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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20250017i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Advanced Management of Right Heart Failure: An Illustrative Case</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2402-2565</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Crivelaro</surname>
						<given-names>Pedro Castilhos de Freitas</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5514-2562</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Machado</surname>
						<given-names>Guilherme Pinheiro</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0086-1890</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Gazzana</surname>
						<given-names>Marcelo Basso</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2756-9040</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Lorenzi</surname>
						<given-names>William</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6527-9805</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Benedetto</surname>
						<given-names>Igor Gorski</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7102-6644</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Valle</surname>
						<given-names>Felipe Homem</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7596-2827</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Wainstein</surname>
						<given-names>Rodrigo Vugman</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Cardiologia</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre – Cardiologia, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label> Guilherme Pinheiro Machado • Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre – Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. Postal Code 90035-903, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil E-mail: <email>gpmachado89@gmail.com</email>, <email>guimachado@hcpa.edu.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
					<p> No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p> Fabiana Marcondes-Braga</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>03</day>
				<month>11</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>10</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>5</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20250017</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>07</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>19</day>
					<month>08</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>19</day>
					<month>08</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Right heart failure (RHF) is a serious condition characterized by the inability of the right ventricle (RV) to generate sufficient output for pulmonary circulation, leading to systemic congestion and hypoperfusion. Proper management of RHF is essential to improve prognosis and quality of life, requiring individualized treatment based on hemodynamic assessment.</p>
				<p>This article reviews pathophysiology, diagnosis, and therapeutic options for RHF, including strategies for preload optimization, afterload reduction, and advanced circulatory support. Additionally, it presents a clinical case of a patient with severe RHF secondary to chronic pulmonary thromboembolism and primary tricuspid regurgitation, treated with a hybrid approach involving balloon pulmonary angioplasty and pulmonary thromboendarterectomy combined with surgical valve repair, resulting in significant functional improvement. This review highlights the importance of personalized strategies and combined therapies in the management of advanced RHF.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Pulmonary Hypertension</kwd>
				<kwd>Heart Ventricles</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Sources of funding:</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="6"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="54"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration:</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Advanced Management of Right Heart Failure: An Illustrative Case</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-2-e20250017-gf01.tif"/>
						<attrib>Created in Biorender.com</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Right heart failure (RHF) is a clinical syndrome characterized by right ventricular (RV) dysfunction that results in inadequate pulmonary blood flow and/or increased filling pressures, either at rest or during demanding physiological conditions, such as exercise, growth, or pregnancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> This condition may occur in isolation or in association with LHF, and may result from different pathophysiological mechanisms, which will be described in this article.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>RHF is associated with a poor prognosis, especially when combined with LHF. In addition to patients with left ventricular dysfunction, patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension who present with RHF also have a worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>This article aims to review the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment options for RHF. Furthermore, a clinical case managed by the authors of this chapter at the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre will be presented.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="cases">
			<title>Clinical Case</title>
			<p>A 48-year-old woman with a history of pulmonary hypertension due to chronic thromboembolism (CTEPH) and severe tricuspid regurgitation was transferred to the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre with severe RV dysfunction and cardiogenic shock. She presented with INTERMACS classification 3 (progressive deterioration) and required inotropic (milrinone 0.4 µg/kg/min) and vasopressor (norepinephrine 0.1 µg/kg/min) support to maintain systemic perfusion. Echocardiography revealed RV hypertrophy and dilation, significant free wall hypokinesis, increased pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP = 75 mmHg), and severe tricuspid regurgitation due to a posterior leaflet flail (vena contracta = 9 mm), suggesting pulmonary hypertension secondary to chronic pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) associated with tricuspid valve incompetence. Angiotomography (AngioCT) of the pulmonary arteries demonstrated amputation due to chronic thrombosis of the left lower lobe branch, as well as areas of stenosis and dilation in the pulmonary arterial system, in addition to significant dilation of the right heart chambers with inversion of the interventricular septum.</p>
			<p>Right heart catheterization was performed, revealing precapillary pulmonary hypertension with elevated pulmonary vascular resistance and hemodynamic signs (invasive and noninvasive) of poor prognosis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). Furthermore, pulmonary arteriography demonstrated bilateral filling defects consistent with chronic pulmonary embolism and the absence of perfusion of the left lower lobe.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Hemodynamic data of the BPA strategy as a bridge therapy for definitive surgical treatment</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="left">Exam</th>
								<th align="left">Parameters evaluated</th>
								<th align="left">Pre-Balloon Pulmonary Angioplasty</th>
								<th align="left">After Balloon Pulmonary Angioplasty</th>
								<th align="left">After Definitive surgical treatment</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td rowspan="8">Right heart catheterization</td>
								<td>Right atrium</td>
								<td>20 mmHg</td>
								<td>10 mmHg</td>
								<td>3 mmHg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Right ventricle</td>
								<td>90 mmHg</td>
								<td>58 mmHg</td>
								<td> </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Pulmonary artery</td>
								<td>90/35/53 mmHg</td>
								<td>58/27/37 mmHg</td>
								<td>47/22/30 mmHg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Pulmonary artery occlusion pressure</td>
								<td>12 mmHg</td>
								<td>12 mmHg</td>
								<td>*</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Cardiac index</td>
								<td>2.5 L/min/m<sup>2</sup></td>
								<td>3.2 L/min/m<sup>2</sup></td>
								<td>2.7 L/min/m<sup>2</sup></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Pulmonary vascular resistance</td>
								<td>8.5 Wood</td>
								<td>4.5 Wood</td>
								<td>*</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Total pulmonary resistance</td>
								<td>7,5 Wood</td>
								<td>6.6 Wood</td>
								<td>6.3 Wood</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Pulmonary vascular compliance</td>
								<td>1.1 ml/mmHg</td>
								<td>1.67 ml/mmHg</td>
								<td>1.7 ml/mmHg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td rowspan="3">Echocardiogram</td>
								<td>FAC</td>
								<td>20%</td>
								<td>23%</td>
								<td>24%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>RV Dimensions</td>
								<td>52 mm</td>
								<td>53 mm</td>
								<td>45 mm</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Left ventricular ejection fraction</td>
								<td>75%</td>
								<td>76%</td>
								<td>53%</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>*Hemodynamic measurements obtained immediately before removal of the pulmonary artery catheter in the postoperative period of thromboendarterectomy. Under these circumstances, pulmonary artery occlusion pressure (PAOP) is not measured due to the risk of rupture of the areas manipulated during the procedure. Source: authors.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Given the severity of the condition and the initial contraindication for pulmonary endarterectomy due to clinical instability, percutaneous balloon pulmonary angioplasty (BPA) was chosen as rescue therapy. Supported by high-flow nasal cannula oxygen therapy, the patient underwent two BPA sessions targeting segmental and subsegmental branches of the right pulmonary artery in the following locations: A3 (anterior segment of the upper lobe), A4 (lateral segment of the middle lobe), A6 (superior segment of the lower lobe), A7 (basal medial segment of the lower lobe), and A8 (basal anterior segment of the lower lobe). The procedure was successful, with significant global hemodynamic improvement (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>), allowing progressive reduction of inotropes and complete withdrawal of norepinephrine after the second session. Endovascular therapy allowed the discontinuation of both vasoactive drugs and oxygen therapy, resulting in discharge from the intensive care unit. The six-minute walk test after two BPA sessions covered a distance of 347 m without significant desaturation. Serial echocardiograms showed partial recovery of RV function with reduced ventricular dilation.</p>
			<p>With hemodynamic stabilization and functional improvement, the patient was reevaluated for definitive treatment. Bilateral pulmonary thromboendarterectomy was indicated and performed, combined with tricuspid valve repair at the same surgical time, without intraoperative complications. Under total circulatory arrest with deep hypothermia, thrombi were removed from lobar, segmental, and subsegmental arteries bilaterally. Even vessels previously treated with BPA were treated. During surgery, a rupture of part of the chordae tendineae of the posterior leaflet was confirmed, causing significant tricuspid valve dysfunction. The valve repair consisted of fusion of the posteroanterior commissure, resulting in a competent bicuspid valve. The patient’s postoperative course was favorable. Anticoagulation was initiated approximately 6 hours after surgery. She required low-dose vasopressors for 48 hours. It was decided to restart riociguat on the third postoperative day due to the mean pulmonary artery pressure (maintained between 28 and 33 mmHg) to facilitate management of residual tricuspid regurgitation (due to annular dilation related to the large right atrial enlargement). The patient was discharged on the 13th postoperative day in New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional class I. The combination of BPA and pulmonary thromboendarterectomy, combined with tricuspid valve repair, proved to be an effective strategy for significant recovery of RV function and clinical improvement in a complex case of RHF associated with chronic PTE refractory to pharmacological management.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Etiology and pathophysiology of right heart failure</title>
				<p>RHF results from conditions that compromise RV function through different pathophysiological mechanisms that will be described in this topic (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1 - Central illustration</xref>).</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Pressure overload</title>
					<p><bold>Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) – Group 1</bold></p>
					<p>Pulmonary vascular disorder characterized by progressive arteriolar remodeling, with chronic elevation of pulmonary vascular resistance, in the absence of secondary causes.</p>
					<p><bold>Pulmonary hypertension associated with left heart disease – Group 2</bold></p>
