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<article article-type="editorial" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20250046i</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">abchf.20250046i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Viewpoint</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Digoxin in Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction: A Proposal for a Practical Precision Medicine-Based Guide</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8097-8003</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Conceição-Souza</surname>
						<given-names>Germano Emílio</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa Clínica São José</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São José dos Campos</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa Clínica São José, São José dos Campos, SP – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Regional de São José dos Campos</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São José dos Campos</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Regional de São José dos Campos, São José dos Campos, SP – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Germano Emílio Conceição-Souza</bold> • Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa Clínica São José - Rua Teopompo de Vasconcelos, 147. Postal Code <postal-code>12243-830</postal-code>, Vila Adyana, São José dos Campos, SP - Brazil E-mail: <email>germano.souza@iepsj.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p>Humberto Villacorta</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>31</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>5</volume>
			<issue>3</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20250046</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>29</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>20</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>24</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2026</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Digoxin</kwd>
				<kwd>Precision Medicine</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiac Glycosides</kwd>
				<kwd>Pharmacokinetics</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Sources of funding:</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="8"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration:</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Digoxin in Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction: A Proposal for a Practical Precision Medicine-Based Guide</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-3-e20250046-gf01.tif"/>
						<attrib>Decision and management flowchart for digoxin in HFrEF. Proposed algorithm for digoxin management in HFrEF. The flow integrates clinical indication, verification of contraindications, risk stratification for initial dose, and monitoring cycle. Dose adjustment is guided by serum level ranges (colors), targeting the therapeutic target of 0.5 to 0.9 ng/mL. Source: The author. ECG: electrocardiogram; GFR: glomerular filtration rate; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; NYHA: New York Heart Association functional class.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction: the paradox of digitalis therapy</title>
			<p>Digoxin holds a unique position in the history of cardiovascular medicine. Although it is the oldest drug in continuous use for heart failure (HF) treatment, there has been a sharp decline in prescriptions over the past two decades. Overshadowed by the advent of disease-modifying therapies and stigmatized due to concerns regarding toxicity, digoxin was relegated to a Class IIa recommendation in the Brazilian guideline<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> and a third-line recommendation (Class IIb) in the major international guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Nonetheless, the systematic exclusion of digoxin may represent a historical error based on incomplete interpretations of old data. In a scenario where heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) still imposes high morbidity, mortality, and residual symptoms despite optimized therapy, the premise of this viewpoint is unequivocal: digoxin is not obsolete; what has become obsolete is the empirical fixed-dose prescription model. In light of contemporary evidence, we propose a revival of digitalis therapy guided by precision medicine.</p>
			<p>There are significant pharmacokinetic distinctions between different digitalis compounds. Digoxin is eliminated via the urinary system, has a short half-life (26 to 48 hours), is more hydrophilic, and has low protein binding; in contrast, digitoxin is primarily eliminated by the liver, has a long half-life (5 to 7 days), is more lipophilic, and has high protein binding. In this context, the use of digitoxin has been considered safer in patients with concomitant kidney disease.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Building evidence: from the DIG trial to the contemporary era</title>
				<p>The negative turning point for digoxin was the Digitalis Investigation Group (DIG) study, published in 1997, which randomized 6,800 patients with HFrEF. Although it demonstrated a significant reduction in hospitalizations for HF, the study was neutral for overall mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> This neutral result, however, masked a complex pharmacological reality: higher doses increased mortality, offsetting the benefit of lower doses.</p>
