem ou pela razão cintura-altura (RCA), constitui preditor independente para o desenvolvimento de ICFEP, mas não de ICFER.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Adicionalmente, a RCA ≥ 0,5 está presente em &gt; 95% dos pacientes com ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Esses achados foram corroborados por análises recentes de grandes ensaios clínicos, como o PARAGON-HF ,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> que evidenciaram associação direta entre adiposidade central, gravidade da doença e prognóstico na ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Em 2018, Milton Packer et al. descreveram o eixo leptina-aldosterona-neprilisina como um dos principais mediadores da interação entre tecido adiposo e sistema cardiovascular. Esse eixo contribui para explicar manifestações clássicas da ICFEP, como a retenção de sódio, a sobrecarga volêmica e a fibrose miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Portanto, o objetivo deste artigo é revisar, de forma abrangente, as principais vias inflamatórias envolvidas no desenvolvimento e na progressão da ICFEP, contextualizando a hipótese das adipocinas no âmbito mais amplo dos processos imunometabólicos que caracterizam essa síndrome.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Fontes de inflamação sistêmica na insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Tecido adiposo visceral como órgão inflamatório central</title>
					<p>As evidências atuais indicam que a ICFEP está mais fortemente associada à adiposidade central, frequentemente avaliada pela RCA ≥ 0,5, do que ao critério tradicional de obesidade baseado no índice de massa corporal (IMC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O TAV constitui um importante órgão endócrino e, em condições de excesso nutricional, torna-se metabolicamente ativo e pró-inflamatório. A expansão dos adipócitos leva à hipóxia tecidual, à ativação de macrófagos e à secreção de adipocinas com efeitos endócrinos e parácrinos. Entre as repercussões sistêmicas, destacam-se o aumento da atividade simpática renal e esplâncnica, a ativação do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, a retenção de sódio, a expansão volêmica e o desenvolvimento de hipertensão sistêmica e pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Paralelamente, mediadores inflamatórios promovem comprometimento da microcirculação coronariana e remodelamento da matriz extracelular. Como consequência, observa-se aumento da rigidez ventricular e redução da complacência diastólica, sem perda significativa de miócitos, que é uma característica marcante da ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Esses achados estão sintetizados na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura Central</xref>.</p>
					<p>O TAV atua como gatilho inicial da inflamação sistêmica e da desregulação neuro-hormonal, estabelecendo o substrato para as alterações cardiovasculares subsequentes.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Disfunção endotelial, senescência e <italic>inflammaging</italic></title>
					<p>As adipocinas correspondem a um conjunto de moléculas bioativas secretadas pelos adipócitos, com ação endócrina e parácrina, incluindo os subtipos descritos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">Tabela 2</xref>.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t2002">
							<label>Tabela 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Classificação e descrição das adipocinas</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="50%">
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Classe</th>
										<th align="left">Subtipos/Descrição</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Polipeptídeos e proteínas</bold></td>
										<td>Adiponectina, leptina e outras proteínas com função endócrina e parácrina</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Esteroides e eicosanoides</bold></td>
										<td>Aldosterona, prostaglandinas e leucotrienos</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Lipocinas</bold></td>
										<td>Produtos derivados da lipólise, como ácidos graxos livres</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Metabocinas</bold></td>
										<td>Metabólitos derivados do metabolismo energético celular com ação sinalizadora</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Adipoexossomos</bold></td>
										<td>Nanovesículas extracelulares contendo proteínas e microRNAs que modulam a expressão gênica em tecidos distantes</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Células-tronco mesenquimais circulantes</bold></td>