					<p>It results from a chronic increase in pulmonary venous pressure, secondary to left ventricular dysfunction (with reduced or preserved ejection fraction), valve dysfunction (mitral or aortic), and other conditions related to left heart disease that lead to venocapillary hypertension.</p>
					<p><bold>Pulmonary hypertension associated with lung disease and/or hypoxia – Group 3</bold></p>
					<p>Includes chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary fibrosis, and combined lung disease, in which chronic hypoxic vasoconstriction, parenchymal destruction, and remodeling of the pulmonary vascular bed cause increased resistance to blood flow. Hypoxemia without primary lung disease, such as hypoventilation syndrome, high-altitude PH, and developmental lung diseases, is also included in this group.</p>
					<p><bold>Pulmonary hypertension associated with pulmonary artery obstructions – Group 4</bold></p>
					<p>Pulmonary hypertension due to chronic PTE is characterized by persistent obstruction of the pulmonary arteries by organized thrombi, with secondary remodeling of the remaining vascular bed. Sarcomas and vasculitis are rarer causes.</p>
					<p><bold>Pulmonary hypertension of uncertain and/or multifactorial mechanism – Group 5</bold></p>
					<p>It involves systemic diseases, hematologic and metabolic disorders, where multiple factors – including chronic inflammation and endothelial dysfunction – contribute to elevated pulmonary artery pressure.</p>
					<p><bold>Congenital obstructive heart disease of the RV outflow tract</bold></p>
					<p>Such as pulmonary stenosis, tetralogy of Fallot, and pulmonary atresia.</p>
					<p><bold>Conditions that raise intrathoracic pressure</bold></p>
					<p>Mechanical ventilation with excessive positive pressure, tension pneumothorax, and massive pleural effusions.</p>
					<p><bold>Systemic acidosis</bold></p>
					<p>The presence of acidosis from any cause induces pulmonary arterial vasoconstriction, increasing pulmonary vascular resistance and RV afterload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Volume overload</title>
					<p><bold>Congenital heart disease with left-to-right shunt</bold></p>
					<p>Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), atrial septal defect (ASD), and ventricular septal defect (VSD) promote chronic pulmonary hyperflow, causing RV dilation and, eventually, secondary pulmonary hypertension (e.g., Eisenmenger syndrome).</p>
					<p><bold>Right valve regurgitation</bold></p>
					<p>Primary or secondary tricuspid regurgitation, as well as pulmonary regurgitation after surgical repairs, increase RV end-diastolic volume, increasing preload and contributing, in the long term, to ventricular dilation.</p>
					<p><bold>Chronic atrial fibrillation</bold></p>
					<p>Chronic atrial fibrillation can lead to dilation of the right atrium and tricuspid annulus, promoting functional tricuspid insufficiency and, consequently, RV volumetric overload.</p>
					<p><bold>Systemic hypervolemia</bold></p>
					<p>Hypervolemia from extracardiac causes (polytransfusion, excessive use of serum therapy, dialysis-dependent renal failure, and cirrhosis) can also lead to RV volume overload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Contractile dysfunction</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Coronary artery disease</title>
				<p>Acute occlusion of the proximal right coronary artery can result in acute RV systolic dysfunction, leading to hemodynamic instability. Patients with chronic RV ischemic disease may also develop RHF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Myocarditis and infiltrative diseases</title>
				<p>Inflammatory processes, such as viral myocarditis, as well as diseases such as sarcoidosis and amyloidosis, promote fibrosis and myocardial infiltration, affecting RV systolic and diastolic function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD)</title>
				<p>Genetic disease characterized by fibroadipose replacement of the RV myocardium, resulting in progressive dysfunction, ventricular arrhythmias, and a high risk of sudden death.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Use of left ventricular assist device (LVAD)</title>
				<p>LVAD implantation may exacerbate RV dysfunction by increasing venous return and redistributing preload, imposing an additional challenge on an already compromised RV.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Post-heart transplant</title>
				<p>RV dysfunction in the post-transplant period may occur due to suboptimal myocardial preservation, preexisting pulmonary hypertension, or graft-recipient incompatibility.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ischemic or mechanical injury after cardiotomy</title>
				<p>During cardiac surgeries, the RV may suffer direct injury or perioperative ischemia, especially in the context of prolonged extracorporeal circulation, resulting in transient or persistent contractile impairment.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Pericardial diseases</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Constrictive pericarditis</title>
				<p>Pericardial thickening and calcification (the most common causes of which are previous viral pericarditis, radiotherapy, cardiac surgery, tuberculosis, and collagen diseases) restrict RV expansion, resulting in early ventricular filling and diastolic collapse, with elevated right atrial pressure.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardiac tamponade</title>
				<p>Acute accumulation of pericardial fluid, under high pressure, leads to diastolic collapse of the right chambers, impairing venous return and causing obstructive shock. The most common etiologies are trauma, iatrogenic complications, malignant neoplasms, infections, uremia, infarction, and collagen diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Other mechanisms</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Chronic pacemaker stimulation</title>
				<p>Chronic RV pacing, especially through apical pacemaker devices, can induce non-physiological electrical activation patterns, contributing to contractile dyssynchrony and adverse RV remodeling. In addition to the deleterious effects of chronic RV pacing, the presence of pacemaker device leads can mechanically interfere with tricuspid valve function, resulting in its incompetence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ventricular interdependence</title>
				<p>Due to shared anatomy and a common pericardium, changes in volume or pressure in one ventricle directly affect the other. In RHF, RV dilation can shift the interventricular septum to the left, compromising LV diastolic filling and systolic function, exacerbating global heart failure.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Imbalance between oxygen supply and demand</title>
				<p>RV hypertrophy increases the metabolic demand of the myocardium. Simultaneously, elevated end-diastolic pressures can compromise RV coronary perfusion, especially during episodes of hypotension or hypoxemia, leading to myocardial ischemia and contractile dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Obesity and insulin resistance</title>
				<p>Obesity and insulin resistance are potential modifiable risk factors with a prognostic impact on RHF that deserve to be considered. In patients with dilated cardiomyopathy or pulmonary hypertension, diabetes is associated with worsening RV systolic and diastolic function. The mechanisms involved include fibrosis, inflammation, microvascular ischemia, and myocardial lipid accumulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Obesity negatively impacts RV function by increasing preload and afterload, and compromising contractility. Obese individuals with heart failure and preserved ejection fraction have greater RV dilation, elevated pulmonary pressures, and poorer sarcomere performance, as well as greater ventricular interdependence and pericardial restriction, compared to non-obese individuals. Furthermore, sleep-disordered breathing, common in obesity, also contributes to RV dysfunction by increasing pulmonary and systemic pressures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Clinical manifestations</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Symptoms</title>
				<p>The main symptoms of RHF reflect systemic venous congestion, reduced cardiac output, and tissue hypoperfusion:</p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Dyspnea and exercise intolerance.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Orthopnea and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (less frequent).</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Peripheral edema.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Ascites and abdominal distension.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Pain or discomfort in the right upper quadrant.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Nausea and vomiting (congestion of the gastrointestinal tract and edema of the intestinal wall).</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Weight loss and cardiac cachexia (advanced stages).</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Physical examination</title>
				<p><bold>Signs of Systemic Venous Congestion</bold></p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Pathological jugular distension.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Hepatojugular reflux.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Kussmaul’s sign (absence of physiological decrease or, in some cases, paradoxical increase in jugular venous pressure during inspiration).</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Hepatomegaly and pain on liver palpation.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Ascites.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Peripheral edema.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p><bold>Cardiopulmonary Findings</bold></p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>B1 normal or hypophonetic; B2 with hyperphonetic.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Systolic or holosystolic murmur at the right lower sternal border (functional tricuspid regurgitation). This murmur intensifies during deep inspiration, a finding known as the Rivero-Carvalho maneuver.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Fixed splitting of B2: if associated atrial septal defect.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Pulsus paradoxus: cardiac tamponade and, occasionally, in advanced RHF.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Jugular venous pulse with abnormal waves: <list list-type="bullet">
								<list-item>
									<p>Giant A wave: Suggests RV diastolic dysfunction (e.g., tricuspid stenosis or significant hypertrophy).</p>
								</list-item>
								<list-item>
									<p>Prominent V wave: Indicative of significant tricuspid regurgitation.</p>
								</list-item>
							</list>
						</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Diastolic murmur of pulmonary regurgitation: early diastolic murmur, usually decrescendo, indicative of severe pulmonary hypertension.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Third RV sound: rapid ventricular filling - RV systolic dysfunction.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Fourth RV sound: forced atrial filling of a non-compliant right ventricle.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Left parasternal impulse: Sign of hypertrophy or dilation of the right ventricle.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Pleural effusion.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p><bold>Advanced Systemic Manifestations</bold></p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Arterial hypotension.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Reduced peripheral perfusion.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Central or peripheral cyanosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Complementary exams</title>
			<p>Several complementary tests can be used in RHF; the main ones are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Table 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Complementary exams used in ICD</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="left">Exam</th>
								<th align="left">Subitem</th>
								<th align="left">Main Considerations</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td rowspan="4">Laboratory</td>
								<td>BNP/NT-proBNP</td>
								<td>Assess myocardial stress and prognosis. Correlates with RHF severity.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Liver function</td>
								<td>Assess chronic liver congestion. Elevated transaminases, GGT, and AF.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Kidney function</td>
								<td>Monitor renal perfusion. Elevated creatinine and urea nitrogen; ↓ GFR.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Blood count</td>
								<td>Assess hematologic changes.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Electrocardiogram</td>
								<td>Electrocardiogram</td>
								<td>Right axis deviation, right atrial dilation, RV hypertrophy (e.g., R waves in V1), right bundle branch block, atrial arrhythmias, S1Q3T3 pattern suggesting PTE.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td rowspan="7">Echocardiogram</td>
								<td>TAPSE</td>
								<td>&lt;17 mm indicates RV dysfunction.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>S’ wave (tissue Doppler)</td>
								<td>≤9,5 cm/s indicates RV dysfunction.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>FAC</td>