				<p>In 2003, a fundamental post hoc analysis conducted by Rathore et al. redefined the understanding of the medication. By stratifying patients from the DIG trial by serum digoxin concentration, the authors identified a narrow therapeutic window. Patients with levels between 0.5 and 0.9 ng/mL showed a significant reduction in mortality. In contrast, levels above 1.2 ng/mL increased the risk of death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> This association was corroborated in the setting of atrial fibrillation by the ARISTOTLE trial substudy, published in 2018 by Lopes et al., confirming that digoxin-associated mortality was driven by supratherapeutic serum levels, regardless of systolic function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The definitive validation of the &quot;low-level, high-vigilance&quot; concept emerged in 2025 with the publication of the DIGIT-HF study. This randomized clinical trial included 2,666 patients with advanced HFrEF, testing digitoxin with dose adjustment guided by serum levels. The results demonstrated a robust reduction in the composite outcome of mortality or hospitalization due to worsening HF, validating the safety of therapeutic monitoring.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> It is worth noting that digitoxin differs from digoxin in some pharmacokinetic aspects.</p>
				<p>Simultaneously, the DECISION study brings a pragmatic perspective. With a planned inclusion of 980 patients, this study innovates by including not only patients with HFrEF but also those with mildly reduced ejection fraction. The DECISION study's focus on patient-centered outcomes (&quot;days alive and out of hospital&quot;) and the use of low doses of digoxin reinforce the current trend toward therapeutic personalization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Proposed practical guide: risk stratification</title>
				<p>To translate this evidence into clinical practice, especially in the Brazilian context where digitoxin is not available, we propose a structured protocol for digoxin use. The central pillars of this guide are recognition of risk factors for intoxication (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>) and proactive dose adjustment.</p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Risk factors for digitalis intoxication and mechanisms involved</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="49%">
							<col width="1%"/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
								<th align="left" valign="middle">Risk factor</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Definition criteria</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Pharmacokinetic mechanism</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Female sex</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">-</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Lower apparent muscle volume of distribution for the drug</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Kidney disease</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Estimated GFR &lt; 60 mL/min/1.73 m²</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Reduced renal clearance of digoxin, prolonging the half-life</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Low weight</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Body mass &lt; 60 kg</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Lower skeletal muscle mass (main tissue reservoir of the drug)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Advanced age</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Age &gt; 75 years</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Physiological decline in renal function and reduced lean mass</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Drug interactions</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Amiodarone, verapamil, or diltiazem use</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Inhibition of P-glycoprotein, increasing bioavailability and reducing renal excretion</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>GFR: glomerular filtration rate.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Dosage and monitoring algorithm</title>
				<p>We recommend abolishing the initial dose of 0.25 mg/day for the majority of patients. The dose should be titrated according to the number of risk factors present (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>), as follows:</p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>No risk factors: Begin with 0.125 mg (half tablet) daily.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>One risk factor: Begin with 0.125 mg every other day.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Two or more risk factors: Begin with 0.125 mg twice a week (for example, Mondays and Thursdays)</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p>The complete management strategy, including monitoring intervals and dose adjustments based on serum levels, is detailed in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Central Illustration</xref>.</p>
				<p>Follow-up should be intensive. At the first consultation (baseline), electrocardiogram, renal function (urea/creatinine), and electrolytes (sodium, potassium, magnesium) are mandatory. The frequency of consultations and digoxin level testing should be every 14 days until stability is achieved (two consecutive measurements within the therapeutic target range of 0.5 to 0.9 ng/mL). From that point on, monitoring can be done monthly, maintaining laboratory and electrocardiographic surveillance at all visits. If these levels remain persistently controlled within the target range, it is possible to further space out digoxin level testing, provided that clinical surveillance is maintained, with a high index of suspicion for any symptoms of intoxication, worsening renal function, or changes in fluid and electrolyte balance. If a dose escalation is required (serum digoxin &lt; 0.5 ng/mL), the dose should be increased carefully by 25% to 50% of the weekly dose, and a new measurement should be performed within 2 weeks. If the serum level is between 0.9 and 1.1 ng/mL, the dose should be reduced by 25% to 50% of the weekly dose. If the serum level is greater than 1.1 ng/mL, digoxin should be discontinued, and a new measurement should be performed in 2 weeks; in this case, if serum levels return to or below target levels, digoxin can be restarted at half the dose that was prescribed. It is essential to measure digoxin levels at least 6 hours after oral administration, ideally after 8 hours. If measured before this interval, the result may be falsely elevated, as the drug will still be concentrated in the blood before distribution to various organs and tissues. It is important to emphasize that a new digoxin level test is indicated in cases where a change of more than 30% in the glomerular filtration rate (up or down) is detected, after episodes of heart failure decompensation, or when new drugs that may influence its bioavailability have been prescribed (for example, amiodarone).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Contraindications</title>
