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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20250042i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Laboratory Analysis and the Pericardiogram in Pericardial Diseases in the Era of Precision Medicine</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-4468-9516</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Vieira</surname>
						<given-names>Isabela Lira</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0007-9485-0370</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Nunes</surname>
						<given-names>Leonardo Castro</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-9230-2967</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Nunes</surname>
						<given-names>Bernardo Dinoá</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8870-5130</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pimentel</surname>
						<given-names>Adriana Munford Lima</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mesquita</surname>
						<given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense Hospital Universitário Antonio Pedro</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense Hospital Universitário Antonio Pedro, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff3">
					<label>3</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estácio de Sá</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Estácio de Sá, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Isabela Lira Vieira</bold> • Universidade Federal Fluminense - R. Des. Athayde Parreiras, 100. Postal Code <postal-code>24220-900</postal-code>, Fátima, Niterói, RJ - Brazil E-mail: <email>isaliravieira@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p>Germano Souza</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>07</day>
				<month>07</month>
				<year>2026</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>5</volume>
			<issue>4</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20250042</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>16</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>26</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>18</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Pericardial syndromes constitute a heterogeneous group of diseases affecting the pericardium, with varied clinical presentations and multiple etiologies (infectious, autoimmune, traumatic, post-surgical, metabolic, among others). This diversity demands increasingly refined diagnostic approaches, aligned with the principles of precision medicine. A significant transformation has taken place in the understanding of these conditions and their complexity, driven by the development of advanced diagnostic and therapeutic methods.</p>
				<p>In the context of precision medicine, the aim is to improve the identification of the causal mechanism, allowing for individualized treatment. Significant advances in pericardiology have been driven by methods including cytopathology, immunohistochemistry, analysis of serum and pericardial biomarkers (including novel tumor markers), and the metagenomic detection of microorganisms.</p>
				<p>In parallel, advances in molecular biology and emerging methodologies enable the detailed identification of pathogens and the characterization of multiple phenotypes of pericardial diseases, promoting increasingly accurate and individualized diagnoses. Furthermore, genetic markers have played an important role in elucidating the causes of recurrent pericarditis by identifying genes associated with autoinflammatory diseases and hereditary predispositions.</p>
				<p>The objective of this review is to present the state of the art in the diagnosis of pericardial diseases, focusing on techniques that directly assess pericardial fluid and, therefore, effectively assist in the etiological investigation of various pericardial syndromes. A new tool, the &quot;pericardiogram,&quot; is also proposed to organize clinical reasoning and ensure the best use of complementary tests in assisting the investigation of pericardial syndromes.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Pericarditis</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiac Tamponade</kwd>
				<kwd>Pericardial Effusion</kwd>
				<kwd>Precision Medicine</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="6"/>
				<table-count count="6"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="62"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Central Illustration:</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Laboratory Analysis and the Pericardiogram in Pericardial Diseases in the Era of Precision Medicine</title>
							<p>Steps for diagnosis and management of pericardial syndromes, from clinical assessment to etiological definition and pericardial fluid analysis, according to the 2025 European Society of Cardiology recommendations (steps 1 to 3). Stage 4 proposes a new tool for institutional standardization of clinical and laboratory data of patients diagnosed with pericardial syndromes. ADA: adenosine deaminase; ANA: antinuclear antibody; AFB: acid-fast bacilli; ECG: electrocardiogram; ESR: erythrocyte sedimentation rate; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; PET-CT: positron emission tomography and computed tomography; RT-PCR: reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction.</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250042-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
		</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Normal pericardial anatomy, cytology, and physiology</title>
				<p>The pericardium consists of two layers, the parietal and the visceral. The parietal layer surrounds the heart externally and is composed of a more superficial layer of fibrous tissue and an inner serous layer, consisting of mesothelial cells, which reflects onto the heart to form the visceral layer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> This layer is closely associated with the heart, covering the entire heart and the great vessels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Together, these layers limit expansion of the cardiac chambers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Regarding innervation, the main nerves involved are the phrenic nerve (sensory innervation) and the vagus nerve (parasympathetic), in addition to sympathetic innervation, which is mainly due to the cardiac nerves. Arterial supply is concentrated in the vessels of the internal thoracic artery and the descending thoracic aorta, whereas venous drainage occurs through the pericardiophrenic and brachiocephalic veins.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Pericardial fluid is located in the pericardial cavity, and normal volume ranges from 25 to 50 mL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Its main function, together with the fibrous portion of the pericardial wall, is to reduce the impact during cardiac contractions and minimize friction, in addition to serving as a physical barrier against tumors or infections.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pericardial syndromes and their etiologies</title>
				<p>Pericardial diseases have diverse etiologies, which can be divided into infectious or non-infectious, including autoimmune, myopericardial syndromes, post-cardiac injury, traumatic, congenital, metabolic, neoplastic and idiopathic syndromes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The most common pericardial disease, pericarditis, is an inflammatory process that can be acute or evolve into incessant, chronic, or recurrent forms, with or without effusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Effusion is characterized according to the properties of the accumulated fluid (transudate, exudate, hemorrhagic, and others) as well as by clinical course, and may progress to constrictive pericarditis due to pericardial fibrosis and calcification, with restricted diastolic filling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Main etiologies of pericarditis, their causes, and typical clinical findings</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="33%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
								<th align="left" valign="middle">Etiology</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Causes/examples</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Clinical findings</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Viral</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">CMV, ADV, B19, HIV</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Pleuritic chest pain, pericardial friction rub, diffuse ECG changes, low-grade fever</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Tuberculosis</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Prolonged fever, night sweats, pericardial effusion</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Bacterial</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>Pneumococcus, Staphylococcus aureus</italic></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">High fever, chills, toxemia, purulent effusion</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Fungal</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>Histoplasma, Aspergillus</italic></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Fever, respiratory symptoms, effusion refractory to antibiotics</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Autoimmune</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, Behçet disease</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Chest pain, pericardial friction rub, effusion, systemic manifestations of underlying disease</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Neoplastic</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Lung/breast/lymphoma metastases</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Hemorrhagic or malignant effusion, signs of primary tumor</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Trauma/post-surgical</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Postoperative or traumatic</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Chest pain, effusion, possible tamponade</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Drug-induced</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Procainamide, hydralazine, chemotherapy</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Symptoms after medication use, resolving after discontinuation of the drug</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Post-cardiac injury</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Post-infarction, revascularization</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Chest pain, fever, pericardial friction rub, mild effusion</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>Clinical findings are suggestive and may vary depending on disease severity and patient comorbidities. Identification of the etiology should be confirmed by laboratory tests, imaging, and, when necessary, analysis of pericardial fluid or biopsy. Source: European Society of Cardiology 2025 guideline for the management of myocarditis and pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Adapted by the authors. ADV: adenovirus; B19: parvovirus B19; CMV: cytomegalovirus; ECG: electrocardiogram; HIV: human immunodeficiency virus.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
