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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240052i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Genetic Cardiomyopathies: An Overview of the Main Associated Pathogenic Mutations</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-8751-2077</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Hama</surname>
						<given-names>Flavia Misawa</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-5768-7053</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Rocha</surname>
						<given-names>Edson Gabriel</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8963-8622</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Azeka</surname>
						<given-names>Estela</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo (FMUSP), São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Coração</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital das Clínicas</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address: </label> Flavia Misawa Hama • Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo - Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 455. Postal Code 01246-903, Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP - Brazil E-mail: <email>flavia.hama@fm.usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p>Luis Beck-da-Silva</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>26</day>
				<month>05</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>05</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>5</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20240052</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>04</day>
					<month>09</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>15</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>14</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Cardiomyopathies are pathological conditions associated with progressive dysfunction of cardiomyocytes, excluding situations in which other concomitant diseases may justify such progression. Their presentations can evolve with several phenotypes, the main ones being hypertrophic, dilated, restrictive, non-compacted, and arrhythmogenic phenotypes of the right ventricle (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). Regarding this topic’s relevance, dilated and hypertrophic cardiomyopathies have a genetic origin in 30 to 50% of cases, evaluating these etiologies is a crucial tool in patient management. Assessing the risk of genetic transmission and the likelihood of phenotypic manifestation across generations requires identifying and classifying each gene’s inheritance pattern and mutation type associated with structural cardiomyopathy. Additionally, determining the structural protein affected facilitates understanding the pathophysiological phenomenon and the phenotype manifested by the variant carrier. Considering the growing advent of the genetic approach to cardiomyopathies, the Heart Failure Society of America, in collaboration with the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics, developed a guide for the investigation and follow-up of these cases. However, in this study, the time to request the genetic tests was not evaluated. It is recommended that the tests be requested at any time after diagnosis confirmation since their results can contribute to guiding the most appropriate follow-up approach. Despite the multitude of existing variants related to genetic cardiomyopathies, some are of greater clinical interest due to their impact on risk stratification and interest in family screening, namely: MYH7, PRKAG2, MYBPC3, GLA, LAMP2, TTN, DSP, MYH7, FLNC, LMNA, DSP, MYBPC3 and Troponin Complex (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>). Recognizing the main mutations associated with cardiomyopathies and the phenotypes related to them enables a more individualized medicine approach with early interventions and risk stratification. Genetic evaluation is essential for screening family members and optimizing patient management, which may vary depending on the identified mutation. </p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Cardiomyopathies</kwd>
				<kwd>Dilated Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
				<kwd>Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="61"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Genetic Cardiomyopathies: An Overview of the Main Associated Pathogenic MutationsABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-2-e20240052-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Cardiomyopathies are pathological conditions associated with progressive cardiomyocyte dysfunction, in the absence of other diseases that justify the condition, such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, valve diseases, or congenital malformations. Cardiomyopathies can trigger multiple phenotypes, according to their etiology, the main ones hypertrophic, dilated, restrictive, non-compacted, and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathies. Thirty to fifty percent of dilated and hypertrophic cardiomyopathies are of genetic origin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>From a classification point of view, these cardiomyopathies can follow autosomal dominant, recessive, or X-linked inheritance patterns and may involve single or multiple variants. These variants can lead to abnormal protein incorporation or nucleotide deletions, insertions, or substitutions, affecting the function of sarcomeric proteins, the Z disc, or intracellular calcium modulators.</p>
			<p>According to the Heart Failure Society of America, genetic testing is recommended at any time after the diagnosis of cardiomyopathy, with a systematic approach, assessing family history, phenotype, and screening of relatives at risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Therefore, the aim is to confirm the diagnosis, request the most appropriate genetic test (Whole Exome Sequencing (WES), Genetic Panel, or Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS)), and classify the variant based on the criteria proposed by the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>According to the American College of Cardiology’s guidelines, in the case of a positive result – pathogenic variant, possibly pathogenic – cascade screening should be conducted,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> through the study of co-segregation and genetic screening of family members using the Sanger Method.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="methods">
			<title>Methods</title>
			<p>This systematic review was conducted using a comprehensive search in major scientific databases, including PubMed and OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man), to identify relevant articles on the topic.</p>