								<td>&lt;35% indicate RV dysfunction.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Strain RV</td>
								<td>Early changes in contractility (especially in the free wall).</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Morphology and dimensions</td>
								<td>Allows the identification of remodeling, such as dilation or hypertrophy (chronic overload).</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Valvular heart disease</td>
								<td>Includes analysis of the tricuspid and pulmonary.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Ventricular interdependence</td>
								<td>Displacement of the interventricular septum to the left.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Transesophageal Echocardiogram</td>
								<td>Transesophageal Echocardiogram</td>
								<td>It may be indicated to evaluate shunts, valvular anomalies, and posterior structures.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td rowspan="6">Bedside Ultrasound</td>
								<td>VExUS</td>
								<td>Assessment of systemic congestion. Includes hepatic, portal, and renal veins.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>VCI</td>
								<td>Indirect estimation of CVP.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>McConnell's Sign</td>
								<td>Sign suggestive of acute PTE.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>RV/LV ratio, thrombi, and cardiac tamponade</td>
								<td>Important in immediate management.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Vascular ultrasound</td>
								<td>Venous thrombosis suggests a thromboembolic etiology for RHF.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Pleuropulmonary ultrasound</td>
								<td>Signs of congestion (presence of B lines, pleural effusion); Pneumothorax; Pulmonary infarction.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td rowspan="3">Magnetic Resonance Imaging</td>
								<td>RV volumes and ejection fraction, and shunts</td>
								<td>Gold standard for volumes and RVEF. Stroke and end-systolic volume index. Identification of intracardiac shunts.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Tissue characterization</td>
								<td>Late gadolinium enhancement.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Strain and pericardium assessment</td>
								<td>Useful in ARVC, pericarditis, and myocarditis.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td rowspan="5">Right heart catheterization</td>
								<td>PH Stratification</td>
								<td>Identification of pre- and post-capillary components.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Advanced parameters</td>
								<td>– Pulmonary vascular compliance – Pulmonary artery pulsatility index (PAPI) – RV functional reserve; – RV work index; – Relationship between right atrial pressure and PAOP; – Cardiac power (CPO)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Therapeutic planning and mechanical support</td>
								<td>Essential for support escalation.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Complementary steps, such as provocative testing (water and/or exercise) and vasoreactivity.</td>
								<td>They can guide therapeutic strategy (pharmacological treatment or decision about heart transplant).</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Pulmonary arteriography</td>
								<td>Carried out with the Right heart catheterization for BPA planning.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Chest CT Angiography</td>
								<td>Chest CT Angiography</td>
								<td>Visualizes thrombi, airways, and structural changes. Helps in the surgical or percutaneous planning of CTEPH.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Ventilation-Perfusion Scintigraphy</td>
								<td>Ventilation-Perfusion Scintigraphy</td>
								<td>Fundamental in CTEPH. Allows differentiation between vascular and parenchymal changes.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Pulmonary function tests</td>
								<td>Spirometry Lung volumes Pulmonary diffusion Submaximal and maximal exercise testing</td>
								<td>Functional assessment in patients with PH (as a cause or consequence of PH). Evaluation of baseline and follow-up exercise capacity.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>PET CT</td>
								<td>PET CT</td>
								<td>Helps identify cardiac sarcoidosis, neoplasms, and vasculitis.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Abdominal ultrasound</td>
								<td>Doppler examination</td>
								<td>Evaluation of chronic liver disease and schistosomiasis.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Polysomnography</td>
								<td>Polysomnography</td>
								<td>Investigate sleep-disordered breathing.</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<p>BNP: B-type natriuretic peptide; NT-proBNP: N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide; RHF: right heart failure; GGT: Gamma-glutamyl transferase; AF: Alkaline phosphatase; GFR: Glomerular Filtration Rate; RV: Right Ventricle; PTE: Pulmonary Thromboembolism; TAPSE: Tricuspid Annular Plane Systolic Excursion; FAC: Fractional Area Change; VExUS: Venous Excess Ultrasound Score; CVP: Central Venous Pressure; IVC: Inferior Vena Cava; ARVC: Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy; PH: Pulmonary Hypertension; BPA: balloon pulmonary angioplasty; CTEPH: Chronic Thromboembolic Pulmonary Hypertension; PET-CT: Positron Emission Tomography and Computed Tomography. Sources:<sup>16-27</sup></p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Coupling of the right ventricle with the pulmonary artery</title>
			<p>Coupling between RV contractility and pulmonary circulation-imposed afterload (RV-PA coupling) is a key hemodynamic concept for assessing RV adaptation to pulmonary hypertension. This coupling is represented by the ratio of RV systolic elastance (Ees), a load-independent contractility parameter, to effective arterial elastance (Ea), which reflects afterload. Under normal conditions, this ratio (Ees: Ea) ranges from 1.5 to 2.0, indicating efficient coupling, in which RV-generated energy is optimally transferred to the pulmonary circulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In pulmonary hypertension, a compensatory increase in Ees initially occurs to counteract the increased afterload (Ea) and maintain coupling. However, as RV contractile capacity is exhausted, Ea continues to increase disproportionately to Ees, leading to progressive RV decoupling and hemodynamic compromise. Ees: Ea values below 0.6–0.8 indicate severe decoupling and are associated with a worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Direct measurement of RV-PA coupling requires right-sided catheterization with pressure-volume curve analysis, a complex method that is difficult to apply in daily clinical practice. Alternatively, there are echocardiographic parameters that estimate this value less accurately.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Treatment</title>
			<p>The management of RHF should be based on an individualized approach, taking into account the blood volume status, underlying etiology, and chronicity of the condition. General measures are recommended, including nutritional support, physical activity, including cardiopulmonary rehabilitation, immunizations, contraception, travel and procedural guidance, and psychological counseling. Therefore, a multidisciplinary approach is essential for successful care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The treatment of RHF varies depending on the scenario involved (e.g., whether it is acute, chronic, or chronic-exacerbated). Therefore, it is important to establish therapeutic goals to guide necessary monitoring and management in clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Preload optimization</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Blood volume adjustment</title>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>In patients with chronic RHF and significant fluid retention, the use of loop diuretics is indicated. Thiazide diuretics may be associated in refractory cases.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>In cases of refractory congestion, ultrafiltration may be considered to remove excess volume while avoiding side effects related to high doses of diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> It is worth remembering that pharmacological treatment does not just include fluid withdrawal to improve RV performance. In acute situations (such as acute myocardial infarction with RV involvement), it may be necessary to administer fluids cautiously to increase preload, correct hypotension, and preserve systemic perfusion. On the other hand, in acute PTE, volumes greater than 500 ml tend to worsen instability.5</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Atriotomy with Septostomy</title>
				<p>Atrioseptoplasty, creating a controlled interatrial shunt, may be a therapeutic option in advanced cases of RHF with pulmonary hypertension. This intervention aims to reduce right atrial pressure, improve systemic cardiac output, and alleviate symptoms of congestion, acting as a bridge or palliative therapy in selected patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> However, this therapy should not be performed in acute situations and/or in patients with very high right atrial pressure (RAP) (&gt; 20 mmHg) as cardiac output is partly dependent on filling volume (preload), as well as in already hypoxemic patients (systemic saturation &lt; 90%) as the procedure can induce hypoxemia due to the right-to-left shunt.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Tricuspid regurgitation treatment</title>
				<p>Tricuspid regurgitation, often associated with RHF, can have different approaches:</p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p><bold>Conventional Surgery</bold>: In cases of significant tricuspid regurgitation associated with annular dilation or organic lesions, valve repair or valve replacement can restore valve competence and improve RV function.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p><bold>Contemporary Treatments:</bold><list list-type="bullet">
								<list-item>
									<p><bold>Triclip</bold>: A percutaneous device that uses a clipping technique to approximate the tricuspid valve leaflets. The Triluminate study demonstrated that transcatheter tricuspid valve repair is safe and effective, resulting in a significant reduction in tricuspid regurgitation and improved patient quality of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
								</list-item>
								<list-item>
									<p><bold>Tricvalve</bold>: A bicaval percutaneous valve system developed to treat severe tricuspid regurgitation. Its implantation aims to correct valve incompetence and reduce RV volume overload. The single-arm, prospective, non-randomized TRICUS and TRICUS Euro studies demonstrated potential improvements in quality of life and device safety.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> It is worth noting that randomized studies are needed to confirm these hypotheses.</p>
								</list-item>
								<list-item>
									<p><bold>Percutaneous valve implantation</bold>: The largest clinical trial of valve implantation in the tricuspid position is the TRISCEND study, which evaluated the EVOQUE transfemoral valve replacement system. This randomized, controlled, multicenter clinical trial demonstrated that transcutaneous implantation of the EVOQUE valve is safe and effective for treating severe tricuspid regurgitation, potentially providing an improvement in patients’ quality of life (hierarchical composite outcome assessed).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
								</list-item>
							</list>
						</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Afterload reduction</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Percutaneous and surgical treatment of chronic PTE</title>
				<p>In patients with chronic PTE, pulmonary thromboendarterectomy is the gold standard, promoting pulmonary artery unblocking and immediate reduction of RV afterload. Surgical treatment can reduce mortality, normalize hemodynamics, and improve functional capacity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> When thromboendarterectomy is not feasible due to high surgical risk or anatomical compromise of segmental or subsegmental branches alone, BPA emerges as an effective percutaneous alternative to improve pulmonary hemodynamics and functional capacity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pulmonary vasodilators</title>
				<p>The use of specific vasodilators, such as prostanoids, phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors (e.g., sildenafil), endothelin receptor antagonists, and guanylate cyclase stimulators, aims to reduce pulmonary vascular resistance, thereby decreasing right ventricular afterload and improving cardiac output. Sotatercept, an activin receptor ligand trap, has a different mechanism of action from other vasodilators, as it acts by reversing vascular remodeling. The choice of agent should be based on the underlying etiology and individual response, and is often indicated in cases of pulmonary arterial hypertension (group 1).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In the context of chronic PTE, particularly in patients not eligible for pulmonary endarterectomy or with persistent hypertension after surgery, riociguat is currently the only drug approved with a specific indication. This drug promotes vasodilation and reverse remodeling of the pulmonary vasculature. Robust evidence of efficacy was demonstrated in the study.CHEST-1,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> and more recently reinforced in the RACE trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> which compared riociguat to BPA in patients with inoperable chronic PTE. The study showed significant improvement in pulmonary hemodynamics and functional capacity in the riociguat-treated group. Furthermore, one of the main findings of the RACE study was a significant reduction in periprocedural complications in patients treated with riociguat before BPA.</p>