										<td>Células derivadas do tecido adiposo ou progenitoras da medula óssea, com capacidade de interação com o tecido cardíaco</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>O eixo leptina-angiotensina II-aldosterona encontra-se hiperativado na obesidade central. A leptina estimula a produção adrenal de aldosterona e pode também ser secretada localmente por adipócitos hipertrofiados por via dependente de calcineurina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> A ativação sustentada dos receptores mineralocorticoides intensifica a retenção de sódio e o remodelamento vascular.</p>
					<p>Simultaneamente, houve aumento da reabsorção tubular de sódio mediado por hiperatividade simpática renal. Pacientes com obesidade apresentam níveis reduzidos de peptídeos natriuréticos, atribuídos à maior expressão de neprilisina e ao aumento da depuração desses peptídeos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No leito vascular, leptina e aldosterona promovem aumento da rigidez arterial e disfunção da adiposidade perivascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> A inflamação sistêmica resulta também em disfunção endotelial generalizada, incluindo a microcirculação coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Franssen et al. demonstraram que, na ICFEP, há hiperativação endotelial coronariana, aumento do estresse oxidativo e desacoplamento do óxido nítrico (NO) sintase endotelial, que passa a produzir espécies reativas de oxigênio em vez de NO. Como consequência, ocorre redução significativa da biodisponibilidade de NO no miocárdio do ventrículo esquerdo (VE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> A resposta vasodilatadora à acetilcolina encontra-se diminuída, contribuindo para a disfunção diastólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Esse processo, caracterizado pela aceleração da senescência celular, é conhecido como <italic>inflammaging</italic> e tem sido associado à fisiopatologia da ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Citocinas e proteases amplificam o dano tecidual, promovendo a hipertrofia, a apoptose, a fibrose e a cicatrização miocárdica anormal. A inflamação endotelial também está associada ao aumento da acetilação de p53, via que desempenha papel crítico na transição da hipertrofia compensatória para IC. Além disso, a liberação de citocinas pode induzir senescência em células adjacentes, estabelecendo um ciclo de retroalimentação que conecta a inflamação sistêmica, a disfunção microvascular e o aumento da rigidez ventricular, que são mecanismos centrais na fisiopatologia da ICFEP<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Efeitos sistêmicos e cardiorrenais da inflamação mediada por adipocinas na ICFEP. O desequilíbrio do tecido adiposo visceral leva à inflamação sistêmica, promovendo efeitos renais (p.ex., retenção de sódio e fibrose) e cardíacos (p.ex., hipertrofia miocárdica e disfunção microvascular). Essas alterações resultam em aumento das pressões de enchimento ventricular e culminam no desenvolvimento da ICFEP (Adaptado de Milton Packer, 2025). ICFEP: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250043-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos da inflamação no coração</title>
					<p>A convergência dos mecanismos inflamatórios resulta em três alterações principais: disfunção endotelial da microcirculação coronariana com rarefação capilar, fibrose intersticial progressiva e perda da reserva lusitrópica do VE.</p>
					<p>A inflamação endotelial reduz a biodisponibilidade de NO e compromete a via NO-cGMP-PKG , fundamental para a adequada fosforilação da titina, resultando em aumento da rigidez do cardiomiócito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> A redução do fluxo microvascular, associada ao aumento do estresse oxidativo, promove ativação de fibroblastos e deposição excessiva de matriz extracelular, culminando em fibrose difusa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em paralelo, o comprometimento da via lusitrópica limita a capacidade diastólica de acomodar aumentos de pré-carga, especialmente durante o exercício.