				<p>From an epidemiological perspective, the prevalence of different etiologies varies according to geographic location, age range, and clinical and family history. In high-income countries, acute idiopathic inflammatory pericarditis predominates, whereas in low- and middle-income countries, especially Brazil, Sub-Saharan Africa, and India, tuberculosis accounts for approximately 70% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In clinical practice, information is often fragmented, and inadequate management or inappropriate disposal of pericardial fluid frequently compromises etiological investigation. Within this context, this article proposes a new systematic tool: the &quot;pericardiogram.&quot; Modeled after a complete blood count, this standardization aims to organize clinical reasoning and ensure the structured collection of data, maximizing diagnostic accuracy, as subsequently discussed.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Recurrent pericarditis</title>
				<p>Recurrent pericarditis is characterized by the return of symptoms after clinical resolution of the initial event, usually weeks to months after the acute episode. Its pathophysiology involves a persistent or reactivated inflammatory response, frequently with an underlying autoimmune component.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pericardial effusion</title>
				<p>Pericardial effusion is diagnosed when the volume of pericardial fluid exceeds 50 mL. This usually results from dysregulation of drainage mechanisms, either due to interruption or excessive exudate production in an inflammatory or non-inflammatory context.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Regarding size, the effusion is classified, according to echocardiography, as trivial, when it is less than 1 cm and is not visible throughout the cardiac cycle; small, when it measures less than 1 cm; moderate, when it measures between 1 and 2 cm; large, when it is between 2 and 2.5 cm; and very large when it exceeds 2.5 cm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Furthermore, pericardial effusions can be categorized according to their anatomical distribution, duration, and biochemical composition, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Table 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Classification of pericardial effusions</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="33%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
								<th align="left" valign="middle">Criteria</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Classification</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Examples/observations</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="middle">Distribution</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Localized</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Restricted to a region of the pericardium</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Circumferential</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Involves the entire pericardial space</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" rowspan="3" valign="middle">Time of occurrence</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Acute</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 1 week</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Subacute</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1 week to 3 months</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Chronic</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt; 3 months</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="middle">Composition</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Transudate</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Low in proteins (e.g., heart failure, uremia)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Exudate</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">High in proteins (e.g., infection, neoplasm, autoimmune)</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardiac tamponade</title>
				<p>Cardiac tamponade is characterized by a large increase and equalization of intracardiac pressures at the end of diastole, due to the rapid and excessive accumulation of blood or other fluids in the pericardium. A diastolic restriction then develops, preventing proper filling of the cardiac chambers, resulting in decreased cardiac output. This condition constitutes a cardiac emergency requiring immediate intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Constrictive pericarditis</title>
				<p>Constrictive pericarditis represents the progression of a pericardial syndrome, with tuberculosis being one of its most frequently associated causes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> It is characterized by thickening, fibrosis, adhesions, and calcification of the pericardium, resulting in loss of its elasticity and consequent restriction of diastolic filling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Diagnostic approach</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Non-invasive approach</title>
					<p>The initial approach to diagnosing pericardial diseases should include a detailed medical history, physical examination, and targeted complementary tests according to clinical suspicion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Based on current criteria for the diagnosis and management of pericarditis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> diagnosis requires chest pain associated with at least one of the following findings: pericardial friction rub, typical electrocardiographic changes (diffuse ST-segment elevation and/or PR interval depression), elevated inflammatory markers, pericardial effusion on imaging, or signs of pericardial inflammation detected on imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Biomarkers play an essential role in the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases. In acute pericarditis, C-reactive protein stands out as a marker of inflammation that is useful for both diagnostic confirmation and therapeutic monitoring, although normal values do not exclude the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Troponin levels assess myocardial involvement, whereas B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), N-terminal B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), and soluble tumorigenicity suppressor 2 (sST2) assist in the stratification of myopericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-17A can aid in etiological investigation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Andreis et al. (2024) described a complementary innovative tool for the diagnosis of pericarditis: the INFLA-score. This index includes parameters such as total leukocyte count, platelet count, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, and C-reactive protein levels, generating a score ranging from −16 to +16. Values above zero suggest low-grade inflammation, with high sensitivity (86%) and specificity (64%) for the inflammatory phenotype, contributing to confirmation of pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Moreover, genetic factors can influence severity and recurrence. Genes such as MEFV, NLRP3, and TNFRSF1A are associated with inflammation; SCN5A and KCNQ1 with electrical conduction; and TTN and LMNA with cardiac structure, contributing to individualized stratification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> In idiopathic recurrent pericarditis, autoantibodies reinforce the autoimmune component: antinuclear antibodies are positive in approximately 43% of cases, with high titers associated with recurrence, whereas anti-histone antibody is related to higher rates of relapses and hospitalizations, reinforcing the role of the autoimmune response in the pathophysiology of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Invasive approach</title>
					<p>In cases of cardiac tamponade or when diagnostic clarification is needed, especially regarding suspected infection, pericardial drainage is indicated as a diagnostic and therapeutic procedure<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). The main methods include pericardiocentesis, pericardioscopy, and pericardial window. Pericardiocentesis should be guided by fluoroscopy and/or echocardiography to improve accuracy and prevention of complications. The subxiphoid approach is the most frequently used when fluoroscopy is available.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
					<fig id="f1">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Flowchart illustrating diagnostic management of pericardial effusion, highlighting drainage procedures, laboratory analysis, and complementary tests in cases of cardiac tamponade or recurrent effusion.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250042-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>A pericardial window is indicated in recurrent effusions after pericardiocentesis, with resection of part of the pericardium for drainage into the mediastinum or pleural cavity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Labbé et al. (2015) demonstrated a higher success rate with the window (94.7%) compared to pericardiocentesis (64%), in spite of their similar diagnostic capacity and complication rate. Thus, although it is more invasive, pericardial window offers better recurrence control. Accordingly, the decision should be individualized according to clinical profile and risk-benefit ratio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Laboratory analysis</title>
					<p>Subsequently, laboratory tests of pericardial fluid are essential for complementing etiological investigation, including biochemical, cytological, and immunohistochemical analyses (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Central Illustration</xref>). The pericardial fluid, an ultrafiltrate of plasma produced by mesothelial cells, is serous and cytologically rich in nucleated cells, especially mesothelial cells and lymphocytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Reference values for glucose, cholesterol, complement proteins, albumin, fluid/serum protein ratio, total hemolytic complement, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Table 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Reference values for pericardial fluid</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="50%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Parameter</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Reference value</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Glucose</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">80–134 mg/dL</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Cholesterol</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">12–69 mg/dL</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Complement protein C3</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">35–127 mg/dL</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Complement protein C4</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">6.3–23 mg/dL</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Albumin</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">1.19–3.06 g/dL</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Fluid/serum protein ratio</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt; 0.5</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Total hemolytic complement</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">1.9–9.1 units</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Lactate dehydrogenase</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">141–2613 U/L</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