				<p>The 2022 ESC European Guideline on Pulmonary Hypertension strongly recommends the use of riociguat as first-line therapy in patients with chronic PTE who are not candidates for surgery or who have residual hypertension after endarterectomy. Riociguat use should be monitored by a specialized team, with regular functional and hemodynamic monitoring.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment of underlying lung disease</title>
				<p>Group 3 pulmonary hypertension is commonly associated with three conditions: COPD/emphysema, pulmonary fibrosis, and hypoventilation syndromes. Therapy should be targeted to each of these underlying lung diseases. It is worth remembering that in cases of hypoxemia, oxygen support is indicated, as is ventilatory support (for conditions related to hypoventilation).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment of left heart failure</title>
				<p>RHF secondary to left heart disease should be treated according to the underlying disease. LHF (with reduced or preserved EF) and valvular heart disease (aortic stenosis/insufficiency and mitral stenosis/insufficiency) should be treated according to current guidelines to alleviate RV afterload. Right-sided catheterization is indicated to understand RV function better and to define the pre- and post-capillary components of PH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Specific treatments</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Surgical or percutaneous repair of congenital heart diseases</title>
				<p>Treatment of RHF related to congenital heart disease often requires interventions to correct structural alterations that impact RV preload and afterload. Correction of these abnormalities can be performed through percutaneous or surgical approaches, depending on the anatomy and degree of hemodynamic impact.</p>
				<p>However, it is crucial to recognize that patients with severe pulmonary hypertension associated with intracardiac shunts are at high risk of complications, especially Eisenmenger syndrome. In these cases, defect correction can precipitate acute RV failure and hemodynamic collapse. According to the European guideline for Congenital Heart Disease in adults, pulmonary vascular resistance ≥ 5 Wood’s units with optimized clinical treatment or physiology compatible with Eisenmenger syndrome (with desaturation during exercise) contraindicate defect correction. In cases with borderline values, therapeutic decisions should always consider the individual risk-benefit analysis and the possibility of prior treatment with pulmonary vasodilators before definitive intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pericardial diseases</title>
				<p>Cardiac tamponade is a medical emergency that requires immediate intervention to relieve cardiac compression caused by fluid accumulation in the pericardial space. The treatment of choice is pericardiocentesis. Constrictive pericarditis, on the other hand, is a chronic condition characterized by thickening and stiffness of the pericardium. The definitive treatment is pericardiectomy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Acute myocardial infarction</title>
				<p>RV infarction with acute RHF requires a specific therapeutic approach: early revascularization of the culprit coronary artery, preferably by primary angioplasty, is essential to limit the extent of the infarction and preserve RV function.</p>
				<p>Volume replacement should be carefully adjusted to maintain adequate preload and optimize cardiac output, avoiding both hypovolemia and systemic congestion. The use of nitrates and other vasodilators should be avoided, as they can reduce preload and worsen hypotension. In patients with right-sided cardiogenic shock, vasopressor support may be necessary to maintain systemic perfusion, while inotropic agents can be used to improve RV contractility.</p>
				<p>Conduction disturbances are common in RV infarction, especially atrioventricular blocks and sinoatrial node dysfunction, and may justify the need for a temporary pacemaker in cases of symptomatic bradyarrhythmias or significant hemodynamic impairment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment of pacemaker-related right heart failure</title>
				<p>Treatment of RHF related to chronic RV pacing by a pacemaker involves strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of this therapy. Biventricular pacing (Bi-V) may be considered as a treatment for this condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Other alternatives are the search for more physiological stimulation in the His bundle or in the left branch area, which has shown superior results to isolated RV stimulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The presence of transvalvular device leads can compromise tricuspid valve leaflet coaptation, leading to significant tricuspid regurgitation. Specific interventions to treat lead-induced tricuspid regurgitation, such as lead replacement or percutaneous procedures like the Triclip, may be considered to correct valve incompetence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Cardiogenic shock: Use of inotropes</title>
			<p>Cardiogenic shock secondary to RHF is characterized by the right ventricle’s inability to generate sufficient output for the pulmonary circulation, resulting in severe systemic hypoperfusion. Immediate management aims to restore ventricular contractility and improve pulmonary blood flow through the use of inotropic agents. Among the most commonly used drugs, dobutamine is frequently indicated for its selective positive inotropic effect, increasing RV contractility without causing significant vasoconstriction. In cases of associated hypotension, norepinephrine may be added to maintain systemic blood pressure (essential for maintaining coronary perfusion) without compromising cardiac output. Vasopressin may also be added.</p>
			<p>Milrinone, a phosphodiesterase III inhibitor, is also considered in cases of associated pulmonary hypertension due to its selective inotropic and vasodilatory properties for the pulmonary circulation. However, its use requires caution in patients with significant hypotension (due to its effect on systemic vascular resistance). Another inotropic agent to consider is levosimedan, a calcium sensitizer and potassium channel facilitator that has shown hemodynamic improvement in RHF. On the other hand, digitalis has no role as an inotropic agent in RHF and may even be harmful. The choice of inotropic agent should be based on a precise hemodynamic assessment, preferably guided by parameters obtained by right-sided catheterization, aiming to balance improvement in ventricular contractility with maintenance of systemic perfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Mechanical circulatory support</title>
			<p>In cases of cardiogenic shock refractory to pharmacological treatment, mechanical circulatory support (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>) emerges as a crucial strategy for hemodynamic stabilization and as a bridge to recovery, heart transplantation, or definitive therapeutic decision.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t3">
					<label>Table 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Mechanical circulatory support devices</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="left">Device</th>
								<th align="left">Indication/Use</th>
								<th align="left">Observations</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>Veno-Arterial ECMO (VA-ECMO)</td>
								<td>Biventricular support; bridge to decision in critically ill patients.</td>
								<td>Cannulas can be inserted into the RA and PA for immediate relief of afterload.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>RV Assist Devices (Tandem-RVAD, Protek Duo)</td>
								<td>Specific RV support; bridge to transplant or recovery.</td>
								<td>Implantable or percutaneous; do not directly affect the LV.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Intra-Aortic Balloon Pump (IABP)</td>
								<td>Selected cases; reduces LV afterload and improves RV-LV coupling.</td>
								<td>Controversial for RV; may be useful after ECMO for afterload relief.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Percutaneous device (Impella RP)</td>
								<td>Refractory shock; continuous flow to the PA and relief of RV overload.</td>
								<td>Percutaneous insertion; temporary use.</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN3">
							<p>RA: right atrium; PA: pulmonary artery; ECMO: extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; RV: right ventricle; LV: left ventricle. Source:<sup>50,51</sup></p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Bilateral heart, cardiopulmonary, and lung transplantation</title>
			<p>Transplantation represents the definitive therapy for patients with advanced RHF refractory to other strategies. The choice of transplant type depends fundamentally on the underlying etiology: patients with severe PAH without significant left ventricular impairment are preferred candidates for bilateral lung transplantation; individuals with complex congenital heart disease, particularly those with complex intracardiac anatomy or univentricular circulation, may require heart-lung transplantation. In cases of refractory biventricular failure, isolated heart transplantation may be considered. Careful selection of candidates, including assessment of comorbidities, functional status, surgical risk, and absolute or relative contraindications, should be performed by a multidisciplinary team specialized in heart failure and transplantation, in accordance with updated international guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Palliative care</title>
			<p>Palliative care represents a multidisciplinary approach aimed at alleviating suffering in patients with chronic diseases such as RHF. It should be initiated early and maintained throughout the disease’s progression. It involves symptomatic control, communication about prognosis, and care planning, including treatment limitations. Although all professionals should be involved in this management, specialized teams contribute to better clinical decisions and quality of life, and current guidelines recommend their structured integration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>Right heart failure is a complex condition with a significant impact on patient prognosis, especially when associated with pulmonary hypertension and structural RV disease. Effective management requires an individualized approach, based on a detailed hemodynamic assessment and identification of the underlying etiology. Strategies such as preload optimization, afterload reduction, and advanced circulatory support are essential to stabilize patients and improve RV function. It is important to recognize each condition, allowing for targeted interventions that can bring significant benefits to patients.</p>
			<p>The clinical case presented reinforces the importance of a multidisciplinary approach and escalated treatment in patients with severe RHF. It is worth noting that there are few reports of rescue BPA for the treatment of cardiogenic shock, and this is the first case in the literature in which percutaneous treatment was used as a bridge to surgical treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Furthermore, the percutaneous procedure performed in the case cited in this article had some quite notable characteristics. In addition to periprocedural hemodynamic and clinical instability, the decision was made to perform dilations in more proximal vessels than usually recommended. This approach was part of a shared judgment decision by the multidisciplinary team, which was aware of the associated risks, but it culminated in significant clinical and hemodynamic improvement, allowing surgical treatment. The combination of percutaneous and surgical therapies enabled the recovery of right ventricular function and the patient’s clinical rehabilitation, highlighting the need for personalized strategies for each hemodynamic profile. With advances in diagnostic and therapeutic techniques, continued improvement in the management of RHF is expected, reducing morbidity and improving clinical outcomes for these patients.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Study association:</label>
				<p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Ethics approval and consent to participate:</label>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<label>Sources of funding:</label>
				<p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20250017</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Tratamento Avançado da Insuficiência Cardíaca Direita: Caso ilustrativo</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2402-2565</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Crivelaro</surname>