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O eixo leptina-aldosterona-neprilisina predispõe à retenção de sódio, sobrecarga volêmica e fibrose miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> A obesidade também está associada à disfunção mitocondrial, redução da produção de adenosina trifosfato e sobrecarga intracelular de cálcio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> A oxidação dos canais de RyR2 favorece o extravasamento de cálcio do retículo sarcoplasmático, podendo contribuir para a ocorrência de ectopias ventriculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Leptina, angiotensina II e aldosterona ativam vias pró-hipertróficas e pró-fibróticas e promovem o aumento da massa ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> O aumento do átrio esquerdo (AE), associado a alterações pró-fibróticas que predispõem à miopatia atrial, eleva a prevalência de fibrilação atrial nessa população.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Dessa forma, a obesidade promove aumento da sobrecarga volêmica por retenção de sódio e redução da capacitância venosa e simultaneamente reduz a capacidade adaptativa do miocárdio a essa sobrecarga, devido ao estímulo à hipertrofia e à fibrose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Esse mecanismo explica o aumento das pressões de enchimento e do volume do AE em indivíduos obesos, alterações que podem ser clinicamente relevantes mesmo na ausência de critérios diagnósticos formais para ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estudos experimentais demonstram que o desenvolvimento da ICFEP está associado ao aumento de adipocinas pró-inflamatórias específicas no tecido adiposo. Por outro lado, a modulação seletiva dessas adipocinas pode estar relacionada à melhora clínica. Além de precederem o desenvolvimento da síndrome, alterações nos níveis de adipocinas também se associam à maior gravidade e possuem valor prognóstico nesse grupo de pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>O papel das adipocinas e a hipótese de Packer</title>
					<p>O entendimento contemporâneo da ICFEP evoluiu para incorporar não apenas a inflamação e a disfunção microvascular, mas também um profundo desarranjo das vias de sensoriamento energético. As adipocinas e suas vias associadas então emergem como elo direto entre o excesso de nutrientes, a disfunção metabólica e a resposta cardíaca desadaptativa.</p>
					<p>Em condições de escassez de nutrientes, o tecido adiposo atua como reserva energética, e sua capacidade de regeneração e manutenção depende da homeostase das células-tronco mesenquimais. Nesse cenário, ocorre ativação de sensores de baixa energia, incluindo SIRT1, AMPK e PGC-1α. Essas vias promovem gliconeogênese e cetogênese, preservam a estabilidade mitocondrial, reduzem o consumo de oxigênio e estimulam a autofagia, assegurando a renovação celular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em contraste, em estados de excesso de nutrientes, a expansão do TAV promove a regulação negativa dessas vias, resultando em estresse oxidativo e alterações funcionais das células mesenquimais locais. Como consequência, há liberação de adipocinas que sustentam a ativação de vias proliferativas, pró-hipertróficas, pró-inflamatórias e pró-fibróticas, tanto local quanto sistemicamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Estudos experimentais demonstram que células mesenquimais derivadas de tecido adiposo de camundongos obesos apresentam potencial para induzir inflamação e senescência, enquanto aquelas provenientes de animais saudáveis exibem propriedades imunomoduladoras e anti-inflamatórias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outro importante regulador da longevidade celular é o eixo PI3K/Akt/mTOR, essencial para a sinalização de crescimento e proliferação celular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Esse eixo é estimulado em condições de excesso nutricional e, uma vez ativado, aumenta a produção mitocondrial de espécies reativas de oxigênio, facilitando a proliferação celular. Embora seja fundamental durante o desenvolvimento fetal e em processos adaptativos, sua ativação crônica na vida adulta promove senescência celular e hipertrofia desadaptativa.</p>