					<p>Cytopathological methods include cell block, which concentrates the material in a paraffin block after fixation in 10% formalin for approximately 24 hours and preserves cell morphology and nucleic acids, enabling histological sections. This technique allows for specific staining, genetic testing, and immunohistochemistry with higher diagnostic quality, especially in neoplasms,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> and it is more sensitive than smear because it offers better structural visualization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Test requests should be individualized according to the etiological suspicion.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Microbiological analyses</title>
				<p>For suspected bacterial infections in pericardial effusion, cultures of the fluid in aerobic and anaerobic environments are indicated due to their level of evidence. Blood culture aids in the detection of systemic infection and identification of the agent. Gram staining provides rapid results using dyes such as crystal violet and safranin, identifying Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> For suspected viral infections, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for cardiotropic viruses in pericardial fluid is essential to identify viral genetic material.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Additional tests may be necessary, depending on the clinical suspicion.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Metagenomics</title>
				<p>Metagenomics is a valuable analytical tool, using material collected directly from the clinical environment, such as pericardial fluid, blood, or tissues, to simultaneously evaluate a wide variety of microorganisms. Collection must follow strict aseptic and preservation protocols to avoid contamination, allowing assessment of both the taxonomic composition and functional potential of the ecosystem present in the sample.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
				<p>To this end, all DNA is extracted and can be sequenced by amplification, with selection of specific genetic markers, or by shotgun sequencing, which reads all the DNA, offering a comprehensive view of the taxonomic and functional profile.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Subsequently, the data are processed and compared with pre-established databases, allowing precise identification of microorganisms and their functions. In pericardial diagnosis, metagenomics can accelerate and increase etiological accuracy, reducing idiopathic cases and guiding treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
				<sec>
					<title>- Biochemical analyses associated with infection</title>
					<p>Glucose, leukocytes, and LDH should be evaluated. Glucose levels below 60 mg/dL and/or fluid/serum ratio &lt; 0.3 suggest purulent effusion. Furthermore, high white blood cell counts and LDH above 200 U/L are typical of exudate, contributing to diagnosis of bacterial infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Proper collection of pericardial fluid</title>
				<p>Pericardial fluid collection must follow standardized protocols to ensure that samples are suitable for different types of analysis. The material must be obtained aseptically, and the correct choice of container and storage conditions is essential to preserve sample quality and the reliability of results.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>- Microbiological and biochemical analyses</title>
					<p>Collection should be done in a sterile container, without anticoagulants, with an ideal volume of 30 to 50 mL to allow for multiple tests. The material can remain at room temperature for up to two hours; if processing takes longer, it should be refrigerated between 2 and 8 °C.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> At room temperature, stability is short, and refrigeration for up to 2 hours is recommended. For bacterial, fungal, and mycobacterial cultures, the material should not be frozen. Thus, prior contact with the laboratory is essential to define the appropriate container and optimize the diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>- Metagenomics</title>
					<p>Collection should be performed directly into sterile containers and kept refrigerated between 2 and 8 °C to remain stable for 24 hours. If processing takes more than 24 hours, continuous freezing at −20 to −80 °C is recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>- Immunohistochemical analyses</title>
					<p>The material should preferably be collected directly into a dry or EDTA-containing sterile container, or collected with a sterile syringe and transferred to this container. If a secondary container is necessary, a sterile container can be used. In this way, the cells remain intact until processing. It is recommended to prepare one or two direct smears on clean slides to preserve cell morphology for later analysis. The remaining fluid should be stored at a temperature of 2 to 8 °C and rapidly sent to the laboratory.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pericardial wall biopsy</title>
				<p>When analysis of the pericardial fluid is inconclusive and symptoms persist, a biopsy of the pericardial wall is indicated, especially when infection or neoplasia is suspected (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Central Illustration</xref>). The main techniques include fluoroscopy-guided biopsy, pericardioscopy with standard sampling, and pericardioscopy with extended sampling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Fluoroscopy-guided biopsy collects 3 to 6 fragments of the parietal pericardium, but without direct visualization, which reduces its accuracy and increases the risk of false negatives.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
				<p>On the other hand, pericardioscopy is indicated when the etiology remains uncertain, in suspected malignant effusion, purulent pericarditis, tuberculosis, or in situations where pericardiocentesis is not feasible.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> This procedure is minimally invasive and uses endoscopy to visualize the pericardial cavity, thus allowing macroscopic visualization of the pericardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Tuberculous pericarditis</title>
				<p>Tuberculous pericarditis is a rare and potentially serious form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis caused by <italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic>. Although it represents only 1% to 2% of pulmonary tuberculosis cases, it is considered the main cause of pericarditis in countries with a low human development index. The clinical presentation is usually nonspecific, especially in the early stages; symptoms include fever, cough, chest pain, and dyspnea, making early diagnosis difficult.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> An uncommon presentation of tuberculous pericarditis consists of the presence of multiple floating masses in pericardial fluid, possibly formed by caseous material, fibrin, and inflammatory debris, which may resemble tumors, potentially confounding the diagnosis.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Laboratory analysis</title>
				<p>Diagnostic confirmation of tuberculous pericarditis ideally depends on the direct detection of <italic>M. tuberculosis</italic> by techniques such as PCR, culture, or genetic sequencing. However, these approaches may have low sensitivity in the early stages of the disease. Therefore, the use of complementary laboratory methods becomes essential, such as the T-SPOT.TB test, tuberculin test (PPD) with a strongly reactive result, in addition to excluding other etiologies through serologies and negative tumor markers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Given this scenario, the investigation of pericardial fluid should involve different types of analysis in order to increase diagnostic accuracy:</p>
				<sec>
					<title>- Microbiological analyses</title>
					<p><italic>M. tuberculosis</italic> can be directly detected by various methods:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Acid-fast bacilli staining allows identification of the bacillus through retention of the dye in its cell wall.</p>
					<p>Mycobacterial culture in a specific medium is considered the most sensitive method, although it is time-consuming, which may delay the start of treatment.</p>
					<p>RT-PCR for <italic>M. tuberculosis</italic> directly detects bacillus DNA by genetic amplification, providing a rapid result that is useful even when the culture is negative.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>- Histochemical analyses</title>
					<p>Certain biochemical parameters in pericardial fluid are useful as indirect markers of tuberculous infection. These include:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Elevated adenosine deaminase (ADA) enzyme, especially when ADA &gt; 40 U/L;</p>
					<p>Increased presence of pericardial lysozyme.</p>
					<p>These parameters, although not specific, are suggestive of tuberculosis and indicate the need for further investigation.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>- Cytological analyses</title>
					<p>Even in the absence of microbiological confirmation, morphological analysis of the tissue can provide important evidence. It is essential to observe the following:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The presence of caseous granulomas;</p>
					<p>Hyperplastic granulation tissue mixed with caseous material;</p>
					<p>Caseous necrosis in the pericardial tissue.</p>
					<p>These findings constitute strong histopathological evidence of pericardial tuberculosis.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>- Immunological analyses</title>
					<p>The quantification of cytokines such as interferon-gamma also belongs to the immunological evaluation, since this marker reflects the cellular immune response to <italic>M. tuberculosis</italic>. Elevated levels (&gt; 200 pg/ml) can reinforce the diagnostic suspicion, especially in conjunction with other parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pericardial diseases in patients with cancer</title>