			<p>PubMed search was performed using combinations of keywords related to the topic, using Boolean operators (“AND”, “OR”, “NOT”) to refine the results. The selected keywords were “cardiomyopathy”, “hypertrophic”, “dilated”, “genetic” and the gene in question. The OMIM search was conducted using the identification numbers (MIM) and keywords associated with the diseases or syndromes of interest. The OMIM database was consulted to ensure complete coverage of genetic diseases and their respective clinical manifestations.</p>
			<p>Articles published in English or Portuguese, addressing changes associated with the mutation were included, with an emphasis on case reports, and clinical, genetic, and molecular studies associated with cardiomyopathy.</p>
			<p>Once searches were completed, the articles were selected based on their titles and abstracts. The articles that met the inclusion criteria were analyzed in full to verify the quality and relevance of the information. The data synthesis was performed qualitatively, summarizing the main findings of each study.</p>
			<p>A key limitation of this study was its reliance on publications in English and Portuguese, potentially excluding relevant studies in other languages.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>ALPK3</title>
				<p>The ALPK3 gene is responsible for encoding an alpha-protein kinase, a protein responsible for cardiomyocyte differentiation, acting as a regulator of cardiac transcription factors. Loss-of-function variants in this gene are related to the early development of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Studies have shown that homozygous variants lead to the development of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) in childhood with subsequent progression to the hypertrophic phenotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Despite its typically recessive nature, it has been shown that heterozygous variants in ALPK3 are also associated with the development of the disease, with cases showing late-onset hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Syndromic presentations are possible, with the association of musculoskeletal alterations such as facial dysmorphisms, skeletal abnormalities, and <italic>pectus excavatum</italic>. The development of the phenotype can occur from childhood to the fourth decade of life with gradual progression of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>BAG3</title>
				<p>BCL2-associated Athanogene 3 (BAG3) is part of a family of proteins that regulate chaperones of the Hsp70 family, assisting in the folding and transport of other proteins.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Thus, the impacts of BAG3 variants are related to changes in its expression, considering that its expressivity is high in normal cardiac tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Among the pathological associations of this gene’s variants, DCM was correlated with an autosomal dominant inheritance, in which variations in the number of copies and deletions in affected limbs were identified.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Regarding the manifestations in the assessed probands, results varied. The age at diagnosis of DCM was 21 to 64 years and severity was high in approximately half of the patients (need for transplant or severe heart failure (HF)), while in others the disease was minimal or absent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				<p>One of the theories for the pathophysiology of diseases caused by BAG3 variants is a binding impairment between proteins essential for the integrity and functionality of cells, such as Bcl-2, which inhibits cell death by apoptosis. Another theory is that binding between BAG3 and Hsc70 would be necessary to maintain cardiac myofibrillar integrity during cardiac contractile activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Troponin complex</title>
				<p>The troponin complex is composed of three subunits (TnC, TnI, and TnT) that, together with calcium, mediate muscle contraction. Changes in genes related to this complex are associated with the development of hypertrophic, restrictive, and DCM. The pathophysiological mechanism is related to changes in calcium sensitivity in the process of muscle contraction and relaxation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Mutations in troponin C (TNNC1) are associated with the development of dilated and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In turn, troponin T (TNNT2) variants are associated with dilated, restrictive, and familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and left ventricular non-compaction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Finally, troponin I (TNNI3) alterations are associated with the development of dilated, familial restrictive, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>DSP</title>
				<p>Desmosomes are the most common intracellular junctions in vertebrate epithelial cells and are essential for tissue strength and resilience during traction. Among the proteins in this system, desmoplakin functions as a force transducer between cardiac desmosomes and intermediate filaments.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Cardiomyopathies associated with DSP variants include arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC), an autosomal dominant condition, and DCM, which can follow either an autosomal dominant or recessive inheritance pattern. Depending on the specific variant, the latter may also present as a syndrome with capillary, dermal, and dental abnormalities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				<p>ARVC is characterized by progressive myocardial degeneration, followed by fibrofatty tissue deposition. The clinical presentation usually includes arrhythmias originating in the right ventricle, which can progress to ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation and, in more extreme cases, even cause sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In variants related to DCM, the desmoplakin gene can cause capillary changes, palmoplantar epidermis changes, as well as dilation of the left ventricle (LV) associated with HF and early morbidity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>FLNC</title>