					<p>As vias de sensoriamento energético são altamente interconectadas e reguladas de forma inversa. A ativação do eixo Akt/mTOR, associada à supressão das vias SIRT1/PGC-1α, moduladas por adipocinas liberadas em contextos de excesso nutricional, apresenta paralelismo notável com as alterações observadas nos cardiomiócitos na ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Essas alterações metabólicas permitem compreender por que o desequilíbrio de adipocinas não representa apenas um marcador, mas um mediador central da inflamação, da fibrose e da disfunção cardíaca. Nesse contexto, o modelo proposto por Packer integra-se de forma coerente ao arcabouço fisiopatológico da ICFEP, ao classificar as adipocinas em três domínios funcionais<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>):</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Mecanismo molecular da interação entre o tecido adiposo e o miocárdio na ICFEP. A obesidade e a adiposidade visceral promovem transformação biológica do tecido adiposo, com consequente desequilíbrio na secreção de adipocinas. Esse desarranjo resulta na inibição das vias SIRT1/AMPK/PGC-1α e na ativação da via Akt/mTOR. Em conjunto, esses processos favorecem estresse oxidativo, inflamação, fibrose e hipertrofia miocárdica, culminando no fenótipo clínico da ICFEP (Adaptado de Milton Packer, 2025). ICFEP: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250043-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p><bold>1. Domínio I:</bold> moléculas cardioprotetoras, anti-inflamatórias, natriuréticas e sensibilizadoras à insulina (p.ex., adiponectina, omentina-1 e neuregulina-4), secretadas por adipócitos saudáveis e suprimidas na ICFEP;</p>
					<p><bold>2. Domínio II:</bold> adipocinas compensatórias que se elevam em resposta à adiposidade visceral (p.ex., FGF21, vaspina e IL-10), com efeitos cardioprotetores, incluindo inibição do estresse celular, da hipertrofia e da inflamação no tecido adiposo branco e no coração;</p>
					<p><bold>3. Domínio III:</bold> adipocinas predominantemente pró-inflamatórias, pró-hipertróficas e pró-fibróticas (p.ex., o eixo leptina-angiotensina II-aldosterona-neprilisina, autotaxina, resistina e inibidor do ativador do plasminogênio-1), cuja expressão é aumentada na adiposidade visceral.</p>
					<p>Na obesidade visceral, observa-se supressão das adipocinas do Domínio I, aumento compensatório das adipocinas do Domínio II e superexpressão das adipocinas do Domínio III. Esse desequilíbrio estabelece um ambiente hormonal pró-inflamatório e pró-fibrótico, que integra alterações metabólicas (p.ex., resistência à insulina), hemodinâmicas (p.ex., expansão volêmica e aumento da resistência vascular) e estruturais (p.ex., hipertrofia e rigidez miocárdica) observadas na ICFEP e em suas comorbidades associadas. Essas alterações podem preceder o desenvolvimento clínico da síndrome por anos, e a magnitude do desequilíbrio de adipocinas correlaciona-se com a gravidade e o prognóstico da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em indivíduos magros, os adipócitos secretam pequenas quantidades de adipocinas do Domínio II. Na obesidade visceral, entretanto, há aumento expressivo dessa produção. Apesar de seus efeitos cardioprotetores, tais adipocinas tornam-se insuficientes para prevenir o desenvolvimento da ICFEP, em virtude da resistência às suas ações biológicas induzida pela obesidade. Ainda assim, pacientes com IC estabelecida e níveis elevados dessas adipocinas apresentam prognóstico relativamente mais favorável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Entre as adipocinas do Domínio III, a leptina é a mais amplamente estudada. Em condições fisiológicas, exerce efeitos benéficos de curto prazo, como promoção da saciedade, redução da pressão arterial e proteção dos cardiomiócitos. No entanto, na hiperleptinemia crônica, esses efeitos tornam-se desadaptativos, com ativação do sistema adrenérgico, aumento da reabsorção tubular de sódio e indução de respostas inflamatórias sistêmicas, incluindo hipertrofia ventricular, disfunção diastólica, disfunção endotelial e fibrose miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A ativação coordenada do eixo leptina-angiotensina II-aldosterona-neprilisina na obesidade, associada à amplificação mútua de seus efeitos e vias de sinalização, desempenha papel central na mediação do impacto causal da obesidade sobre a ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Intervenções terapêuticas direcionadas à redução da adiposidade visceral, à supressão das adipocinas do Domínio III ou à ativação das vias SIRT1/AMPK/PGC-1α têm demonstrado benefícios clínicos e prognósticos na ICFEP. Entre essas estratégias destacam-se a cirurgia bariátrica, os agonistas do receptor de incretina, os inibidores do SGLT2, os antagonistas de receptores mineralocorticoides e os inibidores da neprilisina e do sistema renina-angiotensina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Evidências clínicas e terapêuticas</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Relação entre marcadores inflamatórios e prognóstico</title>