				<p>Pericardial diseases are frequently observed in patients with cancer. Recent studies have shown that pericardial involvement is present in 2% to 30% of autopsies of patients with cancer, with approximately 12% presenting pericardial metastasis. Etiologies are diverse and maybe related both to the underlying disease and to radiological, clinical, and chemotherapy treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Direct invasion of the pericardium can cause malignant pericardial effusion, especially in lung, breast, gastrointestinal tract, and hematologic malignancies, as well as cardiac sarcomas, which can produce hemorrhagic or exudative effusion due to necrosis, vascular invasion, or metastasis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Lymphatic or hematogenous dissemination also contributes to malignant effusions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In addition to tumor infiltration, oncological treatments can trigger pericarditis. Radiation therapy leads to the formation of reactive oxygen species and pericardial injury, predisposing to effusion and possible progression to constrictive pericarditis. Immunosuppression increases the risk of infectious pericarditis, and chemotherapeutic agents, such as anthracyclines, cyclophosphamide, cytarabine, and immunotherapies (including checkpoint inhibitors), can cause cardiotoxicity and trigger pericardial effusion or constrictive pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Laboratory analyses</title>
				<sec>
					<title>- Cytological analysis</title>
					<p>Initially, optical microscopic examination of cells present in the fluid may reveal the presence of neoplastic cells. The collected material is centrifuged, and the sediment is placed on a slide, which is then stained, allowing observation of cell morphology. Tumor cells are distinguished by characteristics such as enlarged nucleus, nuclear irregularity, and hyperchromasia. However, these cells can be confused with reactive mesothelial cells, requiring further investigation with other complementary methods.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>- Immunological analysis</title>
					<p>Measurement of tumor markers, such as carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), carbohydrate antigen 72-4 (CA.72-4), GATA-binding protein 3, CYFRA 21.1 (a tumor marker that measures a soluble fragment of cytokeratin 19), carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA-19.9), neuron-specific enolase (NSE), carbohydrate antigen 125 (CA-125), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) can provide clues to malignancy. High concentrations of these tumor markers in pericardial fluid confirm the possibility of neoplasia and help identify its origin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>- Immunohistochemical analysis</title>
					<p>For more precise diagnosis, immunohistochemical staining is used to differentiate tumor cells from reactive cells, using antibodies directed against antigens such as CEA, epithelial membrane antigen, and vimentin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> The cell block technique with immunostaining for vimentin and for the monoclonal antibody to detect epithelial cell adhesion molecules (BerEP4) exemplifies this process: BerEP4 recognizes epitopes of epithelial cell adhesion molecules (EpCAM), characteristic of epithelial cells and epithelial tumors, while vimentin marks cells of mesenchymal origin. Thus, positive vimentin with negative BerEP4 suggests reactive mesenchymal cells, whereas negative vimentin with positive BerEP4 indicates a higher probability of malignancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> This approach allows for a more precise characterization of the cells present in the pericardial fluid and is essential in the differential diagnosis between neoplasms, inflammatory processes, and reactive processes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pericardial diseases in patients with autoimmune diseases</title>
				<p>In suspected autoimmune pericarditis, whose estimated prevalence ranges from 2% to 7% of acute pericarditis and about 10% of recurrent pericarditis, complementary laboratory tests are necessary for diagnostic clarification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, Sjögren's syndrome, systemic sclerosis, and systemic vasculitis are the autoimmune diseases most associated with pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Laboratory analysis is broad and diverse. In autoimmune pericarditis, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein are frequently elevated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Antinuclear factor, rheumatoid factor, and specific testing for various autoantibodies, when positive, suggest diagnoses. Among the various autoantibodies, positive anti-DNA and anti-Sm antibodies, together with reduced complement levels, are characteristic of systemic lupus erythematosus. Positive rheumatoid factor, in turn, indicates rheumatoid arthritis, but it can also be positive in Sjögren's syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Positive anti-CCP antibody suggests rheumatoid arthritis. Anti-Ro and anti-La antibodies may indicate systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren's syndrome, or both.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) are present in ANCA-associated systemic vasculitis. Anticentromere, antitopoisomerase I, anti-U1 RNP, and anti-RNA polymerase III antibodies may be present in systemic sclerosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In clinical practice, pericardial fluid examination in autoimmune pericarditis is not routine, as similar autoantibody titers are expected in blood and pericardial fluid, and it is reserved for specific situations. It should be indicated mainly when there are suspected complications, diagnostic uncertainty, or a need to rule out other etiologies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> In any case, if autoimmune pericarditis and concomitant fever are suspected, a complete and detailed analysis of the pericardial fluid may be crucial for diagnostic clarification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>characteristics of the pericardial fluid, whether or not they are associated with a suggestive clinical picture, can significantly assist in establishing diagnosis. For example, in systemic lupus erythematosus, the pericardial fluid usually presents as an inflammatory exudate, with lymphocytic predominance, and antinuclear factor and anti-DNA may be positive; in contrast, in rheumatoid arthritis, the pericardial fluid may present positive rheumatoid factor and/or anti-CCP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pericardiogram</title>
				<p>Finally, the authors propose the pericardiogram (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>) as a tool that can contribute to the diagnosis and organization of pericardial syndromes. Analogous to a complete blood count, it is a structured form that should be filled out with personal data (such as name, age, address, and healthcare facility), as well as clinical information, including past medical history and medication use. Additionally, specific data regarding the pericardial syndrome should be collected, encompassing etiology and cytological, microbiological, immunohistochemical, and biochemical laboratory information. In this manner, the pericardiogram will allow for the standardization of the steps in diagnosing pericardial syndrome, guiding healthcare professionals on the procedures necessary to achieve greater diagnostic accuracy.</p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figure 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Pericardiogram.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250042-gf02.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>Advanced cardiovascular imaging methods have significantly expanded the ability to non-invasively characterize morphological alterations in pericardial syndromes. Currently, these exams complement echocardiographic assessment, enabling detection of pericardial fibrosis, inflammation, fibrin deposition, changes in pericardial fluid density, and thickening of the pericardial sac. This integrated approach constitutes a multimodal evaluation, which aims not only to clarify the etiology of the disease, but also to assess its functional impact and prognosis in acute or chronic presentations.</p>
			<p>The constant evolution of imaging technologies and laboratory techniques highlights the need to update diagnostic and treatment protocols for pericarditis and associated conditions, with careful attention to standardizing diagnostic steps. This organization is fundamental to optimize the use of available tools and ensure that patients promptly receive appropriate care.</p>
			<p>Despite these advances, barriers persist, including resource scarcity, the absence of standardized protocols, and limited access to invasive methods. Another relevant limitation is the possibility of loss of the material collected for analysis or biopsy. If the collection, transport, and analysis do not follow predefined safety standards, there is a risk of compromising the sample, resulting in delayed diagnosis and reduced quality of care provided to patients.</p>
			<p>Given these limitations, some specialized pericardial disease centers have been created to optimize diagnosis and management, representing a structured and multidisciplinary approach. These centers generally implement an organized workflow that includes initial screening with review of clinical records, laboratory and imaging tests, followed by appropriate referral by a healthcare professional. Patient follow-up is based on individualized treatment plans, as well as patient education on risk factors, warning symptoms, and therapeutic options. The approach is interdisciplinary, involving rheumatology, cardiothoracic surgery, clinical cardiology, specialized radiology, and pharmacy services. Continuous follow-up includes periodic in-person or telemedicine consultations, with repeated examinations as needed, ensuring accurate diagnosis and individualized management, aligned with the principles of precision medicine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
			<p>An interdisciplinary approach combined with advanced imaging methods and standardized laboratory testing is essential to accelerate diagnosis and optimize prognosis in pericardial syndromes. In parallel, it is crucial to strengthen scientific production and specialized literature in order to develop clinical protocols that regulate and systematize the use of these tools, promoting more efficient, evidence-based care.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<label>Sources of Funding</label>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<label>Study Association</label>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<ref-list>