				<p>Filamin C is a FLNC-encoded protein, responsible for cross-linking actin filaments, which are essential for cardiac muscle contraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> FLNC gene variants correlate with myopathies and cardiomyopathies with varied phenotypes, including hypertrophic, dilated, restrictive, and arrhythmogenic dysplasia of the right ventricle, all with autosomal dominant inheritance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In familial DCM, although the mechanism remains unclear, haploinsufficiency and reduced filamin C levels are believed to contribute to disease development. This would occur due to impaired stability and fixation of cardiomyocytes, deficiency in sarcomeres organization, and the formation of Z discs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Among the hypertrophic cardiomyopathies associated with filamin C variants, despite the similar phenotype, the manifestations and prognosis are distinct depending on the mutation. The missense variant p.A1539T, for example, was correlated with sarcomeric disorder and aggregates. In the family analyzed here, an early manifestation of ventricular hypertrophy and a history of sudden death in a first-degree relative were identified.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>GLA</title>
				<p>The GLA gene is present on the X chromosome and encodes the enzyme alpha-galactosidase, a lysosomal hydrolase. Variants in this gene lead to reduced production of this enzyme, resulting in Fabry disease, infiltrative cardiomyopathy that causes myocardial wall thickening due to the accumulation of globotriaosylceramide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Fabry disease typically presents two phenotypes - classical and non-classical - affecting both sexes. However, the condition onset is earlier in men, who also experience more neurological and renal manifestations. Women, on the other hand, have more cardiovascular manifestations, with later onset.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Other disease manifestations include typical skin lesions (angiokeratomas), acroparesthesias, corneal opacity, and recurrent febrile episodes.</p>
				<p>The typical cardiological picture is the development of left ventricular hypertrophy, in addition to valvular heart disease, systolic or diastolic dysfunction and defects in the conduction system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Left ventricular hypertrophy is present in both forms of Fabry disease, but the left ventricular mass index is higher in the classic presentation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> In addition, hypertrophy is commonly concentric, but may also present an apical, septal, and eccentric pattern.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In such cases, the treatment of choice is enzyme replacement therapy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> with genetic diagnosis being essential for the management of these patients.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>LAMP2</title>
				<p>Lysosome-associated Membrane Protein 2 (LAMP2) is one of the main glycoprotein components of the lysosomal membrane. LAMP2 variants play a role in organelle integrity and are commonly associated with Danon disease, which disrupts glycogen storage, leading to neurological, hepatic, cardiac, and skeletal muscle manifestations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> As an X-linked disorder, Danon disease primarily affects males, accounting for 1-3% of primary cardiac hypertrophies in adolescents and young men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The cardiomyopathy presented in Danon Disease is characterized by marked cardiac hypertrophy, conduction system abnormalities, and ventricular arrhythmias. During the analysis of the LAMP2 variant’s impact on cardiomyocyte function, Alcalai et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> concluded that autophagic impairment interferes with calcium homeostasis, metabolic pathways, and cell survival. Such modifications contribute to the hypertrophy and cardiac electrical abnormalities of this condition.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>LMNA</title>
				<p>The LMNA gene encodes lamin A and lamin C, which are intermediate filaments forming the nuclear lamina. This structure lines the inner nuclear membrane, determining the size and shape of cell nuclei. Alterations in this gene are associated with DCM, as well as other diseases such as Charcot-Marie-Tooth, Emery-Dreifuss dystrophy, Holt-Oram syndrome, Malouf syndrome, and Hutchinson-Gilford syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> LMNA variants are the second most common genetic cause of nonsyndromic DCM, with a 5% to 13% incidence of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Studies demonstrate a penetrance of 90 to 95% up to the seventh decade of life, without a genotype-phenotype correlation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>DCM follows an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern and is characterized by left ventricular dilation and/or reduced systolic function, typically manifesting in young adults. Cardiomyopathy is commonly preceded or accompanied by a defect in the electrical conduction system and arrhythmias,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> which may manifest years or even a decade before other cardiac changes. The most common conduction alterations are symptomatic bradyarrhythmias; supraventricular arrhythmias such as atrial flutter, atrial fibrillation, tachycardia-bradycardia syndrome; and ventricular arrhythmias, which may even lead to sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Targeted therapies against the MAP kinase protein are still under investigation but have potential as a treatment option for dilated cardiomyopathies caused by LMNA variants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>MYBPC3</title>
				<p>Myosin-binding protein C (MYBPC3) is located in the A bands of the myocardial sarcomere, where it connects to the myosin-heavy chain and titin to fulfill its function. Although it does not directly participate in cardiac muscle contraction, MYBPC3 plays a fundamental role in modulating contraction speed in response to adrenergic stimulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The phenotype most correlated with MYBPC3 variants is Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM), with this protein being associated with 15% of familial cases of HCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> This phenotype has multiple variants, autosomal dominant and recessive inheritance, and heterogeneous clinical presentations. Among the families studied, 58% of adults over 50 years of age presented cardiac hypertrophy. Penetrance remained incomplete until age 60.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Furthermore, it is worth noting that the overall survival of MYBPC3 variant carriers with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy was higher when compared to other sarcomeric protein mutations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Although MYBPC3 variants have a more frequent correlation with HCM, some studies have identified DCM phenotypes and isolated left ventricular noncompaction associated with alterations in this same gene. However, regarding the investigated DCM phenotypes, the presence of confounding factors made some analyses inconclusive. This was the case of the publications by Konno et al<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> and Shimizu et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> who were not able to prove the association of the presented variant with the DCM condition, due to the impossibility of ruling out a progression of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.</p>