					<p>A ativação crônica da cascata inflamatória, frequentemente originada em comorbidades cardiometabólicas, promove disfunção endotelial coronariana, aumento da permeabilidade vascular, ativação de fibroblastos e remodelamento intersticial, resultando em rigidez ventricular e disfunção diastólica, conforme discutido previamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Esse processo é sustentado por citocinas pró-inflamatórias e mediadores derivados do TAV, especialmente IL-6, TNF-α e proteína C-reativa ultrassensível (PCR-us).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Esses mediadores têm emergido não apenas como marcadores da doença, mas também como determinantes prognósticos na ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A IL-6 é uma citocina pleiotrópica produzida por diversos tipos celulares, incluindo adipócitos, macrófagos, células endoteliais e cardiomiócitos sob estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Sua ação ocorre por meio da ligação ao receptor alfa da IL-6 e da ativação do correceptor gp130, desencadeando a via de sinalização JAK/STAT3, além de modular vias metabólicas intracelulares, como mTOR e AMPK/SIRT1. Do ponto de vista fisiopatológico, a IL-6 promove ativação de fibroblastos mediada por TGF-β, redução da fosforilação da titina e supressão da via NO-cGMP-PKG, culminando em hipertrofia miocárdica, fibrose intersticial, disfunção diastólica e aumento do estresse oxidativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em um estudo multicêntrico com 374 pacientes com ICFEP, níveis mais elevados de IL-6 estiveram associados a maior IMC, maior prevalência de obesidade, níveis mais elevados de fragmento N-terminal do pró-peptídeo natriurético tipo B (NT-proBNP), pior função renal, menores níveis de hemoglobina e níveis mais elevados de PCR-us e TNF-α, além de maior prevalência de diabetes. Esses pacientes também apresentaram menor VO<sub>2</sub> pico e menor distância no teste de caminhada de 6 minutos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> o que sugere direta associação entre IL-6 elevada e pior capacidade funcional e hemodinâmica.</p>
					<p>Evidência adicional é fornecida por estudo envolvendo 1.086 pacientes (506 com ICFEP e 580 com ICFER), conduzido por Berger et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Nesse estudo, níveis elevados de IL-6 estiveram significativamente associados à mortalidade cardiovascular apenas em pacientes com ICFEP, enquanto na ICFER essa associação não foi significativa. A PCR-us apresentou tendência semelhante, porém sem significância após ajuste multivariado. Houve ainda interação significativa entre IL-6 e NT-proBNP na predição de mortalidade cardiovascular. Adicionalmente, análise genotípica demonstrou que indivíduos homozigotos para a variante IL6-receptor p.Asp358Ala (rs2228145) apresentavam níveis significativamente menores de NT-proBNP entre pacientes com ICFEP, mas não entre aqueles com ICFER.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em estudo prospectivo, pacientes recentemente hospitalizados por ICFEP que apresentavam níveis elevados de IL-6 no momento da alta apresentaram maior risco de reinternação e mortalidade em 180 dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Em coorte populacional com 8.534 indivíduos sem IC prévia, Chia et al. demonstraram que concentrações plasmáticas elevadas de IL-6 prediziam o desenvolvimento de ICFEP, mas não de ICFER.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Esses achados consolidam a IL-6 como marcador prognóstico independente e potencial mediador fisiopatológico na ICFEP, sendo o primeiro biomarcador inflamatório com capacidade de discriminação prognóstica diferencial entre ICFEP e ICFER. Ademais, os dados sugerem que a IL-6 não apenas se associa à progressão da doença, mas também participa de suas fases iniciais, sustentando uma possível relação causal.</p>