			<title>References</title>
			<ref id="B1">
				<label>1</label>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Guyton</surname>
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					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff5">
					<label>2</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense Hospital Universitário Antonio Pedro, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff6">
					<label>3</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Estácio de Sá, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label>Correspondência:</label><bold>Isabela Lira Vieira</bold> • Universidade Federal Fluminense - R. Des. Athayde Parreiras, 100. CEP <postal-code>24220-900</postal-code>, Fátima, Niterói, RJ - Brasil E-mail: <email>isaliravieira@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Germano Souza</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>As síndromes pericárdicas constituem um grupo heterogêneo de doenças que acometem o pericárdio, com diferentes formas de apresentação clínica e múltiplas etiologias (infecciosas, autoimunes, traumáticas, após procedimentos cirúrgicos, metabólicas, entre outras). Essa diversidade exige abordagens diagnósticas cada vez mais refinadas, alinhadas aos princípios da medicina de precisão. Nesse cenário, observa-se uma transformação significativa na compreensão dessas condições e de sua complexidade, impulsionada pelo desenvolvimento de ferramentas diagnósticas e terapêuticas avançadas.</p>
				<p>No contexto da medicina de precisão, busca-se aprimorar a identificação do mecanismo causal, permitindo um tratamento individualizado. Métodos como citopatologia, imuno-histoquímica, análise de biomarcadores séricos e pericárdicos, incluindo novos marcadores tumorais, além da detecção de microrganismos por metagenômica, têm impulsionado avanços significativos na pericardiologia.</p>
				<p>Paralelamente, avanços em biologia molecular e metodologias emergentes possibilitam a identificação detalhada de patógenos e a caracterização dos diversos fenótipos das doenças pericárdicas, promovendo diagnósticos cada vez mais precisos e individualizados. Além disso, marcadores genéticos têm desempenhado um papel relevante na elucidação das causas de pericardite recorrente, ao identificar genes associados a doenças autoinflamatórias e predisposições hereditárias.</p>
				<p>O objetivo da presente revisão é apresentar o estado da arte no diagnóstico das pericardiopatias com foco nas técnicas que avaliam diretamente o líquido pericárdico e, portanto, auxiliam efetivamente na investigação etiológica das diversas síndromes pericárdicas. Propõe-se, também, uma nova ferramenta, o &quot;pericardiograma&quot;, para organizar o raciocínio clínico e garantir o melhor aproveitamento dos exames complementares no auxílio à investigação das síndromes pericárdicas.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Pericardite</kwd>
				<kwd>Tamponamento Cardíaco</kwd>
				<kwd>Derrame Pericárdico</kwd>
				<kwd>Medicina de Precisão</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f6">
						<label>Figura Central:</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Abordagem Laboratorial e o Pericardiograma nas Pericardiopatias na Era da Medicina de Precisão</title>
							<p>Etapas para diagnóstico e manejo das síndromes pericárdicas, desde a avaliação clínica até a definição etiológica e análise do líquido pericárdico, conforme as recomendações da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia 2025 (etapas 1 a 3). A etapa 4 propõe uma nova ferramenta para a padronização institucional dos dados clínicos e laboratoriais de pacientes com diagnóstico de síndromes pericárdicas. ADA: adenosina deaminase; ANA: anticorpo antinuclear; BAAR: bacilo álcool-ácido resistente; ECG: eletrocardiograma; LDH: lactato desidrogenase; PET-CT: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons e tomografia computadorizada; RT-PCR: reação em cadeia da polimerase; VHS: velocidade de hemossedimentação.</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250042-gf03-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Anatomia, citologia e fisiologia do pericárdio normal</title>
					<p>O pericárdio é formado por duas lâminas, a parietal e a visceral. A parietal envolve externamente o coração e é composta por uma camada de tecido fibroso, mais superficial, e outra camada serosa, constituída por células mesoteliais, a qual se reflete para formar a lâmina visceral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Esta camada está intimamente relacionada ao coração, envolvendo todo seu corpo e os principais vasos que o circundam.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Juntas, estas camadas proporcionam resistência à expansão das cavidades cardíacas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em relação à sua inervação, os principais nervos envolvidos são o nervo frênico (sensibilidade) e o vago (parassimpático), além da inervação simpática, que se deve, majoritariamente, aos nervos cardíacos. Sua vascularização arterial se concentra nos vasos da artéria torácica interna e da aorta descendente torácica, enquanto a venosa ocorre pelas veias pericardiofrênicas e braquiocefálicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O líquido pericárdico está localizado na cavidade pericárdica e seu volume normal varia entre 25 e 50 mL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Sua principal função, juntamente à porção fibrosa de sua parede, se baseia na diminuição do impacto durante as contrações cardíacas e redução do atrito, além de servir de barreira física contra tumores ou infecções.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Síndromes pericárdicas e suas principais etiologias</title>
					<p>As doenças pericárdicas apresentam etiologias diversas, que podem ser divididas em infecciosas ou não infecciosas, como autoimunes, síndromes miopericárdicas e síndromes pós-lesão cardíaca, traumáticas, congênitas, metabólicas, neoplásicas e idiopáticas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A doença pericárdica mais comum é a pericardite, processo inflamatório que pode ser agudo ou evoluir para as formas incessante, crônica ou recorrente, com ou sem derrame.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> O derrame, por sua vez, é caracterizado segundo as propriedades do líquido acumulado (transudato, exsudato, hemorrágico, entre outros) e pela evolução clínica, podendo progredir para síndrome constritiva pela fibrose e calcificação pericárdica, com restrição ao enchimento diastólico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<table-wrap id="t4">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Principais etiologias da pericardite, suas causas e achados clínicos típicos</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="33%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Etiologia</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Causas/exemplos</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Achados clínicos</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Viral</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">CMV, ADV, B19, HIV</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Dor torácica pleurítica, atrito pericárdico, alterações difusas no ECG, febre baixa</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Tuberculose</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Febre prolongada, sudorese noturna, derrame pericárdico</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Bacteriana</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold><italic>Pneumococo, Staph. aureus</italic></bold></td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Febre alta, calafrios, toxemia, derrame purulento</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Fúngica</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold><italic>Histoplasma, Aspergillus</italic></bold></td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Febre, sintomas respiratórios, derrame refratário a antibióticos</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Autoimune</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Lúpus eritematoso sistêmico, artrite reumatoide, doença de Behçet</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Dor torácica, atrito pericárdico, derrame, manifestações sistêmicas da doença de base</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Neoplásica</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Metástases pulmão/mama/linfoma</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Derrame hemorrágico ou maligno, sinais do tumor primário</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Trauma/pós-cirúrgico</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Pós-cirurgia ou trauma</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Dor torácica, derrame, possível tamponamento</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Medicamentos</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Procainamida, hidralazina, quimioterapia</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Sintomas após uso da medicação, resolução com suspensão do fármaco</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Pós-injúria cardíaca</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Pós-infarto, revascularização</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Dor torácica, febre, atrito pericárdico, derrame leve</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p>Os achados clínicos são sugestivos e podem variar conforme a gravidade da doença e comorbidades do paciente. A identificação da etiologia deve ser confirmada por exames laboratoriais, de imagem e, quando necessário, análise do líquido pericárdico ou biópsia. Fonte: Diretriz da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia 2025 para o manejo de miocardite e pericardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Adaptado pelos autores. ADV: adenovírus; B19: parvovírus B19; CMV: citomegalovírus; ECG: eletrocardiograma; HIV: vírus da imunodeficiência humana.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
					<p>Epidemiologicamente, a prevalência das diferentes etiologias varia conforme a localização geográfica, faixa etária e histórico clínico e familiar. Em países desenvolvidos, predomina a pericardite aguda inflamatória idiopática, enquanto em países em desenvolvimento, especialmente no Brasil, na África Subsaariana e na Índia, a tuberculose representa cerca de 70% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na prática clínica, observa-se uma frequente fragmentação das informações e, muitas vezes, o manejo inadequado ou descarte inapropriado do líquido pericárdico, o que compromete a investigação etiológica. Diante desse cenário, o presente artigo propõe uma nova ferramenta sistemática: o &quot;pericardiograma&quot;. Concebida de forma análoga a um hemograma, essa padronização visa organizar o raciocínio clínico e garantir a coleta estruturada de dados, maximizando a acurácia diagnóstica, conforme será detalhado adiante.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Pericardite recorrente</title>