				<p>Thus, the strongest established correlation currently links MYBPC3 variants to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> a frequent cause of familial cases. This association enables improved screening strategies based on the index case.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>MYH7</title>
				<p>The MH7 gene is responsible for encoding the myosin-heavy chain in skeletal muscles, being expressed mainly in the cardiac ventricles and slow-twitch fibers. By causing an alteration in the sarcomeres, the contractile function of the muscle becomes impaired. In this sense, variants in this gene are related to cardiomyopathies and myopathies. Among the cardiomyopathies, the associated phenotypes are dilated, hypertrophic, restrictive, non-compacted LV, and other variations of congenital cardiomyopathies with predominantly autosomal dominant inheritance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Regarding hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, studies show that alterations in this gene are present in 10% to 30% of cases,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> with a predominance of missense variants. Moreover, it is possible to establish a genotype-phenotype relationship depending on the affected functional domain. MYH7 variants are strongly associated with systolic dysfunction and worse prognosis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> particularly for alterations in the conversion domains.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Compound variants (those with more than one mutated allele) are associated with the development of more complex conditions and worse prognoses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Given this scenario, studies indicate that the presence of multiple genetic alterations has a cumulative effect, leading to earlier disease onset, a higher risk of sudden death, and increased severity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Variants in MYH7 are associated with diverse phenotypic presentations, with coexisting mutations further increasing case complexity.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Noonan-RASopathies</title>
				<p>RASopathies are a group of syndromes with similar clinical presentations resulting from the same pathogenesis. This group of diseases presents alterations in genes of the Ras/MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) cellular signaling pathway, leading to cardiac and cutaneous alterations and intellectual deficit. Examples of syndromes linked to MYH7 variants include Noonan syndrome, Costello syndrome, and cardio-facio-cutaneous syndrome. The genes associated with RASopathies are BRAF, HRAS, KRAS, LZTR1, MAP2K1, MAP2K2, NRAS, PTPN11, RAF1, RASA2, RRAS2, RIT1, SOS1, SOS2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In Noonan Syndrome, congenital heart disease is present in 50% to 80% of patients,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> being manifested as pulmonary valve stenosis, septal defects, and Tetralogy of Fallot. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is present in 20% to 30% of individuals and may manifest at birth or even in childhood,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> with half diagnosed by 6 years of age. The genes most closely correlated with the development of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy are LZTR1, MRAS, RAF1, and RIT1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Costello Syndrome presents a broad phenotypic spectrum. In cardiological terms, the most common alterations are hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, congenital heart disease (pulmonary stenosis), and arrhythmias. Regarding hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, approximately 60% of patients have this alteration,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> with a typically mild to moderate presentation. The diagnosis of Costello Syndrome can be made through genetic testing and the identification of a heterozygous variant in the HRAS gene.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Cardiofaciocutaneous syndrome is characterized by cardiac, facial, and cutaneous alterations. Cardiac alterations include congenital heart disease (pulmonary stenosis, valvular heart disease, septal defects), arrhythmias, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The genes most associated with this syndrome are BRAF, KRAS, MAP2K1, and MAP2K2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>PRKAG2</title>
				<p>The PRKAG2 gene is responsible for encoding the non-catalytic gamma subunit of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). This protein is activated in situations of stress, in which there is increased cellular AMP and decreased ATP levels. Variants in this gene are associated with the development of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, fatal congenital glucose storage cardiomyopathy, and Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
				<p>PRKAG2 hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. Individuals carrying this variant often present with concurrent conduction disorders, particularly Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, atrial fibrillation, ventricular pre-excitation, and progressive atrioventricular block.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Individuals with missense variants, which result in a gain of AMPK function, may develop the formation and accumulation of glycogen granules in myocytes. This metabolic alteration culminates in the development of ventricular hypertrophy and electrical conduction system defects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Differentiating PRKAG2 cardiomyopathy from other sarcomeric hypertrophic cardiomyopathies is crucial, as differences in clinical presentation, prognosis, and disease course exist. Sudden death occurs more frequently in patients with PRKAG2 variants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>TTN</title>
				<p>Titin is a key protein in cardiac muscle, spanning from the Z line to the M line. It is essential for cardiomyocyte contraction and tension during cardiac activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> The TTN gene encodes titin, with variants including nonsense, frameshift, splicing, and large tandem insertions.</p>