					<p>O TNF-α, por sua vez, é uma citocina central da resposta inflamatória, produzida principalmente por macrófagos ativados, linfócitos T e células endoteliais. Atua promovendo apoptose de cardiomiócitos, ativação de fibroblastos e disfunção mitocondrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Em estudo comparativo, Putko et al. avaliaram 140 pacientes com IC e observaram que os níveis plasmáticos de TNF-α e TNFR2 eram significativamente maiores em pacientes com ICFEP em comparação àqueles com ICFER, sugerindo diferenças fisiopatológicas entre os fenótipos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Embora estudos longitudinais específicos em ICFEP ainda sejam limitados, dados provenientes de coortes mistas indicam que níveis elevados de TNF-α estão associados a maior mortalidade global e cardiovascular, mesmo após ajuste para NT-proBNP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A PCR-us é uma proteína de fase aguda sintetizada pelo fígado em resposta à IL-6. Apesar de sua baixa especificidade, é amplamente utilizada como marcador acessível de inflamação sistêmica e apresenta valor prognóstico modesto, porém consistente, na ICFEP. Na metanálise de Lakhani et al., que incluiu 19 estudos e mais de 4.000 pacientes, níveis elevados de PCR-us associaram-se a maior mortalidade cardiovascular e por todas as causas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> No estudo de Berger et al., a PCR-us apresentou menor poder prognóstico em comparação à IL-6, sugerindo que reflete mais a inflamação sistêmica global do que processos miocárdicos específicos da ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Além disso, sua associação com prognóstico parece ser influenciada pelo estado metabólico e pela adiposidade visceral, uma vez que a PCR-us se correlaciona com IMC e resistência à insulina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A maior parte das evidências que relacionam IL-6, TNF-α e PCR-us ao prognóstico na ICFEP deriva de estudos observacionais, análises de coorte e subestudos de ensaios clínicos. Esses delineamentos permitem identificar associações consistentes, mas não estabelecem, de forma isolada, relação causal direta. Assim, a elevação desses biomarcadores deve ser interpretada como expressão de um estado inflamatório sistêmico crônico, intimamente relacionado às comorbidades cardiometabólicas que caracterizam a ICFEP.</p>
					<p>A confirmação definitiva do papel causal desses mediadores requer ensaios clínicos randomizados especificamente desenhados para essa população. No caso da IL-6, entretanto, essa limitação é parcialmente mitigada pela convergência de múltiplas linhas de evidência, incluindo estudos experimentais que demonstram o impacto da modulação dessa via em processos centrais da fisiopatologia da ICFEP (p.ex., fibrose intersticial, disfunção endotelial e aumento da rigidez miocárdica) e dados genéticos que associam variantes funcionais do receptor de IL-6 a níveis reduzidos de NT-proBNP em pacientes com ICFEP.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Terapias anti-inflamatórias direcionadas</title>
					<p>A identificação do papel central da inflamação na ICFEP motivou, nas últimas duas décadas, o desenvolvimento de estratégias terapêuticas voltadas ao bloqueio de citocinas pró-inflamatórias. A evolução dessas abordagens reflete uma transição conceitual relevante: do bloqueio sistêmico e inespecífico (anti-TNF) para intervenções mais seletivas e direcionadas (anti-IL-1β e anti-IL-6).</p>
					<p>O TNF-α foi o primeiro alvo terapêutico investigado em pacientes com IC crônica. No início dos anos 2000, dois grandes ensaios clínicos avaliaram agentes bloqueadores dessa via: etanercepte (RENEWAL) e infliximabe (ATTACH).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> O estudo RENEWAL, que integrou os subestudos RECOVER e RENAISSANCE, incluiu 2.048 pacientes com IC sistólica moderada a grave tratados com etanercepte, um receptor solúvel de TNF-α.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> O ensaio foi interrompido precocemente após análise interina demonstrar ausência de benefício em mortalidade e hospitalização, além de tendência a aumento de eventos adversos cardiovasculares.</p>
					<p>Similarmente, o estudo ATTACH avaliou o anticorpo monoclonal infliximabe em 150 pacientes com IC avançada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Houve piora dos desfechos compostos de mortalidade e reinternação nos grupos tratados com doses mais elevadas, sugerindo que o bloqueio completo do TNF-α pode interferir negativamente na resposta imune fisiológica e agravar disfunções endoteliais e mitocondriais.</p>