						<given-names>Pedro Castilhos de Freitas</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5514-2562</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Machado</surname>
						<given-names>Guilherme Pinheiro</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0086-1890</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Gazzana</surname>
						<given-names>Marcelo Basso</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2756-9040</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Lorenzi</surname>
						<given-names>William</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6527-9805</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Benedetto</surname>
						<given-names>Igor Gorski</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7102-6644</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Valle</surname>
						<given-names>Felipe Homem</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7596-2827</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Wainstein</surname>
						<given-names>Rodrigo Vugman</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre – Cardiologia, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência</label>: Guilherme Pinheiro Machado • Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre - Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. CEP 90035-903, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil E-mail: gpmachado89@gmail.com, guimachado@hcpa.edu.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Fabiana Marcondes-Braga</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca direita (ICD) é uma condição grave caracterizada pela falência do ventrículo direito em gerar débito suficiente para a circulação pulmonar, resultando em congestão sistêmica e hipoperfusão. O manejo adequado da ICD é essencial para melhorar prognóstico e qualidade de vida, sendo necessário um tratamento individualizado baseado na avaliação hemodinâmica.</p>
				<p>Este artigo revisa fisiopatologia, diagnóstico e opções terapêuticas para a ICD, incluindo estratégias de otimização da pré-carga, redução da pós-carga e suporte circulatório avançado. Além disso, apresenta-se um caso clínico de uma paciente com ICD grave secundária a tromboembolismo pulmonar crônico e insuficiência tricúspide primária tratada com abordagem híbrida envolvendo angioplastia pulmonar por balão e tromboendarterectomia pulmonar associada a plastia valvar cirúrgica, resultando em melhora funcional significativa. Esta revisão reforça a importância de estratégias personalizadas e terapias combinadas na abordagem da ICD avançada.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Hipertensão Pulmonar</kwd>
				<kwd>Ventrículos do Coração</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de financiamento:</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central:</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Tratamento Avançado da Insuficiência Cardíaca Direita: Caso ilustrativo</title>
							<p>Criado em biorender.com</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-2-e20250017-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca direita (ICD) é uma síndrome clínica caracterizada por disfunção do ventrículo direito (VD) que resulta em fluxo sanguíneo pulmonar inadequado e/ou aumento das pressões de enchimento, seja em repouso ou durante condições fisiológicas de maior demanda, como exercício, crescimento ou gestação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Essa condição pode ocorrer de forma isolada ou associada à insuficiência cardíaca esquerda, e pode resultar de diferentes mecanismos fisiopatológicos, que serão descritos neste artigo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A ICD está associada a um prognóstico desfavorável, especialmente quando combinada com insuficiência cardíaca esquerda (ICE). Além dos pacientes com disfunção ventricular esquerda, os pacientes com HAP que apresentam ICD também apresentam pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Este artigo visa revisar a fisiopatologia, diagnóstico e alternativas de tratamento da ICD. Além disso, será apresentado um caso clínico manejado pelos autores deste capítulo no Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="cases">
				<title>Caso Clínico</title>
				<p>Paciente do sexo feminino, 48 anos, com histórico de hipertensão pulmonar por tromboembolismo crônico (HPTEC) e insuficiência tricúspide grave, transferida ao Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre com disfunção grave do VD e choque cardiogênico. Apresentava classificação INTERMACS 3 (deterioração progressiva) com necessidade de suporte inotrópico (milrinone 0,4 µg/kg/min) e vasopressor (noradrenalina 0,1 µg/kg/min) para manter a perfusão sistêmica. O ecocardiograma revelou hipertrofia e dilatação do VD, hipocinesia significativa da parede livre, aumento da pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar (PSAP = 75 mmHg) e regurgitação tricúspide grave por flail do folheto posterior (vena contracta = 9mm), sugerindo hipertensão pulmonar secundária ao tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP) crônico associada a incompetência da valva tricúspide. Angiotomografia (AngioTC) de artérias pulmonares demonstrou amputação por trombose crônica de ramo lobar inferior esquerdo, bem como áreas de estenose e dilatação no sistema arterial pulmonar, além de importante dilatação de câmaras cardíacas direitas com inversão do septo interventricular.</p>
				<p>Realizado cateterismo cardíaco direito que demonstrou hipertensão pulmonar pré-capilar com resistência vascular pulmonar elevada e sinais hemodinâmicos (invasivos e não-invasivos) de mau prognóstico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>). Além disso, a arteriografia pulmonar demonstrou defeitos de enchimento bilaterais compatíveis com embolia pulmonar crônica e ausência de perfusão do lobo inferior esquerdo.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1002">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Dados hemodinâmicos da estratégia APB como terapia ponte para tratamento cirúrgico definitivo</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Exame</th>
									<th align="left">Parâmetros avaliados</th>
									<th align="left">Pré Angioplastia Pulmonar por Balão</th>
									<th align="left">Após Angioplastia Pulmonar por Balão</th>
									<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> Após Tratamento cirúrgico definitivo </th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="8">Cateterismo direito</td>
									<td>Átrio direito</td>
									<td>20 mmHg</td>
									<td>10 mmHg</td>
									<td>3 mmHg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Ventrículo direito</td>
									<td>90 mmHg</td>
									<td>58 mmHg</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Artéria pulmonar</td>
									<td>90/35/53 mmHg</td>
									<td>58/27/37 mmHg</td>
									<td>47/22/30 mmHg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Pressão de oclusão da artéria pulmonar</td>
									<td>12 mmHg</td>
									<td>12 mmHg</td>
									<td>*</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Índice cardíaco</td>
									<td>2,5 L/min/m<sup>2</sup></td>
									<td>3,2 L/min/m<sup>2</sup></td>
									<td>2,7 L/min/m<sup>2</sup></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Resistência vascular pulmonar</td>
									<td>8,5 Wood</td>
									<td>4,5 Wood</td>
									<td>*</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Resistência pulmonar total</td>
									<td>7,5 Wood</td>
									<td>6,6 Wood</td>
									<td>6,3 Wood</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Complacência vascular pulmonar</td>
									<td>1,1 ml/mmHg</td>
									<td>1,67 ml/mmHg</td>
									<td>1,7 ml/mmHg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="3">Ecocardiograma</td>
									<td>FAC</td>
									<td>20%</td>
									<td>23%</td>
									<td>24%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Dimensões VD</td>
									<td>52 mm</td>
									<td>53 mm</td>
									<td>45 mm</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Fração ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo</td>
									<td>75%</td>
									<td>76%</td>
									<td>53%</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1002">
								<p>*Medidas hemodinâmicas obtidas imediatamente antes da retirada do cateter de artéria pulmonar no PO da tromboendarterectomia. Nestas circunstâncias não se mede a pressão de oclusão da artéria pulmonar (POAP) tendo em vista o risco de ruptura das áreas manipuladas durante o procedimento. Fonte: autores.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Diante da gravidade do quadro e contraindicação inicial para endarterectomia pulmonar devido à instabilidade clínica, optou-se por angioplastia pulmonar percutânea com balão (APB) como terapia de resgate. Sob suporte de oxigenoterapia por cânula nasal de alto fluxo, a paciente foi submetida a duas sessões de APB, direcionadas a ramos segmentares e subsegmentares da artéria pulmonar direita, nas seguintes topografias: A3 (segmento anterior do lobo superior), A4 (segmento lateral do lobo médio), A6 (segmento superior do lobo inferior), A7 (segmento medial basal do lobo inferior) e A8 (segmento anterior basal do lobo inferior). Houve sucesso do procedimento com importante melhora hemodinâmica global (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>), permitindo a redução progressiva dos inotrópicos e a retirada completa da noradrenalina após a segunda sessão. A terapia endovascular permitiu a suspensão tanto dos fármacos vasoativos quanto da oxigenoterapia, com consequente alta do centro de terapia intensiva. O teste de caminhada de seis minutos após duas sessões de APB teve 347 m na distância percorrida sem dessaturação significativa. Ecocardiogramas seriados evidenciaram recuperação parcial da função do VD com redução da dilatação ventricular.</p>
				<p>Com a estabilização hemodinâmica e melhora funcional, a paciente foi reavaliada para tratamento definitivo. Foi então indicada e realizada tromboendarterectomia pulmonar bilateral, associada à plastia valvar tricúspide no mesmo tempo cirúrgico, sem intercorrências intraoperatórias. Sob parada circulatória total em hipotermia profunda, foram removidos trombos organizados em artérias lobares, segmentares e subsegmentares, bilateralmente. Mesmo os vasos previamente tratados com APB foram abordados. Durante a cirurgia foi confirmada a ruptura de parte da cordoalha do folheto posterior, causando disfunção valvar tricúspide significativa. A plastia valvar consistiu em fundir a comissura póstero-anterior, resultando em uma válvula bicúspide competente. No pós-operatório, a paciente evoluiu favoravelmente. A anticoagulação foi iniciada cerca de 6 horas após o término da cirurgia. Necessitou de doses baixas de vasopressor por 48 horas. Decidiu-se reiniciar o uso de riociguate no 3º pós-operatório devido à pressão média na artéria pulmonar (mantida em entre 28 e 33 mmHg) a fim de facilitar o manejo da insuficiência tricúspide residual (pela dilatação do anel relacionada ao grande aumento atrial direito). Teve alta hospitalar no 13º dia pós-operatório, em classe funcional I pela New York Heart Association (NYHA). A combinação de angioplastia pulmonar por balão e tromboendarterectomia pulmonar associada ao reparo valvar tricúspide mostrou-se uma estratégia eficaz para a recuperação significativa da função ventricular direita e melhora clínica em um caso complexo de ICD associada a TEP crônico refratário ao manejo farmacológico.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Etiologia e fisiopatologia da insuficiência cardíaca direita</title>
					<p>A ICD decorre de condições que comprometem a função do VD por diferentes mecanismos fisiopatológicos que serão descritos neste tópico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
					<sec>
						<title>Sobrecarga de pressão</title>
						<p><bold>Hipertensão arterial pulmonar – Grupo 1</bold></p>
						<p>Distúrbio vascular pulmonar caracterizado por remodelamento arteriolar progressivo, com elevação crônica da resistência vascular pulmonar, na ausência de causas secundárias.</p>
						<p><bold>Hipertensão pulmonar associada a doenças cardíacas esquerdas – Grupo 2</bold></p>
						<p>Resulta do aumento crônico da pressão venosa pulmonar, secundário à disfunção do ventrículo esquerdo (com fração de ejeção reduzida ou preservada), disfunção valvar (mitral ou aórtica) e outras condições relacionadas a doenças cardíacas esquerdas que levam à hipertensão venocapilar.</p>
						<p><bold>Hipertensão pulmonar associada a doenças pulmonares e/ou hipóxia – Grupo 3</bold></p>
						<p>Inclui doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica (DPOC), fibrose pulmonar e distúrbios ventilatórios combinados, onde a vasoconstrição hipóxica crônica, a destruição do parênquima e o remodelamento do leito vascular pulmonar causam aumento da resistência ao fluxo sanguíneo. Hipoxemia sem doença pulmonar primária, como síndrome de hipoventilação, HP relacionada à elevada altitude e doenças do desenvolvimento pulmonar também estão incluídas neste grupo.</p>
						<p><bold>Hipertensão pulmonar associada a obstruções da artéria pulmonar – Grupo 4</bold></p>