				<p>These variants follow an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern with high penetrance, reaching up to 95% after the age of 40.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Additionally, they are frequently associated with DCM, accounting for approximately 25% of familial cases and 18% of sporadic cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In terms of clinical presentation, no significant differences were observed in age at diagnosis, ejection fraction, transplantation need, or mortality between cardiomyopathies with or without titin variants. However, among patients with this mutation, sex influenced cardiac outcomes, with HF occurring earlier in male participants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As the most common genetic cause of DCM,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> early identification of TTN variants may allow for a more timely therapeutic approach.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>The analysis of genetic cardiomyopathies highlights the importance of early case identification. To this end, genetic sequencing should be requested for patients diagnosed with cardiomyopathies to facilitate early screening of at-risk family members.</p>
			<p>Given the specific characteristics of each variant and the genotype-phenotype correlation, genetic research enables targeted early intervention, maximizing the prevention of adverse outcomes and complications. Therefore, advancing Precision Medicine is essential to achieving more individualized management for patients with cardiomyopathies.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Genotype-phenotype correlation</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Phenotype</th>
								<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Genotype</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>Hypertrophic</td>
								<td>MYH7, PRKAG2, MYBPC3, GLA, LAMP2</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Dilated</td>
								<td>TTN, DSP, MYH7, FLNC, LMNA</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>RV arrhythmogenic</td>
								<td>DSP</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Restrictive</td>
								<td>MYBPC3, Troponin complex</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>Adapted from Vogiatzi et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref>
							</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Table 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Summary of each of the mutation’s main characteristics</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Gene</th>
								<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Key Information</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>ALPK3</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Typically recessive inheritance</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Associations with musculoskeletal alterations (facial dysmorphisms, skeletal abnormalities, and pectus excavatum)</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>BAG3</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>DCM</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Autosomal dominant inheritance (copy number variation and deletions)</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Age at diagnosis between 21 and 64 years, with variable severity (asymptomatic to severe heart failure)</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Troponin complex</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Troponin C (TNNC1): dilated and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Troponin T (TNNT2): dilated, restrictive, familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and left ventricular noncompaction</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Troponin I (TNNI3): dilated, familial restrictive and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>DSP</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– autosomal dominant inheritance</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>DCM</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– autosomal dominant and recessive inheritances</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– syndromes with capillary, dermal, and dental alterations</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>FLNC</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Hypertrophic, dilated, restrictive, and arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Autosomal dominant inheritance</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Variants associated with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy have different prognoses, depending on the mutation. Such differentiation helps in risk stratification</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>GLA</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>X-linked inheritance</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Associated with Fabry disease</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Treatment with enzyme replacement therapy</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>LAMP2</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Associated with Danon disease:</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– X-linked</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Defect in glycogen storage</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Neurological, hepatic, skeletal and cardiac striated muscle manifestations</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>LMNA</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>DCM (second most common genetic cause of nonsyndromic DCM)</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Autosomal dominant inheritance</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Associated with the following diseases and syndromes:</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Charcot-Marie-Tooth</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Emery-Dreifuss dystrophy</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Holt-Oram syndrome</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Malouf syndrome</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Hutchinson-Gilford syndrome</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Targeted therapies against MAP protein kinase are being studied for the treatment of LMNA-associated dilated cardiomyopathies</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>MYBPC3</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (most frequent and most strongly correlated), DCM, and isolated left ventricular noncompaction</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p><bold>A</bold>utosomal dominant and recessive Inheritance</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Clinically heterogeneous</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>MYH7</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Associated