					<p>Diante desses resultados, o foco terapêutico deslocou-se para a via IL-1β/IL-6. O ensaio CANTOS avaliou o bloqueio seletivo da IL-1β com canaquinumabe em 10.061 pacientes com doença aterosclerótica estabelecida e PCR-us ≥ 2 mg/l.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Além da redução de eventos aterotrombóticos, análises secundárias demonstraram redução de 26% nas hospitalizações por IC e de 17% na mortalidade cardiovascular. Esses achados constituíram a primeira evidência clínica de que a modulação seletiva da inflamação pode alterar o curso da IC. O bloqueio da IL-1β reduz a produção hepática de PCR-us e consequentemente a sinalização mediada por IL-6, interrompendo a cascata pró-inflamatória associada ao remodelamento e à fibrose miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Modelos experimentais corroboram esses achados. Em estudo pré-clínico, o bloqueio farmacológico da IL-6 em camundongos submetidos à nefrectomia subtotal e sobrecarga salina reduziu significativamente a infiltração inflamatória cardíaca e a fibrose intersticial, com melhora da função diastólica e redução do estresse oxidativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Entre as terapias direcionadas à IL-6, destaca-se o anticorpo monoclonal ziltivekimabe, que bloqueia seletivamente essa via. O estudo RESCUE demonstrou redução significativa de PCR-us e fibrinogênio em pacientes com doença renal crônica (DRC) e inflamação persistente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Em 2024, foi iniciado o ensaio HERMES, que avalia o ziltivekimabe versus placebo em pacientes com ICFEP e inflamação sistêmica (PCR-us ≥ 2 mg/l).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Trata-se de um estudo em andamento, com o objetivo primário de investigar o impacto da inibição seletiva da IL-6 sobre desfechos clínicos duros, a exemplo de mortalidade cardiovascular e hospitalizações por ICFEP.</p>
					<p>Até o momento, os dados sobre desfechos clínicos em pacientes com ICFEP tratados com terapias anti-IL-1 ou anti-IL-6 ainda são limitados, uma vez que a maior parte das evidências deriva de análises secundárias, estudos intermediários ou ensaios conduzidos em populações mais amplas de IC. Assim, os resultados do estudo HERMES serão fundamentais para determinar se a inibição seletiva de citocinas se traduz em benefício clínico consistente em uma população caracterizada por elevada heterogeneidade clínica e fisiopatológica.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Estratégias anti-inflamatórias indiretas: terapias metabólicas e imunomodulação funcional</title>
				<p>A hipótese das adipocinas redefine o alvo terapêutico da ICFEP, deslocando o foco do miocárdio para o TAV. Estratégias que modulam esse tecido demonstram benefícios clínicos relevantes.</p>
				<p>Entre essas abordagens destacam-se os inibidores do SGLT2, os agonistas do receptor de GLP-1, os antagonistas seletivos do receptor mineralocorticoide (p.ex., finerenona) e intervenções que promovem perda ponderal sustentada. Todas apresentam evidências de redução de marcadores inflamatórios, como IL-6, TNF-α e PCR-us.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Os ensaios EMPEROR-Preserved e DELIVER demonstraram que empagliflozina e dapagliflozina, respectivamente, reduzem o desfecho composto de hospitalização por IC e morte cardiovascular em pacientes com ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Análises secundárias desses estudos evidenciaram redução de IL-6, TNF-α e PCR-us, sugerindo efeito anti-inflamatório sistêmico mediado por reprogramação metabólica e imunomodulação. A inibição do SGLT2 promove aumento da cetogênese e ativação das vias AMPK/SIRT1, reduzindo o estresse oxidativo e a ativação inflamatória de macrófagos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Os agonistas do receptor de GLP-1 também demonstraram benefícios em pacientes com ICFEP associada à obesidade. No estudo STEP-HFpEF, a semaglutida promoveu melhora de 20% na capacidade funcional, com aumento significativo na distância do teste de caminhada de 6 minutos (21,5 m), além de reduções expressivas de PCR-us (–39%) e IL-6 (–26%) após 52 semanas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Esses efeitos parecem, em parte, independentes da perda ponderal, sugerindo ação direta sobre a inflamação sistêmica e melhora da função microvascular.</p>
				<p>A finerenona, antagonista não esteroidal do receptor mineralocorticoide, demonstrou efeitos antifibróticos e anti-inflamatórios em pacientes com IC associada à DRC. Nos estudos FIDELIO-DKD e FIGARO-DKD, observou-se redução significativa de marcadores inflamatórios (IL-6, PCR-us e MCP-1) e de eventos cardiovasculares maiores, reforçando seu potencial como terapia anti-inflamatória indireta na ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Análises proteômicas recentes ampliam a compreensão de seus efeitos moleculares. Em subestudo do FIGARO-DKD, a finerenona reduziu biomarcadores associados à fibrose (p.ex., osteopontina e fibronectina), inflamação e remodelamento (p.ex., ANGPTL2 