						<p>A hipertensão pulmonar devido ao TEP crônico caracteriza-se por obstrução persistente das artérias pulmonares por trombos organizados, com remodelamento secundário do leito vascular remanescente. Sarcomas e vasculites são causas mais raras.</p>
						<p><bold>Hipertensão pulmonar de mecanismo incerto e/ou multifatorial – Grupo 5</bold></p>
						<p>Envolve doenças sistêmicas, distúrbios hematológicos e metabólicos, onde múltiplos fatores – incluindo inflamação crônica e disfunção endotelial – contribuem para a elevação da pressão arterial pulmonar.</p>
						<p><bold>Cardiopatias congênitas obstrutivas do trato de saída do VD</bold></p>
						<p>Como a estenose pulmonar, tetralogia de Fallot e atresia pulmonar.</p>
						<p><bold>Condições que elevam a pressão intratorácica</bold></p>
						<p>Ventilação mecânica com pressão positiva excessiva, pneumotórax hipertensivo e derrames pleurais volumosos.</p>
						<p><bold>Acidose sistêmica</bold></p>
						<p>A presença de acidose por qualquer causa induz a vasoconstrição arterial pulmonar aumentando a resistência vascular pulmonar e a pós-carga do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Sobrecarga de Volume</title>
				<p><bold>Cardiopatias congênitas com shunt esquerda-direita</bold></p>
				<p>A persistência do canal arterial (PCA), comunicação interatrial (CIA) e comunicação interventricular (CIV) promovem hiperfluxo pulmonar crônico, causando dilatação do VD e, eventualmente, hipertensão pulmonar secundária (ex.: síndrome de Eisenmenger).</p>
				<p><bold>Regurgitação valvar direita</bold></p>
				<p>A insuficiência tricúspide primária ou secundária, bem como a insuficiência pulmonar após reparos cirúrgicos, aumentam o volume diastólico final do VD, aumentando a pré-carga e contribuindo, a longo prazo, para a dilatação ventricular.</p>
				<p><bold>Fibrilação atrial crônica</bold></p>
				<p>A fibrilação atrial crônica pode levar à dilatação do átrio direito e do anel tricúspide, promovendo insuficiência tricúspide funcional e, consequentemente, sobrecarga volumétrica do VD.</p>
				<p><bold>Hipervolemia sistêmica</bold></p>
				<p>A hipervolemia de causas extracardíacas (politransfusão, uso excessivo de soroterapia, insuficiência renal dialítica e cirrose) também pode levar à sobrecarga de volume do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Disfunção contrátil</title>
				<p><bold>Doença arterial coronariana</bold></p>
				<p>A oclusão aguda da artéria coronária direita proximal pode resultar em disfunção sistólica aguda do VD, levando a instabilidade hemodinâmica. Pacientes com doença isquêmica crônica do VD também podem evoluir com ICD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p><bold>Miocardites e doenças infiltrativas</bold></p>
				<p>Processos inflamatórios, como a miocardite viral, bem como doenças como a sarcoidose e a amiloidose, promovem fibrose e infiltração miocárdica, afetando a função sistólica e diastólica do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p><bold>Displasia arritmogênica do ventrículo direito (DAVD)</bold></p>
				<p>Doença genética caracterizada pela substituição fibroadiposa do miocárdio do VD, que resulta em disfunção progressiva, arritmias ventriculares e elevado risco de morte súbita.</p>
				<p><bold>Uso de dispositivo de assistência ventricular esquerda (DAVE)</bold></p>
				<p>O implante de DAVE pode exacerbar a disfunção do VD ao aumentar o retorno venoso e redistribuir a pré-carga, impondo um desafio adicional a um VD já comprometido.</p>
				<p><bold>Pós-transplante cardíaco</bold></p>
				<p>A disfunção do VD no período pós-transplante pode ocorrer devido a preservação miocárdica subótima, hipertensão pulmonar preexistente ou incompatibilidade entre o enxerto e o receptor.</p>
				<p><bold>Injúria isquêmica ou mecânica após cardiotomia</bold></p>
				<p>Durante cirurgias cardíacas, o VD pode sofrer lesão direta ou isquemia perioperatória, especialmente em contextos de circulação extracorpórea prolongada, resultando em comprometimento contrátil transitório ou persistente.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Doenças do pericárdio</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Pericardite constritiva</title>
					<p>O espessamento e calcificação do pericárdio (cujas causas mais comuns são pericardite viral prévia, radioterapia, cirurgia cardíaca, tuberculose e colagenoses) restringem a expansão do VD, resultando em enchimento ventricular precoce e colapso diastólico, com elevação da pressão atrial direita (PAD).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tamponamento cardíaco</title>
					<p>O acúmulo agudo de líquido pericárdico, quando sob pressão elevada, leva ao colapso diastólico das câmaras direitas, prejudicando o retorno venoso e causando choque obstrutivo. As etiologias mais frequentes são traumas, complicações iatrogênicas, neoplasias malignas, infecções, uremia, infarto e colagenoses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Outros mecanismos</title>
				<p><bold>Estimulação crônica com marca-passo</bold></p>
				<p>A estimulação crônica do VD, especialmente por meio de dispositivos de marca-passo implantados na região apical, pode induzir padrões de ativação elétrica não fisiológicos, contribuindo para a dissincronia contrátil e remodelamento adverso do VD. Além dos efeitos deletérios decorrentes da estimulação crônica do VD, a presença dos cabos dos dispositivos de marca-passo pode interferir mecanicamente na função da válvula tricúspide, gerando incompetência da mesma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<sec>
					<title>Interdependência ventricular</title>
					<p>Devido à anatomia compartilhada e ao pericárdio comum, alterações no volume ou na pressão de um ventrículo afetam diretamente o outro. Na ICD, a dilatação do VD pode deslocar o septo interventricular para a esquerda, comprometendo o enchimento diastólico e a função sistólica do VE, exacerbando a insuficiência cardíaca global.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Desbalanço entre oferta e demanda de oxigênio</title>
					<p>A hipertrofia ventricular direita aumenta a demanda metabólica do miocárdio. Simultaneamente, a elevação das pressões diastólicas finais pode comprometer a perfusão coronariana do VD, especialmente durante episódios de hipotensão ou hipoxemia, levando à isquemia miocárdica e disfunção contrátil.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Obesidade e resistência à insulina</title>
					<p>A obesidade e resistência à insulina são potenciais fatores de risco modificáveis com impacto prognóstico na ICD que merecem ser lembrados. Em pacientes com cardiomiopatia dilatada ou hipertensão pulmonar, o diabetes está associado a piora da função sistólica e diastólica do VD. Os mecanismos envolvidos incluem fibrose, inflamação, isquemia microvascular e acúmulo lipídico miocárdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A obesidade influencia negativamente a função do VD ao aumentar a pré-carga, pós-carga e comprometer a contratilidade. Indivíduos obesos com insuficiência cardíaca e fração de ejeção preservada apresentam maior dilatação do VD, elevação das pressões pulmonares e pior desempenho dos sarcômeros, além de maior interdependência ventricular e restrição pericárdica, quando comparados a indivíduos não obesos. Além disso, os distúrbios respiratórios do sono, frequentes na obesidade, também contribuem para a disfunção do VD ao elevar as pressões pulmonares e sistêmicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Manifestações clínicas</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Sintomas</title>
					<p>Os principais sintomas da ICD refletem a congestão venosa sistêmica, a redução do débito cardíaco e a hipoperfusão tecidual:</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Dispneia e intolerância ao exercício.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Ortopneia e dispneia paroxística noturna (menos frequente).</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Edema periférico.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Ascite e distensão abdominal.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Dor ou desconforto no hipocôndrio direito.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Náuseas e vômitos (congestão do trato gastrointestinal e ao edema da parede intestinal).</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Perda de peso e caquexia cardíaca (estágios avançados).</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Exame físico</title>
					<p><bold>Sinais de Congestão Venosa Sistêmica</bold></p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Turgência jugular patológica.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Refluxo hepatojugular.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Sinal de Kussmaul (ausência da diminuição fisiológica ou, em alguns casos, pelo aumento paradoxal da pressão venosa jugular durante a inspiração).</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Hepatomegalia e dor à palpação hepática.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Ascite.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Edema periférico.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p><bold>Achados Cardiopulmonares</bold></p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>B1 normal ou hipofonética; B2 com hiperfonética.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Sopro sistólico ou holossistólico em borda esternal inferior direita (insuficiência tricúspide funcional). Esse sopro se intensifica durante a inspiração profunda, um achado conhecido como manobra de Rivero-Carvalho.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Desdobramento fixo de B2: se comunicação interatrial associada.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Pulso paradoxal: tamponamento cardíaco e, ocasionalmente, em ICD avançada.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Pulso venoso jugular com ondas anormais: <list list-type="bullet">
									<list-item>
										<p>Onda A gigante: Sugere disfunção diastólica do VD (p. ex., estenose tricúspide ou hipertrofia significativa).</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Onda V proeminente: Indicativa de insuficiência tricúspide significativa.</p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Sopro diastólico de regurgitação pulmonar: sopro diastólico protodiastólico, geralmente em decrescendo, indicativo de hipertensão pulmonar grave.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Terceira bulha de VD: enchimento rápido ventricular - disfunção sistólica do VD.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Quarta bulha de VD: enchimento atrial forçado de um VD não complacente.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Impulsão paraesternal esquerda: Sinal de hipertrofia ou dilatação do VD.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Derrame pleural.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p><bold>Manifestações Sistêmicas Avançadas</bold></p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Hipotensão arterial.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Perfusão periférica reduzida.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Cianose central ou periférica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Exames complementares</title>
				<p>Diversos exames complementares podem ser utilizados na ICD; os principais estão resumidos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">Tabela 2</xref>.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2002">
						<label>Tabela 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Exames complementares utilizados na ICD</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Exame</th>
									<th align="left">Subitem</th>
									<th align="left">Considerações Principais</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="4">Laboratoriais</td>
									<td>BNP/NT-proBNP</td>
									<td>Avaliar estresse miocárdico e prognóstico. Correlaciona-se com a gravidade da ICD.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Função hepática</td>
									<td>Avaliar congestão hepática crônica. Transaminases, GGT e FA elevadas.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Função renal</td>
									<td>Monitorar perfusão renal. Elevação de creatinina e ureia; ↓ TFG.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Hemograma</td>
									<td>Avaliar alterações hematológicas.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Eletrocardiograma</td>
									<td>Eletrocardiograma</td>
									<td>Desvio do eixo para a direita, dilatação do átrio direito, hipertrofia do VD (ex.: ondas R em V1), bloqueio de ramo direito, arritmias atriais, padrão S1Q3T3 sugerindo TEP.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="7">Ecocardiograma</td>
									<td>TAPSE</td>
									<td>&lt;17 mm indica disfunção VD.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Onda S’ (Doppler tecidual)</td>
									<td>≤9,5 cm/s indica disfunção VD.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>FAC</td>
									<td>&lt;35% indicam disfunção VD.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Strain VD</td>
									<td>Alterações precoces na contratilidade (especialmente na parede livre).</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Morfologia e dimensões</td>
									<td>Permite a identificação de remodelamentos, como dilatação ou hipertrofia (sobrecarga crônica).</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Valvopatias</td>
									<td>Inclui análise da tricúspide e pulmonar.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Interdependência ventricular</td>