				<p>Safety of digoxin use also depends on observing absolute and relative contraindications, which are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>.</p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Table 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Contraindicated or high-risk situations for initiating digoxin in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="50%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
								<th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical condition</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Justification/risk</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">AVB</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Second- or third-degree AVB without pacemaker protection (risk of asystole)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Pre-excitation syndrome</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">WPW with atrial fibrillation (risk of accelerated anterograde conduction and VF)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Obstructive form (increased LV outflow tract obstruction)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Acute myocarditis</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Inflamed myocardium with increased sensitivity and high arrhythmogenic risk</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Electrolyte disturbances</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Hypokalemia (&lt; 3.5 mEq/L) or hypomagnesemia (provoking toxicity)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Acute coronary syndrome</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Acute phase of AMI (arrhythmogenic risk and increased oxygen consumption)</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<p>AMI: acute myocardial infarction; AVB: atrioventricular block; LV: left ventricle; VF: ventricular fibrillation; WPW: Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>Digoxin remains a valuable tool in the therapeutic arsenal for treating HFrEF, capable of reducing hospitalizations and improving quality of life. The &quot;danger&quot; attributed to the medication actually lies in its narrow therapeutic window and inappropriate management. By adopting a precision medicine protocol, stratifying initial risk by clinical characteristics and guiding maintenance by serum levels, we transform an old drug into a safe and modern therapeutic tool.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<label>Sources of funding</label>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<label>Study association</label>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
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	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20250046</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Ponto de Vista</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Digoxina na Insuficiência Cardíaca com Fração de Ejeção Reduzida: Proposta de um Guia Prático Baseado em Medicina de Precisão</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8097-8003</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Conceição-Souza</surname>
						<given-names>Germano Emílio</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff3">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São José dos Campos</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa Clínica São José, São José dos Campos, SP – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff4">
					<label>2</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São José dos Campos</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Regional de São José dos Campos, São José dos Campos, SP – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label>Correspondência:</label><bold>Germano Emílio Conceição-Souza</bold> • Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa Clínica São José - Rua Teopompo de Vasconcelos, 147. CEP <postal-code>12243-830</postal-code>, Vila Adyana, São José dos Campos, SP - Brasil E-mail: <email>germano.souza@iepsj.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="coi-statement">
					<label>Potencial conflito de interesse</label>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Humberto Villacorta</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Digoxina</kwd>
				<kwd>Medicina de Precisão</kwd>
				<kwd>Glicosídeos Cardíacos</kwd>
				<kwd>Farmacocinética</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de financiamento:</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figura Central:</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Digoxina na Insuficiência Cardíaca com Fração de Ejeção Reduzida: Proposta de um Guia Prático Baseado em Medicina de Precisão</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-3-e20250046-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						<attrib>Fluxograma de decisão e manejo da digoxina na ICFER. Algoritmo proposto para manejo de digoxina na ICFER. O fluxo integra a indicação clínica, verificação de contraindicações, estratificação de risco para dose inicial e ciclo de monitoramento. O ajuste de dose é guiado por faixas de nível sérico (cores), visando o alvo terapêutico de 0,5 a 0,9 ng/mL. ECG: eletrocardiograma; ICFER: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida; NYHA: classe funcional da New York Heart Association; TFG: taxa de filtração glomerular. Fonte: Autor.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução: O paradoxo do digital</title>