					<p>A pericardite recorrente caracteriza-se pelo retorno dos sintomas após resolução clínica do episódio inicial, geralmente semanas a meses após o quadro agudo. Sua fisiopatologia envolve resposta inflamatória persistente ou reativada, frequentemente com componente autoimune subjacente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Derrame pericárdico</title>
					<p>Define-se derrame pericárdico quando o volume do líquido pericárdico ultrapassa o valor de 50 mL. Normalmente, isso ocorre pela desregulação dos mecanismos de drenagem, seja pela sua interrupção, seja pela produção excessiva de exsudato em contexto inflamatório ou não inflamatório.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Quanto ao tamanho, o derrame é classificado, de acordo com a ecocardiografia, como trivial, quando apresenta menos de 1 cm e não é visível durante todo o ciclo cardíaco; pequeno, quando mede menos de 1 centímetro; moderado, quando varia entre 1 e 2 cm; grande, quando está entre 2 e 2,5 centímetros; e muito grande, quando excede 2,5 centímetros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Além disso, os derrames pericárdicos podem ser categorizados segundo sua distribuição anatômica, duração e composição bioquímica, conforme apresentado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 2</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					<table-wrap id="t5">
						<label>Tabela 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Classificação dos derrames pericárdicos</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="33%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Critério</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Classificação</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Exemplo/observação</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="middle">Distribuição</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Localizado</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Restrito a uma região do pericárdio</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Circunferencial</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Envolve todo o espaço pericárdico</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" rowspan="3" valign="middle">Tempo de ocorrência</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Agudo</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 1 semana</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Subagudo</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">1 semana a 3 meses</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Crônico</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt; 3 meses</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="middle">Composição</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Transudato</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Pobre em proteínas (ex.: insuficiência cardíaca, uremia)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Exsudato</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Rico em proteínas (ex.: infecção, neoplasia, autoimune)</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tamponamento cardíaco</title>
					<p>O tamponamento cardíaco, por sua vez, compreende um grande aumento e equalização das pressões intracardíacas no final da diástole, devido ao acúmulo rápido e excessivo de líquido, sangue ou outros fluidos no pericárdio. Instala-se, então, uma restrição diastólica que impede o enchimento correto das cavidades cardíacas, com consequente diminuição do débito cardíaco. Este quadro configura-se como uma emergência cardíaca, a qual necessita de intervenção imediata.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Pericardite constritiva</title>
					<p>A pericardite constritiva representa a evolução de uma síndrome pericárdica, sendo a tuberculose uma de suas causas mais frequentemente associadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Caracteriza-se por espessamento, fibrose, aderências e calcificação do pericárdio, resultando em perda de sua elasticidade e consequente restrição ao enchimento diastólico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Abordagem diagnóstica</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Abordagem não invasiva</title>
						<p>A abordagem inicial do diagnóstico das doenças pericárdicas deve incluir anamnese detalhada, exame físico e exames complementares direcionados de acordo com suspeita clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Com base nos atuais critérios para o diagnóstico e manejo da pericardite,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> o diagnóstico exige dor torácica associada a pelo menos um dos seguintes achados: atrito pericárdico; alterações eletrocardiográficas típicas (elevação difusa do segmento ST e/ou depressão do intervalo PR); elevação de marcadores inflamatórios; derrame pericárdico em imagem; ou sinais de inflamação pericárdica detectados por imagem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Os biomarcadores têm papel essencial no diagnóstico e manejo das doenças pericárdicas. Na pericardite aguda, a proteína C-reativa destaca-se como marcador de inflamação, útil tanto para confirmação diagnóstica quanto para monitoramento terapêutico, embora valores normais não excluam a doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A troponina avalia envolvimento miocárdico, enquanto o peptídeo natriurético tipo B (BNP), peptídeo natriurético tipo B N-terminal (NT-proBNP) e supressor solúvel de tumorigenicidade 2 (sST2) auxiliam na estratificação da miopericardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Citocinas inflamatórias como TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 e IL-17A podem auxiliar na investigação etiológica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Adicionalmente, Andreis et al. (2024) descrevem uma ferramenta complementar e inovadora para o diagnóstico da pericardite: o INFLA-score. Esse índice inclui parâmetros como contagem total de leucócitos, contagem de plaquetas, relação neutrófilo-linfócito e níveis de proteína C-reativa, gerando uma pontuação que varia de −16 a +16. Valores acima de zero sugerem inflamação de baixo grau e apresentam alta sensibilidade (86%) e especificidade (64%) para o fenótipo inflamatório, contribuindo para a confirmação da pericardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Além disso, fatores genéticos podem influenciar gravidade e recorrência. Genes como MEFV, NLRP3 e TNFRSF1A associam-se à inflamação; SCN5A e KCNQ1 à condução elétrica; e TTN e LMNA à estrutura cardíaca, contribuindo para estratificação individualizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Em pericardite recorrente idiopática, autoanticorpos reforçam componente autoimune: anticorpos antinucleares são positivos em aproximadamente 43% dos casos, com títulos elevados associados à recorrência, enquanto anticorpo anti-histona também se relaciona a maiores taxas de recidivas e hospitalizações, reforçando o papel da resposta autoimune na fisiopatologia da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Abordagem invasiva</title>
						<p>Nos casos de tamponamento cardíaco ou necessidade de esclarecimento diagnóstico, especialmente sob suspeita infecciosa, a drenagem pericárdica é indicada como procedimento diagnóstico e terapêutico<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref>). Os principais métodos incluem pericardiocentese, pericardioscopia e janela pericárdica. A pericardiocentese deve ser guiada por fluoroscopia e/ou ecocardiografia para maior acurácia e prevenção de complicações, sendo a via subxifoide a mais usada quando há fluoroscopia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
						<fig id="f4">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Fluxograma ilustrativo do manejo diagnóstico do derrame pericárdico, com destaque para as etapas de drenagem, análise laboratorial e procedimentos complementares em casos de tamponamento cardíaco ou recorrência do derrame.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250042-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
						<p>A janela pericárdica é indicada em derrames recorrentes após pericardiocentese, com ressecção de parte do pericárdio para drenagem ao mediastino ou à cavidade torácica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Labbé et al. (2015) demonstraram maior taxa de sucesso com a janela (94,7%) em comparação à pericardiocentese (64%), embora apresentem semelhante capacidade diagnóstica e taxa de complicações. Assim, apesar de mais invasiva, a janela oferece melhor controle de recorrência. Dessa forma, a escolha deve ser individualizada conforme perfil clínico e risco-benefício.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Análise laboratorial</title>
					<p>Em seguida, complementando a investigação, exames laboratoriais do líquido pericárdico são essenciais para a elucidação etiológica e incluem análises bioquímicas, citológicas e imuno-histoquímicas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura Central</xref>). O líquido pericárdico, ultrafiltrado plasmático produzido por células mesoteliais, é seroso e citologicamente rico em células nucleadas, sobretudo mesoteliais e linfócitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Os valores de referência para glicose, colesterol, proteínas do complemento, albumina, razão proteína no líquido/sérica, complemento hemolítico total e lactato desidrogenase (LDH) estão descritos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<table-wrap id="t6">
						<label>Tabela 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Valores de referência do líquido pericárdico</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="50%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetro</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Valor de referência</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Glicose</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">80–134 mg/dL</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Colesterol</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">12–69 mg/dL</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Proteínas do complemento C3</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">35–127 mg/dL</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Proteínas do complemento C4</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">6,3–23 mg/dL</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Albumina</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">1,19–3,06 g/dL</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Razão proteína líquido/sérica</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;0,5</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Complemento hemolítico total</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">1,9–9,1 unidades</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Lactato desidrogenase</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">141–2613 U/L</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