									<td>Deslocamento do septo interventricular para a esquerda</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Ecocardiograma Transesofágico</td>
									<td>Ecocardiograma Transesofágico</td>
									<td>Pode ser indicado para avaliar shunts, anomalias valvares, e estruturas posteriores.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="6">Ecografia Beira-leito</td>
									<td>VExUS</td>
									<td>Avaliação de congestão sistêmica. Inclui veias hepáticas, portais e renais.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>VCI</td>
									<td>Estimativa indireta da PVC.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Sinal de McConnell</td>
									<td>Sinal sugestivo de TEP agudo.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Relação VD/VE, trombos e tamponamento cardíaco</td>
									<td>Importante no manejo imediato.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Ecografia vascular</td>
									<td>Trombose venosa sugere etiologia tromboembólica para ICD.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Ecografia pleuropulmonar</td>
									<td>Sinais de congestão (presença de linhas B, derrame pleural); Pneumotórax; Infarto pulmonar.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="3">Ressonância Magnética</td>
									<td>Volumes e fração de ejeção do VD e shunts</td>
									<td>Padrão-ouro para volumes e FEVD. Índice de volume sistólico e telessistólico. Identificação de shunts intracardíacos.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Caracterização tecidual</td>
									<td>Realce tardio com gadolínio.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Avaliação de strain e pericárdio</td>
									<td>Útil em ARVC, pericardite e miocardites.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="5">Cateterismo Direito</td>
									<td>Estratificação da HP</td>
									<td>Identificação dos componentes pré e pós capilar.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Parâmetros avançados</td>
									<td>– Complacência vascular pulmonar – Índice de pulsatilidade da artéria pulmonar (PAPI) – reserva funcional do VD; – Índice do trabalho do VD; – Relação entre pressão do átrio direito e a POAP; – Potência cardíaca (CPO)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Planejamento terapêutico e suporte mecânico</td>
									<td>Fundamental para escalonamento de suporte.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Etapas complementares, como teste provocativo (hídrico e/ou exercício) e vasorreatividade.</td>
									<td>Podem guiar estratégia terapêutica (tratamento farmacológico ou decisão sobre transplante cardíaco)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Arteriografia pulmonar</td>
									<td>Realizado junto ao cateterismo direito para planejamento de APB</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Angiotomografia de Tórax</td>
									<td>Angiotomografia de Tórax</td>
									<td>Visualiza trombos, vias aéreas e alterações estruturais. Ajuda no planejamento cirúrgico ou percutâneo da HPTEC.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Cintilografia Ventilação-Perfusão</td>
									<td>Cintilografia Ventilação-Perfusão</td>
									<td>Fundamental na HPTEC. Permite a diferenciação entre alterações vasculares e parenquimatosas.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Provas de função pulmonar</td>
									<td>Espirometria Volumes pulmonares Difusão pulmonar Teste de exercício submáximo e máximo</td>
									<td>Avaliação funcional em paciente com HP (como causa ou consequência da HP). Avaliação da capacidade de exercício basal e no seguimento.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>PET CT</td>
									<td>PET CT</td>
									<td>Auxilia na identificação de sarcoidose cardíaca, neoplasias e vasculites.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Ecografia abdominal</td>
									<td>Exame com doppler</td>
									<td>Avaliação de hepatopatia crônica e esquistossomose.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Polissonografia</td>
									<td>Polissonografia</td>
									<td>Investigar distúrbios respiratórios do sono</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2002">
								<p>BNP: peptídeo natriurético tipo B; NT-proBNP: N-terminal do pró-peptídeo natriurético tipo B; ICD: insuficiência cardíaca direita; GGT: Gama-glutamil transferase; FA: fosfatase alcalina; TFG: taxa de filtração glomerular; VD: ventrículo direito; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; TAPSE: tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion; FAC: fractional area change; VExUS: Venous Excess Ultrasound Score; PVC: pressão venosa central; VCI: veia cava inferior; ARVC: arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy; HP: hipertensão pulmonar; APB: angioplastia pulmonar com balão; HPTEC: hipertensão pulmonar tromboembólica crônica; PET-CT: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons associada à tomografia computadorizada. Fontes:<sup>16-27</sup></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Acoplamento do ventrículo direito com a artéria pulmonar</title>
					<p>O acoplamento entre a contratilidade do VD e a pós-carga imposta pela circulação pulmonar (RV-PA <italic>coupling</italic>) é um conceito hemodinâmico essencial para avaliar a adaptação do VD à hipertensão pulmonar. Esse acoplamento é representado pela relação entre a elastância sistólica do VD (Ees), um parâmetro de contratilidade independente da carga, e a elastância arterial efetiva (Ea), que reflete a pós-carga. Em condições normais, essa relação (Ees:Ea) varia entre 1,5 e 2,0, indicando um acoplamento eficiente, no qual a energia gerada pelo VD é transferida de maneira otimizada para a circulação pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na hipertensão pulmonar, ocorre inicialmente um aumento compensatório de Ees para contrabalançar o aumento da pós-carga (Ea) e manter o acoplamento. No entanto, à medida que a capacidade contrátil do VD se esgota, Ea continua a aumentar de forma desproporcional a Ees, levando ao desacoplamento progressivo do VD e ao comprometimento hemodinâmico. Valores de Ees:Ea abaixo de 0,6-0,8 indicam desacoplamento severo e estão associados a pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A mensuração direta do acoplamento RV-PA exige cateterismo direito com análise de curvas pressão-volume, um método complexo e de difícil aplicação na prática clínica diária. Alternativamente, existem parâmetros ecocardiográficos que estimam este valor de forma menos acurada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Tratamento</title>
				<p>O manejo da ICD deve ser baseado em uma abordagem individualizada, levando em consideração o estado volêmico, a etiologia subjacente e a cronicidade da condição. Medidas gerais são recomendadas, entre elas: suporte nutricional, atividade física incluindo reabilitação cardiopulmonar, imunizações, anticoncepção, orientações para viagens e procedimentos, bem como acompanhamento psicológico. Neste sentido, uma abordagem multiprofissional é essencial para o sucesso do atendimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O tratamento da ICD tem peculiaridades de acordo com o cenário envolvido (por exemplo: se é um quadro agudo, crônico ou crônico agudizado). Neste sentido é importante utilizar metas terapêuticas, visando orientar as monitorizações necessárias e o manejo na prática clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Otimização da pré-carga</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Ajuste da Volemia</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Em pacientes com ICD crônica com importante retenção hídrica, o uso de diuréticos de alça está indicado. Pode ser associado diurético tiazídico em casos refratários.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Em casos de congestão refratária, a ultrafiltração pode ser considerada para remover volume excessivo, evitando efeitos colaterais relacionados a altas doses de diuréticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Vale lembrar que o tratamento farmacológico não inclui apenas retirada de fluidos para melhora de performance do VD. Em situações agudas (como no infarto agudo do miocárdio com comprometimento do VD), pode ser necessário administrar fluidos com cautela para aumentar a pré-carga, corrigir hipotensão e preservar a perfusão sistêmica. Por outro lado, no TEP agudo volumes maiores de 500 ml tendem a agravar a instabilidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Atriotomia com Septostomia</title>
					<p>A realização de uma atriosseptoplastia, criando um shunt interatrial controlado, pode ser uma opção terapêutica em casos avançados de ICD com hipertensão pulmonar. Essa intervenção visa reduzir a PAD, melhorar o débito cardíaco sistêmico e aliviar os sintomas de congestão, atuando como uma terapia-ponte ou paliativa em pacientes selecionados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Entretanto, esta terapia não deve ser realizada em situações agudas e/ou em pacientes com PAD muito elevada (&gt; 20 mmHg) pois o débito cardíaco é dependente em parte do volume de enchimento (pré-carga), bem como em pacientes já hipoxêmicos (saturação sistêmica &lt; 90%) já que o procedimento pode induzir hipoxemia pelo shunt direita-esquerda.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento de regurgitação tricúspide</title>
					<p>A insuficiência tricúspide, frequentemente associada à ICD pode ter diferentes abordagens:</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Cirurgia Convencional:</bold> Em casos de regurgitação tricúspide significativa associada a dilatação do anel ou lesões orgânicas, a plastia valvar ou a troca valvar podem restaurar a competência valvar e melhorar a função do VD.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><bold>Tratamentos Contemporâneos:</bold><list list-type="bullet">
									<list-item>
										<p><bold>Triclip:</bold> Dispositivo percutâneo que utiliza a técnica de clipagem para aproximar os folhetos da valva tricúspide. O estudo Triluminate demonstrou que a reparação transcateter da valva tricúspide é segura e eficaz, resultando em redução significativa da regurgitação tricúspide e melhoria na qualidade de vida dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p><bold>Tricvalve:</bold> Um sistema de válvula percutânea bicaval desenvolvido para tratar a insuficiência tricúspide severa. Sua implantação visa corrigir a incompetência valvar e diminuir a sobrecarga volumétrica do VD. Os estudos de braço único, prospectivos e não randomizados TRICUS e TRICUS Euro demonstraram possível melhoria na qualidade de vida e segurança do dispositivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Vale ressaltar que são necessários estudos randomizados para confirmar estas hipóteses.</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p><bold>Implante Percutâneo de Válvulas:</bold> O maior ensaio clínico de implante de válvula na posição tricúspide é o estudo TRISCEND, que avaliou o sistema de substituição valvar transfemoral EVOQUE. Este ensaio clínico randomizado, controlado e multicêntrico demonstrou que o implante percutâneo da válvula EVOQUE é seguro e eficaz para tratar a regurgitação tricúspide grave, proporcionando potencial melhoria na qualidade de vida dos pacientes (desfecho composto hierárquico avaliado).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Redução da pós-carga</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento Percutâneo e Cirúrgico do TEP Crônico</title>
					<p>Em pacientes com TEP crônico a tromboendarterectomia pulmonar é o padrão-ouro, promovendo a desobstrução das artérias pulmonares e a redução imediata da pós-carga do VD. O tratamento cirúrgico é capaz de reduzir a mortalidade, normalizar a hemodinâmica e melhorar a capacidade funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Quando a tromboendarterectomia não é viável devido a alto risco cirúrgico ou comprometimento anatômico de ramos segmentares ou subsegmentares isoladamente, a APB emerge como uma alternativa percutânea eficaz para melhorar a hemodinâmica pulmonar e a capacidade funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Vasodilatadores pulmonares</title>
					<p>O uso de vasodilatadores específicos, como prostanoides, inibidores da fosfodiesterase-5 (por exemplo, sildenafil), antagonistas dos receptores de endotelina, os estimuladores a guanilato ciclase visa reduzir a resistência vascular pulmonar, aliviando a pós-carga do VD e melhorando o débito cardíaco. O sotatercept, que é um ligante do receptor da activina, tem um mecanismo diferente dos outros vasodilatadores, atuando na reversão do remodelamento vascular. A escolha do agente deve ser baseada na etiologia subjacente e na resposta individual, sendo frequentemente indicada em casos de HAP (grupo 1).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No contexto do TEP crônico, particularmente em pacientes não elegíveis para endarterectomia pulmonar ou com hipertensão persistente após cirurgia, o riociguat é atualmente o único fármaco aprovado com indicação específica. Este fármaco, promove vasodilatação e remodelamento reverso da vasculatura pulmonar. Evidências robustas de eficácia foram demonstradas no estudo CHEST-1,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> e mais recentemente reforçadas no RACE trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> que comparou o riociguat à APB em pacientes com TEP crônico inoperável. O estudo mostrou melhora significativa da hemodinâmica pulmonar e capacidade funcional no grupo tratado com riociguat. Além disso, um dos principais achados do estudo RACE foi a diminuição expressiva de complicações periprocedimento nos pacientes tratados com Riociguat antes da APB.</p>