				<p>Digoxina ocupa uma posição singular na história da medicina cardiovascular. Apesar de ser o fármaco mais antigo em uso contínuo para o tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca (IC), sua prescrição sofreu um declínio acentuado nas últimas duas décadas. Ofuscada pelo advento de terapias modificadoras de doença e estigmatizada pelo receio de toxicidade, a digoxina foi relegada a uma recomendação Classe IIa na diretriz brasileira<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> e recomendação de terceira linha (Classe IIb) nas principais diretrizes internacionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Contudo, a exclusão sistemática da digoxina pode representar um erro histórico fundamentado em interpretações incompletas de dados antigos. Em um cenário onde a insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFER) ainda impõe elevada morbimortalidade e sintomas residuais apesar da terapia otimizada, a premissa deste ponto de vista é assertiva: a digoxina não é obsoleta; o que se tornou obsoleto foi o modelo de prescrição empírica de dose fixa. À luz das evidências contemporâneas, propomos um resgate do digital guiado pela medicina de precisão.</p>
				<p>É digno de nota que existem diferenças farmacocinéticas significativas entre diferentes digitálicos. Enquanto a digoxina é eliminada pelo sistema urinário, tem meia-vida curta (26 a 48 horas), é mais hidrofílica e tem baixa ligação a proteínas, a digitoxina é eliminada principalmente pelo fígado, tem meia-vida longa (5 a 7 dias), é mais lipofílica e tem alta ligação a proteínas. Nesse contexto, o uso de digitoxina tem sido considerado mais seguro em pacientes que tenham doença renal concomitante.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>A construção da evidência: Do ensaio DIG à era contemporânea</title>
					<p>O ponto de inflexão negativo para a digoxina foi o estudo <italic>Digitalis Investigation Group</italic> (DIG), publicado em 1997, que randomizou 6.800 pacientes com ICFER. Embora tenha demonstrado redução significativa nas hospitalizações por IC, o estudo foi neutro para mortalidade geral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Essa neutralidade, contudo, mascarava uma realidade farmacológica complexa: doses altas aumentavam a mortalidade, anulando o benefício das doses baixas.</p>
					<p>Em 2003, uma análise <italic>post hoc</italic> fundamental conduzida por Rathore et al. redefiniu o entendimento da droga. Ao estratificar os pacientes do ensaio DIG pela concentração sérica de digoxina, os autores identificaram uma janela terapêutica estreita: pacientes com níveis entre 0,5 e 0,9 ng/mL apresentaram redução significativa na mortalidade. Em contraste, níveis superiores a 1,2 ng/mL aumentaram o risco de morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Essa relação foi corroborada no cenário da fibrilação atrial pelo subestudo do ensaio ARISTOTLE, publicado em 2018 por Lopes et al., confirmando que a mortalidade associada à digoxina era impulsionada por níveis séricos supraterapêuticos, independentemente da função sistólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A validação definitiva do conceito de &quot;baixo nível e alta vigilância&quot; chegou em 2025 com a publicação do estudo DIGIT-HF. Esse ensaio clínico randomizado incluiu 2.666 pacientes com ICFER avançada, testando a digitoxina com ajuste de dose guiado por nível sérico. Os resultados demonstraram redução robusta no desfecho composto de mortalidade ou hospitalização por piora da IC, validando a segurança da monitorização terapêutica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Vale ressaltar que a digitoxina difere da digoxina em alguns aspectos farmacocinéticos.</p>
					<p>Simultaneamente, o estudo DECISION traz uma perspectiva pragmática. Com um planejamento de inclusão de 980 pacientes, esse estudo inova ao incluir não apenas pacientes com ICFER, mas também aqueles com fração de ejeção levemente reduzida. O foco do DECISION em desfechos centrados no paciente (&quot;dias vivos e fora do hospital&quot;) e o uso de doses baixas de digoxina reforçam a tendência atual de personalização terapêutica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Proposta de guia prático: Estratificação de risco</title>
					<p>Para transpor essas evidências para a prática clínica, especialmente no cenário brasileiro onde a digitoxina não está disponível, propomos um protocolo rigoroso para o uso da digoxina. O pilar central deste guia é o reconhecimento dos fatores de risco para intoxicação (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>) e o ajuste proativo da dose.</p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Fatores de risco para intoxicação digitálica e mecanismos envolvidos</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="33%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Fator de risco</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Critério de definição</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Mecanismo farmacocinético</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Sexo feminino</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">-</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Menor volume de distribuição muscular aparente para a droga</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Insuficiência renal</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">TFG estimada &lt; 60 mL/min/1,73 m²</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Redução da depuração renal da digoxina, prolongando a meia-vida</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Baixo peso</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Massa corporal &lt; 60 kg</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Menor massa muscular esquelética (principal reservatório tecidual da droga)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Idade avançada</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Idade &gt; 75 anos</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Declínio fisiológico da função renal e redução da massa magra</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Interações medicamentosas</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Uso de amiodarona, verapamil ou diltiazem</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Inibição da glicoproteína-P, aumentando a biodisponibilidade e reduzindo a excreção renal</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN3">