					<p>Dentre os métodos citopatológicos, destaca-se o <italic>cell block</italic>, que concentra o material em bloco de parafina após fixação em formalina a 10% por cerca de 24 horas e preserva a morfologia celular e ácidos nucleicos, permitindo cortes histológicos. Essa técnica possibilita colorações específicas, testes genéticos e imuno-histoquímica com maior qualidade diagnóstica, especialmente em neoplasias,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> sendo mais sensível que o esfregaço por oferecer melhor visualização estrutural.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> A solicitação dos exames deve ser individualizada conforme a suspeita etiológica.</p>
					<sec>
						<title>- Análises microbiológicas</title>
						<p>Para suspeita de infecções bacterianas em efusão pericárdica, indicam-se culturas do líquido em ambiente aeróbico e anaeróbico, devido ao seu nível de evidência. A hemocultura auxilia na detecção de infecção sistêmica e identificação do agente. A coloração de Gram fornece resultado rápido ao utilizar corantes como cristal violeta e safranina, identificando bactérias Gram-positivas e Gram-negativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Para suspeita viral, a reação em cadeia de polimerase (RT-PCR) para vírus cardiotrópicos, no líquido pericárdico, é essencial para identificar o material genético viral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Testes adicionais podem ser necessários conforme a suspeita clínica.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>- Metagenômica</title>
						<p>A metagenômica constitui uma ferramenta valiosa de análise, utilizando material coletado diretamente do ambiente clínico, como fluido pericárdico, sangue ou tecidos, para avaliar simultaneamente uma ampla variedade de microrganismos. A coleta deve seguir protocolos rigorosos de assepsia e conservação para evitar contaminações, permitindo compreender tanto a composição taxonômica quanto o potencial funcional do ecossistema presente na amostra.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Para isso, todo o DNA é extraído e pode ser sequenciado por amplificação, com seleção de marcadores genéticos específicos, ou por <italic>shotgun</italic>, que lê todo o DNA, oferecendo visão abrangente do perfil taxonômico e funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Posteriormente, os dados são processados e comparados com bases pré-estabelecidas, permitindo identificação precisa de microrganismos e suas funções. No diagnóstico pericárdico, a metagenômica pode acelerar e aumentar a precisão etiológica, reduzindo casos idiopáticos e orientando o tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>- Análises bioquímicas associadas à infecção</title>
						<p>Devem ser avaliados glicose, leucócitos e LDH. Níveis de glicose abaixo de 60 mg/dL e/ou relação fluido/soro &lt; 0,3 sugerem efusão purulenta. Além disso, alta contagem de leucócitos e LDH acima de 200 U/L são típicos de exsudato, contribuindo para o diagnóstico de infecção bacteriana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Coleta correta do líquido pericárdico</title>
					<p>A coleta do líquido pericárdico deve seguir protocolos padronizados para garantir que as amostras sejam adequadas para os diferentes tipos de análise. O material deve ser obtido de forma asséptica, e a escolha correta do frasco e das condições de armazenamento é essencial para preservar a qualidade da amostra e a confiabilidade dos resultados.</p>
					<sec>
						<title>- Para análises microbiológicas e bioquímicas</title>
						<p>A coleta deve ser feita em frasco estéril, sem anticoagulantes, com volume ideal de 30 a 50 mL para permitir múltiplos testes. O material pode permanecer à temperatura ambiente por até duas horas; se o processamento demorar mais, deve ser refrigerado entre 2 e 8 °C.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Em temperatura ambiente, a estabilidade é curta, recomendando-se refrigeração por até 2 horas. Para culturas bacterianas, fúngicas e micobacterianas, o material não deve ser congelado. Assim, é essencial contato prévio com o laboratório para definir o frasco adequado e otimizar o diagnóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>- Metagenômica</title>
						<p>A coleta deve ser realizada diretamente em frascos estéreis e mantida sob refrigeração entre 2 a 8 °C para que se mantenha estável por 24 horas. Caso o processamento leve mais do que 24 horas, recomenda-se o congelamento contínuo a −20 a −80 °C.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>- Para análises imuno-histoquímicas</title>
						<p>Este material deve ser, preferencialmente, coletado diretamente em um frasco estéril seco ou com EDTA ou coletado por uma seringa estéril e transferido para este recipiente. Caso necessário um recipiente secundário, pode-se usar um frasco estéril. Desta forma, as células se mantêm íntegras até o processamento. Recomenda-se a preparação de um ou dois esfregaços diretos, em lâminas limpas, para preservar a morfologia celular para posterior análise. O restante do líquido deve ser armazenado em temperatura de 2 a 8 °C e enviado rapidamente ao laboratório.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Biópsia da parede pericárdica</title>
					<p>Quando a análise do líquido pericárdico não é conclusiva e os sintomas persistem, indica-se biópsia da parede pericárdica, sobretudo diante de suspeita de infecção ou neoplasia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura Central</xref>). As principais técnicas incluem biópsia guiada por fluoroscopia, pericardioscopia com amostragem padrão e pericardioscopia com amostragem ampliada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A biópsia guiada por fluoroscopia coleta 3 a 6 fragmentos do pericárdio parietal, porém sem visualização direta, o que reduz sua acurácia e aumenta o risco de falsos negativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Já a pericardioscopia é indicada quando a etiologia permanece incerta, em suspeita de efusão maligna, pericardite purulenta, tuberculose ou em situações em que a pericardiocentese é inviável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Este procedimento é minimamente invasivo e utiliza a endoscopia para a visualização da cavidade pericárdica, permitindo, portanto, a visualização macroscópica do pericárdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Pericardite tuberculosa</title>
					<p>A pericardite tuberculosa é uma forma rara e potencialmente grave de tuberculose extrapulmonar, causada pelo <italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic>. Embora represente apenas 1% a 2% dos casos de tuberculose pulmonar, é considerada a principal causa de pericardite em países com baixo índice de desenvolvimento humano. A apresentação clínica costuma ser inespecífica, especialmente nos estágios iniciais, incluindo sintomas como febre, tosse, dor torácica e dispneia, o que dificulta o diagnóstico precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Uma apresentação incomum da pericardite tuberculosa consiste na presença de múltiplas massas flutuantes no líquido pericárdico, possivelmente formadas por material caseoso, fibrina e debris inflamatório, que se assemelham a tumores, podendo confundir o diagnóstico.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Análises laboratoriais</title>
					<p>A confirmação diagnóstica da pericardite tuberculosa depende, idealmente, da detecção direta do <italic>M. tuberculosis</italic> por técnicas como PCR, cultura ou sequenciamento genético. No entanto, essas abordagens podem apresentar baixa sensibilidade nos estágios iniciais da doença. Por isso, torna-se essencial o uso de métodos laboratoriais complementares, como o teste T-SPOT.TB, a prova tuberculínica (PPD) com resultado fortemente reator, além da exclusão de outras etiologias por meio de sorologias e marcadores tumorais negativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Diante desse cenário, a investigação do líquido pericárdico deve envolver diferentes tipos de análise, a fim de aumentar a acurácia diagnóstica:</p>
					<sec>
						<title>- Análises microbiológicas</title>
						<p>A detecção direta do <italic>M. tuberculosis</italic> pode ser realizada por diversos métodos:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A coloração por bacilos álcool-ácido resistentes permite a identificação do bacilo pela aderência do corante à sua parede celular.</p>
						<p>A cultura de micobactérias em meio específico é considerada o método mais sensível, embora seja demorado, o que pode atrasar o início do tratamento.</p>
						<p>A RT-PCR para <italic>M. tuberculosis</italic> detecta diretamente o DNA do bacilo por amplificação genética, fornecendo um resultado rápido e sendo útil mesmo quando a cultura é negativa.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>- Análises histoquímicas</title>
						<p>Certos parâmetros bioquímicos no líquido pericárdico são úteis como marcadores indiretos da infecção tuberculosa. Destacam-se:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A elevação da enzima adenosina desaminase (ADA), principalmente quando ADA &gt; 40 U/L;</p>
						<p>A presença aumentada de lisozima pericárdica;</p>
						<p>Esses parâmetros, embora não específicos, são sugestivos de tuberculose e indicam a necessidade de investigação mais aprofundada.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>- Análises citológicas</title>
						<p>Mesmo na ausência de confirmação microbiológica, a análise morfológica do tecido pode fornecer evidências importantes. É fundamental observar:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A presença de granulomas caseosos;</p>
						<p>Tecido de granulação hiperplásico misturado com material caseoso;</p>
						<p>E necrose caseosa no tecido pericárdico.</p>
						<p>Esses achados constituem fortes indícios histopatológicos de tuberculose pericárdica.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>- Análises imunológicas</title>
						<p>A quantificação de citocinas como o interferon-gama também se insere no campo imunológico, uma vez que esse marcador reflete a resposta imune celular ao <italic>M. tuberculosis</italic>. Sua elevação (&gt; 200 pg/ml) pode reforçar a suspeita diagnóstica, especialmente em conjunto com outros parâmetros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Doenças pericárdicas em pacientes com câncer</title>