e CD69), além de suprimir o neuropeptídeo Y, relacionado à ativação simpática e progressão do remodelamento cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> De forma complementar, dados apresentados no ESC Congress 2025, provenientes da análise proteômica do estudo FINEARTS-HF, demonstraram redução da expressão de proteínas pró-fibrogênicas, como CTHRC1 e CSPG4, além de diminuição de NT-proBNP e osteopontina, o que sugere efeito direto antifibrótico e antirremodelamento. Esses achados reforçam que os benefícios clínicos da finerenona decorrem não apenas do bloqueio mineralocorticoide, mas também da modulação integrada de vias inflamatórias e da matriz extracelular, alinhando-se ao conceito de inflamação sistêmica e de remodelamento integrado na ICFEP.</p>
				<p>Por fim, a redução do TAV constitui um dos principais determinantes da modulação inflamatória na ICFEP. Estudos demonstram que a perda ponderal sustentada, seja por intervenção dietética ou cirurgia bariátrica, reduz níveis de PCR-us e IL-6, acompanhada de melhora da função diastólica e da rigidez miocárdica. Reduções de aproximadamente 10% do peso corporal podem diminuir os níveis séricos de IL-6 em até 30%, evidenciando relação dose-dependente entre adiposidade visceral e inflamação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A cirurgia bariátrica, por sua vez, promove redução da massa adiposa visceral, aumento de adiponectina e redução de leptina, PAI-1 e Gal-3, associando-se à melhora da capacidade funcional e regressão da hipertrofia ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A compreensão da fisiopatologia da ICFEP tem evoluído significativamente nas últimas décadas, acompanhando o surgimento de novos paradigmas diante de seu elevado grau de complexidade conceitual e terapêutica. Após sucessivas tentativas de explicação baseadas predominantemente em mecanismos hemodinâmicos ou estruturais, o avanço das evidências tem redirecionado o foco da investigação: a ICFEP não se configura exclusivamente como uma doença miocárdica, mas como a manifestação cardíaca de uma síndrome inflamatório-metabólica sistêmica, cujo processo patológico se inicia fora do coração.</p>
				<p>A hipótese das adipocinas proposta por Milton Packer representa um marco conceitual relevante na compreensão da ICFEP. A inflamação crônica de baixo grau, sustentada principalmente pela disfunção do TAV e pela disfunção endotelial, oferece um eixo unificador capaz de integrar as manifestações clínicas e as comorbidades associadas à</p>
				<p>síndrome. Essa perspectiva permite compreender, dentro de um mesmo arcabouço fisiopatológico, a inter-relação entre a obesidade, a inflamação sistêmica e a IC.</p>
				<p>Nesse modelo integrador, a IL-6 destaca-se não apenas como biomarcador, mas como potencial mediador ativo da disfunção diastólica, da fibrose miocárdica e da ativação neuro-hormonal, com impacto direto no prognóstico da doença. Complementarmente, o TNF-α/TNFR e a PCR-us, embora menos específicos, reforçam a existência de uma rede inflamatória sistêmica complexa e interdependente.</p>
				<p>De modo análogo ao impacto transformador da hipótese neuro-hormonal no manejo da ICFER, a hipótese das adipocinas apresenta potencial para redefinir as estratégias terapêuticas na ICFEP. No entanto, a consolidação desse novo paradigma depende de evidências provenientes de ensaios clínicos randomizados que avaliem, de forma específica, intervenções direcionadas à adiposidade visceral e à inflamação sistêmica associada. Estudos como CANTOS e HERMES representam passos iniciais nesse sentido, ao investigar os efeitos clínicos de terapias anti-inflamatórias direcionadas.</p>
				<p>Paralelamente, terapias indiretas (p.ex., inibidores do SGLT2, agonistas do receptor de GLP-1, antagonistas do receptor mineralocorticoide e intervenções voltadas à redução da adiposidade visceral, incluindo perda ponderal e cirurgia bariátrica) demonstram que a modulação metabólica pode resultar em redução da inflamação sistêmica e melhora funcional.</p>
				<p>Em conjunto, esses achados reforçam a noção de que a compreensão e o tratamento da ICFEP exigem uma abordagem integrada, na qual metabolismo, inflamação, hemodinâmica e função microvascular constituem componentes interdependentes de uma mesma síndrome sistêmica.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
					<p> Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
					<p> Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
					<p> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>