								<p>TFG: taxa de filtração glomerular.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Algoritmo de dose e monitoramento</title>
					<p>Recomendamos a abolição da dose inicial de 0,25 mg/dia para a maioria dos pacientes. A dose deve ser titulada conforme o número de fatores de risco presentes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>):</p>
					<p>Nenhum fator de risco: Iniciar 0,125 mg (1/2 comprimido) ao dia.</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Um fator de risco: Iniciar 0,125 mg em dias alternados.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Dois ou mais fatores de risco: Iniciar 0,125 mg duas vezes por semana (por exemplo, segundas e quintas-feiras).</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>O manejo completo, incluindo periodicidade de exames e ajustes finos baseados em níveis séricos, está detalhado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura Central</xref>.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>O acompanhamento deve ser intensivo. Na primeira consulta (basal), é obrigatória a realização de ECG, função renal (ureia/creatinina) e eletrólitos (sódio, potássio, magnésio). A periodicidade de consultas e dosagem de digoxinemia deve ser a cada 14 dias até que se atinja a estabilidade (duas dosagens consecutivas no alvo terapêutico de 0,5 a 0,9 ng/mL). A partir desse momento, o monitoramento pode tornar-se mensal, mantendo-se a vigilância laboratorial e eletrocardiográfica em todas as visitas. Caso esses níveis se mantenham persistentemente controlados dentro da faixa alvo, é possível espaçar ainda mais as dosagens de digoxinemia, desde que se mantenha a vigilância clínica, com um alto índice de suspeição para eventuais sintomas de intoxicação, piora da função renal ou mudança de estado hidroeletrolítico. Caso seja necessário aumentar a dose (digoxinemia &lt; 0,5 ng/mL), a dose deve ser cuidadosamente elevada em 25% a 50% da dose semanal e a nova dosagem deve ser realizada em 2 semanas. Caso o nível sérico esteja entre 0,9 e 1,1 ng/mL, a dose deve ser reduzida entre 25% e 50% da dose semanal. Caso o nível sérico seja maior do que 1,1 ng/mL, a digoxina deve ser suspensa e nova dosagem deve ser realizada em 2 semanas; nesse caso, se os níveis séricos retornarem aos níveis alvo ou abaixo deles, pode ser reiniciada a digoxina com metade da dose que estava prescrita. É fundamental que a dosagem da digoxina seja realizada pelo menos 6 horas após a sua administração oral, idealmente após 8 horas. Se feita antes desse intervalo, o resultado pode ser falsamente elevado, pois o fármaco ainda estará concentrado no sangue antes de sua distribuição entre os diversos órgãos e tecidos. Importante salientar que nova dosagem da digoxinemia está indicada em casos de detecção de alteração em mais de 30% da taxa de filtração glomerular (para cima ou para baixo), após episódios de descompensação da IC ou quando houver prescrição de novos fármacos que possam influenciar a sua biodisponibilidade (por exemplo, amiodarona).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Contraindicações</title>
					<p>A segurança do uso da digoxina depende também do respeito às contraindicações absolutas e relativas, sumarizadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>.</p>
					<table-wrap id="t4">
						<label>Tabela 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Situações contraindicadas ou de alto risco para início de digoxina na insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="50%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Condição clínica</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Justificativa/risco</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">BAV</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">BAV de 2º ou 3º grau sem proteção de marcapasso (risco de assistolia)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Síndrome de pré-excitação</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">WPW com fibrilação atrial (risco de condução anterógrada acelerada e FV)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Miocardiopatia hipertrófica</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Forma obstrutiva (aumento da obstrução da via de saída do VE)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Miocardite aguda</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Miocárdio inflamado com sensibilidade aumentada e alto risco arritmogênico</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Distúrbios eletrolíticos</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Hipocalemia (&lt; 3,5 mEq/L) ou hipomagnesemia (precipitam toxicidade)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Síndrome coronariana aguda</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Fase aguda do IAM (risco arritmogênico e aumento do consumo de oxigênio)</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN4">
								<p>BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; FV: fibrilação ventricular; IAM: infarto agudo do miocárdio; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; WPW: síndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A digoxina permanece uma ferramenta valiosa no arsenal terapêutico da ICFER, capaz de reduzir hospitalizações e melhorar a qualidade de vida. O &quot;perigo&quot; atribuído à droga reside, na verdade, na sua janela terapêutica estreita e no manejo inadequado. Ao adotarmos um protocolo de medicina de precisão — estratificando o risco inicial por características clínicas e guiando a manutenção por níveis séricos — transformamos uma droga antiga em uma arma moderna e segura.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4">
					<label>Fontes de financiamento</label>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
					<label>Vinculação acadêmica</label>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<label>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</label>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>