					<p>As doenças pericárdicas são frequentemente associadas a pacientes com câncer. Estudos recentes mostram que o acometimento pericárdico está presente entre 2% a 30% das autópsias de pacientes com câncer, sendo que aproximadamente 12% deles apresentaram metástase pericárdica. Suas causas etiológicas variam e estão relacionadas tanto ao prognóstico de doenças, quanto ao tratamento radiológico, clínico e quimioterápico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A invasão direta do pericárdio pode gerar derrame maligno, especialmente em neoplasias de pulmão, mama, trato gastrointestinal e tumores hematológicos, além de sarcomas cardíacos, que podem produzir derrame hemorrágico ou exsudativo por necrose, invasão vascular ou metástase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> A disseminação linfática ou hematogênica também contribui para efusões malignas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Além da infiltração tumoral, os tratamentos oncológicos podem desencadear a pericardite. A radioterapia leva à formação de espécies reativas de oxigênio e lesão pericárdica, predispondo a derrame e possível evolução para pericardite constritiva. A imunossupressão aumenta o risco de pericardites infecciosas, enquanto agentes quimioterápicos como antraciclinas, ciclofosfamida, citarabina e imunoterápicos (incluindo inibidores de checkpoint) podem causar toxicidade cardíaca e desencadear derrames ou constrição pericárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Análises laboratoriais</title>
					<sec>
						<title>- Análises citológicas</title>
						<p>Inicialmente, a visualização por microscopia óptica das células presentes no líquido pode revelar a presença de células neoplásicas. O material coletado é centrifugado, e o sedimento é disposto em uma lâmina, que é então corada, permitindo a observação da morfologia celular. As células tumorais se distinguem por características como núcleo aumentado, irregularidade nuclear e hipercromasia. Contudo, essas células podem ser confundidas com células mesoteliais reativas, o que exige a continuidade da investigação por outros métodos complementares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>- Análises imunológicas</title>
						<p>A dosagem de proteínas associadas a marcadores tumorais, como antígeno carcinoembrionário (CEA), alfa-fetoproteína (AFP), antígeno de carboidrato 72-4 (CA.72-4), proteína de ligação GATA-3, CYFRA 21.1 (marcador tumoral que mede um fragmento solúvel da citoqueratina 19), antígeno de carboidrato 19-9 (CA-19.9), enolase específica do neurônio (NSE), antígeno de carboidrato 125 (CA-125) e fator de crescimento endotelial vascular (VEGF) pode fornecer indícios de malignidade. Esses marcadores tumorais, quando encontrados em concentrações elevadas no líquido pericárdico, confirmam a possibilidade de neoplasia e auxiliam na identificação de sua origem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>- Análises imuno-histoquímicas</title>
						<p>Para um diagnóstico mais preciso, a coloração imuno-histoquímica é empregada para diferenciar células tumorais de células reativas, utilizando anticorpos direcionados a antígenos como CEA, antígeno de membrana epitelial e vimentina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> A técnica de <italic>cell block</italic> com imunocoloração para vimentina e para o anticorpo monoclonal para detectar moléculas de adesão de células epiteliais (BerEP4) exemplifica esse processo: o BerEP4 reconhece epítopos de moléculas de adesão de células epiteliais (EpCAM), característicos de células epiteliais e tumores epiteliais, enquanto a vimentina marca células de origem mesenquimal. Assim, a vimentina positiva com BerEP4 negativo sugere células mesenquimais reativas, ao passo que vimentina negativa com BerEP4 positivo aponta maior probabilidade de malignidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Essa abordagem permite uma caracterização mais precisa das células presentes no líquido pericárdico e é essencial no diagnóstico diferencial entre neoplasias, processos inflamatórios e reativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Doenças pericárdicas em pacientes com doenças autoimunes</title>
					<p>Na suspeita de pericardite autoimune, cuja prevalência estimada varia de 2% a 7% das pericardites agudas e cerca de 10% das pericardites recorrentes, exames laboratoriais complementares serão necessários para a elucidação diagnóstica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Podemos destacar o lúpus eritematoso sistêmico, a artrite reumatoide, a síndrome de Sjögren, a esclerose sistêmica e as vasculites sistêmicas como as doenças autoimunes mais associadas às pericardites.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O estudo laboratorial é amplo e diversificado. Nas pericardites autoimunes, frequentemente a velocidade de hemossedimentação e a proteína C-reativa estão aumentadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> O fator antinuclear, o fator reumatoide, bem como o estudo específico de diversos autoanticorpos, quando positivos, irão sugerir diagnósticos. Dentre os diversos autoanticorpos, a presença do anti-DNA e do anti-Sm positivos, bem como níveis reduzidos do complemento, são específicos do lúpus eritematoso sistêmico. O fator reumatoide positivo, por sua vez, indica a artrite reumatoide, porém também pode estar positiva na síndrome de Sjögren.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> O anti-CCP positivo indica a artrite reumatoide. Os anticorpos anti-Ro e anti-La podem indicar lúpus eritematoso sistêmico, síndrome de Sjögren ou ambos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Os anticorpos anticitoplasma de neutrófilo estão presentes nas vasculites sistêmicas associadas ao ANCA. Os anticorpos anticentrômero, antipoisomerase I, anti-RNP U1, e anti-RNA polimerase III podem estar presentes na esclerose sistêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na prática clínica, a realização do exame do líquido pericárdico em pericardites autoimunes não é rotineira, pois espera-se encontrar os mesmos resultados dos títulos de autoanticorpos no sangue e no líquido pericárdico, sendo reservada para situações específicas. Ela deve ser indicada principalmente quando há suspeitas de complicações, diagnóstico incerto ou necessidade de excluir outras etiologias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> De qualquer forma, se há suspeita de pericardite autoimune e febre concomitante, uma análise completa e detalhada do líquido pericárdico pode ser crucial para o esclarecimento diagnóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Algumas características do líquido pericárdico, associadas ou não a um quadro clínico sugestivo, podem auxiliar de forma significativa na definição do diagnóstico. Por exemplo: no lúpus eritematoso sistêmico, o líquido pericárdico geralmente se apresenta como um exsudato inflamatório, com predomínio linfocitário, e o fator antinuclear e o anti-DNA podem ser positivos, enquanto na artrite reumatoide, o líquido pericárdico pode apresentar o fator reumatoide e/ou anti-CCP positivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Pericardiograma</title>
					<p>Por fim, os autores propõem o pericardiograma (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 2</xref>) como ferramenta que pode contribuir para o diagnóstico e organização das síndromes pericárdicas. De forma análoga ao hemograma, trata-se de uma ficha estruturada que deverá ser preenchida com dados pessoais (como nome, idade, endereço e local de atendimento), bem como informações clínicas, incluindo histórico patológico pregresso e uso de medicamentos. Adicionalmente, serão coletados dados específicos da síndrome pericárdica, abrangendo sua etiologia, informações laboratoriais citológicas, microbiológicas, imuno-histoquímicas e bioquímicas. Dessa maneira, essa ferramenta permitirá padronizar as etapas do diagnóstico da síndrome pericárdica, orientando os profissionais de saúde quanto aos procedimentos necessários para alcançar maior acurácia diagnóstica.</p>
					<fig id="f5">
						<label>Figura 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Pericardiograma.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-4-e20250042-gf02-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>Os métodos avançados de cardioimagem têm ampliado significativamente a capacidade de caracterização não invasiva das alterações morfológicas nas síndromes pericárdicas. Atualmente, esses exames complementam a avaliação ecocardiográfica, permitindo a detecção de fibrose pericárdica, inflamação, deposição de fibrina, alterações na densidade do líquido pericárdico e espessamento do saco pericárdico. Essa abordagem integrada configura uma avaliação multimodal, que visa não apenas esclarecer a etiologia da doença, mas também compreender seu impacto funcional e seu prognóstico em apresentações agudas ou crônicas.</p>
				<p>A constante evolução das tecnologias de imagem e das técnicas laboratoriais demonstra a necessidade de atualização dos protocolos de diagnóstico e tratamento das pericardites e das condições associadas, com especial atenção à padronização das etapas diagnósticas. Essa organização é fundamental para otimizar a utilização das ferramentas disponíveis e garantir que os pacientes recebam condutas adequadas em tempo oportuno.</p>
				<p>Apesar desses avanços, persistem barreiras, como a escassez de recursos, a ausência de protocolos padronizados e o acesso limitado a métodos invasivos. Outra limitação relevante é a possibilidade de perda do material coletado para análise ou biópsia. Caso a coleta, o transporte e a análise não sigam padrões pré-estabelecidos de segurança, há risco de comprometimento da amostra, resultando em atraso no diagnóstico e redução da qualidade do atendimento prestado ao paciente.</p>
				<p>Frente a essas limitações, alguns centros especializados em doenças pericárdicas foram criados para otimizar o diagnóstico e o manejo dessas doenças e representam uma abordagem estruturada e multidisciplinar. Tais centros geralmente implementam um fluxo organizado que inclui triagem inicial com revisão de registros clínicos, exames laboratoriais e de imagem, seguida de encaminhamento apropriado pelo profissional de saúde. O acompanhamento do paciente é baseado em planos de tratamento individualizados, além de educação do paciente sobre fatores de risco, sintomas de alerta e opções terapêuticas. A abordagem é interdisciplinar, envolvendo reumatologia, cirurgia cardiotorácica, cardiologia clínica, radiologia especializada e farmácia. O acompanhamento contínuo inclui consultas periódicas presenciais ou virtuais, com repetição de exames conforme necessário, garantindo diagnóstico preciso e manejo individualizado, alinhado aos princípios da medicina de precisão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Em síntese, a atuação interdisciplinar, aliada ao uso combinado de métodos de imagem avançados e exames laboratoriais padronizados, é essencial para acelerar o diagnóstico e otimizar o prognóstico em síndromes pericárdicas. Paralelamente, o fortalecimento da produção científica e da literatura especializada é crucial para o desenvolvimento de protocolos clínicos que regulamentem e sistematizem a utilização dessas ferramentas, promovendo um atendimento mais eficiente e baseado em evidências.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4">
					<label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
					<label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>