					<p>A Diretriz Europeia de 2022 da ESC sobre Hipertensão Pulmonar recomenda fortemente o uso do riociguat como terapia de primeira linha em pacientes com TEP crônico não candidatos à cirurgia ou com hipertensão residual pós-endarterectomia. O uso do riociguat deve ser acompanhado por equipe especializada, com monitoramento funcional e hemodinâmico regular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento da doença pulmonar subjacente</title>
					<p>A hipertensão pulmonar do grupo 3 está comumente associada a 3 condições: DPOC/enfisema pulmonar, fibrose pulmonar e síndromes com hipoventilação. A terapia deve ser direcionada para cada uma dessas doenças de base pulmonar. Vale lembrar que nos casos de hipoxemia o suporte de oxigênio está indicado e o suporte ventilatório também (para as condições relacionadas à hipoventilação).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca esquerda</title>
					<p>A ICD secundária a uma doença cardíaca esquerda deve ter seu tratamento de acordo com a doença de base. A ICE (com FE reduzida ou preservada) e as valvopatias (estenose/insuficiência aórtica e estenose/insuficiência mitral) devem ser tratadas de acordo com as diretrizes atuais, de maneira que seja aliviada a pós carga do VD. Está indicado o cateterismo direito para melhor entendimento da função do VD e para definição dos componentes pré e pós capilar da HP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Tratamentos específicos</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Reparo cirúrgico ou percutâneo de cardiopatias congênitas</title>
					<p>O tratamento da ICD relacionada a cardiopatias congênitas frequentemente requer intervenções para corrigir alterações estruturais que impactam a pré-carga e a pós-carga do VD. A correção dessas anormalidades pode ser realizada por meio de abordagens percutâneas ou cirúrgicas, conforme a anatomia e o grau de repercussão hemodinâmica.</p>
					<p>Entretanto, é fundamental reconhecer que pacientes com hipertensão pulmonar grave associada a shunts intracardíacos apresentam risco elevado de complicações, especialmente síndrome de Eisenmenger. Nestes casos, a correção do defeito pode precipitar insuficiência ventricular direita aguda e colapso hemodinâmico. Segundo a diretriz Europeia de Cardiopatias Congênitas no adulto, resistência vascular pulmonar ≥ 5 Wood com tratamento clínico otimizado ou uma fisiologia compatível com síndrome de Eisenmenger (com dessaturação no exercício) contraindicam a correção do defeito. Em casos com valores limítrofes, a decisão terapêutica deve sempre considerar o risco-benefício individual e a possibilidade de tratamento prévio com vasodilatadores pulmonares antes da intervenção definitiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Doenças do pericárdio</title>
					<p>O tamponamento cardíaco é uma emergência médica que requer intervenção imediata para aliviar a compressão cardíaca causada pelo acúmulo de líquido no espaço pericárdico. O tratamento de escolha é a pericardiocentese. Por outro lado, a pericardite constritiva é uma condição crônica caracterizada pelo espessamento e rigidez do pericárdio que tem como tratamento definitivo a pericardiectomia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Infarto agudo do miocárdio</title>
					<p>O infarto do VD com ICD aguda exige uma abordagem terapêutica específica: a revascularização precoce da artéria coronária culpada, preferencialmente por angioplastia primária, é fundamental para limitar a extensão do infarto e preservar a função ventricular direita.</p>
					<p>A reposição volêmica deve ser cuidadosamente ajustada para manter a pré-carga adequada e otimizar o débito cardíaco, evitando tanto a hipovolemia quanto a congestão sistêmica. O uso de nitratos e outros vasodilatadores deve ser evitado, pois podem reduzir a pré-carga e agravar a hipotensão. Em pacientes com choque cardiogênico direito, o suporte com vasopressores pode ser necessário para manter a perfusão sistêmica, enquanto agentes inotrópicos podem ser utilizados para melhorar a contratilidade do VD.</p>
					<p>Distúrbios de condução são comuns no infarto do VD, especialmente bloqueios atrioventriculares e disfunção do nó sinoatrial, podendo justificar a necessidade de marca-passo temporário em casos de bradiarritmias sintomáticas ou comprometimento hemodinâmico significativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca direita relacionada aos marca-passos</title>
					<p>O tratamento da ICD relacionada à estimulação crônica do VD por marca-passo envolve estratégias para mitigar os efeitos adversos dessa terapia. A estimulação biventricular (Bi-V) pode ser considerada como tratamento desta condição.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outras alternativas são a busca por uma estimulação mais fisiológica no feixe de His ou na área do ramo esquerdo, que vem apresentando resultados superiores à estimulação isolada do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A presença dos cabos dos dispositivos transvalvares pode comprometer a coaptação dos folhetos da válvula tricúspide, levando à regurgitação tricúspide significativa. Intervenções específicas para tratar a insuficiência tricúspide induzida pelos cabos, como a reposição dos eletrodos ou procedimentos percutâneos como o Triclip, podem ser consideradas para corrigir a incompetência valvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Choque cardiogênico: Uso de inotrópicos</title>
				<p>O choque cardiogênico secundário à ICD caracteriza-se pela incapacidade do VD em gerar débito suficiente para a circulação pulmonar, resultando em hipoperfusão sistêmica grave. O manejo imediato visa restaurar a contratilidade ventricular e melhorar o fluxo pulmonar através do uso de agentes inotrópicos. Entre os fármacos mais utilizados, a dobutamina é frequentemente indicada por seu efeito inotrópico positivo seletivo, aumentando a contratilidade do VD sem causar vasoconstrição significativa. Em casos de hipotensão associada, a norepinefrina pode ser adicionada para manter a pressão arterial sistêmica (essencial para manter a perfusão coronariana) sem comprometer o débito cardíaco. Além disso, a vasopressina pode ser associada.</p>
				<p>A milrinona, um inibidor da fosfodiesterase III, também é considerada em cenários de hipertensão pulmonar associada, por suas propriedades inotrópicas e vasodilatadoras seletivas para a circulação pulmonar. Contudo, seu uso requer cautela em pacientes com hipotensão significativa (pelo seu efeito também na resistência vascular sistêmica). Outro inotrópico a ser levado em consideração é o levosimedan, que é um sensibilizador de cálcio e facilitador de canais de potássio, que tem mostrado melhora hemodinâmica na ICD. Por outro lado, os digitálicos não têm papel como inotrópicos na ICD, podendo inclusive ser danosos. A escolha do inotrópico deve ser baseada na avaliação hemodinâmica precisa, preferencialmente guiada por parâmetros obtidos por cateterismo direito, visando equilibrar a melhora da contratilidade ventricular com a manutenção da perfusão sistêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Suporte mecânico circulatório</title>
				<p>Nos casos de choque cardiogênico refratário ao tratamento farmacológico, o suporte mecânico circulatório (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3002">Tabela 3</xref>) emerge como uma estratégia crucial para estabilização hemodinâmica e como ponte para recuperação, transplante cardíaco ou decisão terapêutica definitiva.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3002">
						<label>Tabela 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Dispositivos de suporte mecânico circulatório</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Dispositivo</th>
									<th align="left">Indicação/Utilidade</th>
									<th align="left">Observações</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>ECMO Veno Arterial (VA-ECMO)</td>
									<td>Suporte biventricular; ponte para decisão em pacientes críticos.</td>
									<td>Cânulas podem ser inseridas no AD e AP para alívio imediato da pós-carga.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Dispositivos de Assistência Ventricular Direita (Tandem-RVAD, Protek Duo)</td>
									<td>Suporte específico ao VD; ponte para transplante ou recuperação.</td>
									<td>Implantáveis ou percutâneos; não afetam diretamente o VE.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Balão Intra-Aórtico (BIA)</td>
									<td>Casos selecionados; reduz pós-carga do VE e melhora acoplamento VD-VE.</td>
									<td>Controverso para VD; pode ser útil após ECMO para alívio da pós-carga.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Dispositivo percutâneo (Impella RP)</td>
									<td>Choque refratário; fluxo contínuo para AP e alívio de sobrecarga do VD.</td>
									<td>Inserção percutânea; uso temporário.</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN3002">
								<p>AD: átrio direito; AP: artéria pulmonar; ECMO: oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea; VD: ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo: Fonte:<sup>50,51</sup></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Transplante cardíaco, cardiopulmonar e pulmonar bilateral</title>
				<p>O transplante representa a terapia definitiva para pacientes com ICD avançada e refratária às demais estratégias. A escolha do tipo de transplante depende fundamentalmente da etiologia subjacente: pacientes com HAP grave, sem comprometimento ventricular esquerdo significativo, são candidatos preferenciais ao transplante pulmonar bilateral; já indivíduos com cardiopatias congênitas complexas, particularmente aqueles com anatomia intracardíaca complexa ou circulação univentricular, podem requerer transplante cardiopulmonar. Em casos de falência biventricular refratária, o transplante cardíaco isolado pode ser considerado. A seleção criteriosa dos candidatos, incluindo avaliação de comorbidades, status funcional, risco cirúrgico e contraindicações absolutas ou relativas, deve ser realizada por equipe multidisciplinar especializada em insuficiência cardíaca e transplante, conforme diretrizes internacionais atualizadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cuidados paliativos</title>
				<p>Os cuidados paliativos representam uma abordagem multidisciplinar voltada ao alívio do sofrimento em pacientes com doenças crônicas como a ICD, devendo ser iniciados precocemente e mantidos ao longo da evolução da doença. Envolvem controle sintomático, comunicação sobre prognóstico e planejamento de cuidados, inclusive sobre limitações terapêuticas. Embora todos os profissionais devam atuar nesse manejo, equipes especializadas contribuem para melhores decisões clínicas e qualidade de vida, sendo recomendada sua integração estruturada pelas diretrizes atuais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca direita é uma condição complexa com impacto significativo no prognóstico dos pacientes, especialmente quando associada à hipertensão pulmonar e doenças estruturais do VD. O manejo eficaz exige uma abordagem individualizada, baseada na avaliação hemodinâmica detalhada e na identificação da etiologia subjacente. Estratégias como otimização da pré-carga, redução da pós-carga e suporte circulatório avançado são fundamentais para estabilizar os pacientes e melhorar a função ventricular direita. É importante reconhecer cada condição permitindo intervenções direcionadas que podem trazer benefícios significativos aos pacientes.</p>
				<p>O caso clínico apresentado reforça a importância da abordagem multidisciplinar e do tratamento escalonado em pacientes com ICD grave. Vale ressaltar que existem poucos relatos de casos de APB de resgate para tratamento de choque cardiogênico e trata-se do primeiro caso da literatura em que o tratamento percutâneo foi utilizado como ponte para tratamento cirúrgico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Além disso, o procedimento percutâneo realizado no caso citado neste artigo teve algumas características bastante notáveis. Além da instabilidade hemodinâmica e clínica periprocedimento, foi optado por realizar dilatações em vasos mais proximais que o usualmente recomendado. Tal abordagem fez parte de uma decisão de julgamento compartilhada pela equipe multidisciplinar que estava ciente dos riscos associados, mas culminou em melhora clínica e hemodinâmica significativa permitindo a realização do tratamento cirúrgico. A combinação de terapias percutâneas e cirúrgicas possibilitou a recuperação da função ventricular direita e a reabilitação clínica da paciente, evidenciando a necessidade de estratégias personalizadas para cada perfil hemodinâmico. Com os avanços nas técnicas diagnósticas e terapêuticas, espera-se um aprimoramento contínuo no manejo da ICD, reduzindo a morbidade e melhorando os desfechos clínicos desses pacientes.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Vinculação acadêmica:</label>
					<p> Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado:</label>
					<p> Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<label>Fontes de financiamento:</label>
					<p> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>