with skeletal muscle myopathies</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Noonan RASopathies</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Genes:</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– BRAF, HRAS, KRAS, LZTR1, MAP2K1, MAP2K2, NRAS, PTPN11, RAF1, RASA2, RRAS2, RIT1, SOS1, SOS2</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Associated syndromes</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Noonan syndrome</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Costello syndrome</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Cardiofaciocutaneous syndrome</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>PRKAG2</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Autosomal dominant inheritance</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Other associated cardiac conduction disorders:</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Atrial fibrillation</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Ventricular pre-excitation</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>– Atrioventricular block</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>TTN</td>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>DCM</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Autosomal dominant inheritance</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Nonsense, frameshift, splicing, and large tandem insertion variants</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<p>DCM: dilated cardiomyopathy.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Study association:</label>
				<p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Ethics approval and consent to participate:</label>
				<p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<label>Sources of funding:</label>
				<p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240052</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Cardiomiopatias Genéticas: Uma Visão Geral das Principais Mutações Patogênicas Associadas</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-8751-2077</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Hama</surname>
						<given-names>Flavia Misawa</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-5768-7053</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Rocha</surname>
						<given-names>Edson Gabriel</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8963-8622</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Azeka</surname>
						<given-names>Estela</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo (FMUSP), São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência</label>: Flavia Misawa Hama • Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo – Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 455. CEP 01246-903, Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: flavia.hama@fm.usp.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Luis Beck-da-Silva</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>As cardiomiopatias são condições patológicas associadas a disfunção progressiva dos cardiomiócitos, sendo exclusas situações nas quais outras enfermidades concomitantes possam justificar tal progressão. Suas apresentações podem evoluir com diversos fenótipos, sendo os principais: hipertrófico, dilatado, restritivo, não compactado e arritmogênicos do ventrículo direito (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>). Relativo à importância acerca do tema, destaca-se que de 30 a 50% das cardiomiopatias dilatadas e hipertróficas possuem origem genética, de forma que a avaliação destas etiologias se tornou uma ferramenta essencial no manejo desses pacientes. No intuito de abordar o risco de transmissão genética e a probabilidade de manifestação fenotípica em diferentes gerações familiares, é fundamental reconhecer e classificar a forma de herança e tipo de mutação de cada gene associado à cardiomiopatia estrutural analisada. Além disso, determinar a proteína estrutural acometida, facilita a compreensão do fenômeno fisiopatológico e do fenótipo manifestado pelo portador da variante. Considerando o advento crescente da abordagem genética das cardiomiopatias, a Heart Failure Society of America em colaboração com o American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics elaborou um guia para investigação e seguimento destes casos. Apesar disso, neste estudo o momento de solicitar os testes genéticos não foi avaliado. Recomendando-se que os testes sejam solicitados em qualquer momento após a confirmação do diagnóstico, visto que o resultado desses pode contribuir na orientação do seguimento mais adequado. Apesar da infinidade de variantes existentes relacionadas a cardiomiopatias genéticas, algumas são de maior interesse clínico por seu impacto em estratificação de risco e interesse em rastreamento familiar, são elas: MYH7, PRKAG2, MYBPC3, GLA, LAMP2, TTN, DSP, MYH7, FLNC, LMNA, DSP, MYBPC3 e Complexo de Troponina (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">Tabela 2</xref>). Reconhecendo as principais mutações associadas às cardiomiopatias e os fenótipos a ela relacionados, é possível realizar uma medicina mais individualizada com intervenções precoces e estratificação de risco. Dessa maneira, a avaliação genética dos pacientes diagnosticados com cardiomiopatias estruturais é fundamental para o rastreamento de familiares e para o manejo específico mais vantajoso, o qual pode alterar de acordo com a mutação identificada. </p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Cardiomiopatias</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiomiopatia Dilatada</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica</kwd>
				<kwd>Genética</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central:</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Cardiomiopatias Genéticas: Uma Visão Geral das Principais Mutações Patogênicas Associadas</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-2-e20240052-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>As Cardiomiopatias são condições patológicas associadas à disfunção progressiva dos cardiomiócitos, ausentes outras doenças que justifiquem o quadro, como doença arterial coronariana, hipertensão, doenças valvares ou malformações congênitas. As cardiomiopatias podem desencadear múltiplos fenótipos, de acordo com sua etiologia, sendo os principais: hipertróficos, dilatados, restritivos, não compactados e arritmogênicos do ventrículo direito. Nota-se que de 30 a 50% das cardiomiopatias dilatadas e hipertróficas são de origens genéticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Do ponto de vista classificatório, podem ser autossômicas dominantes, recessivas ou ligadas ao X e se relacionarem a variantes únicas ou múltiplas nas quais proteínas anômalas são incorporadas ou ocorrem deleções, inserções ou substituições de nucleotídeos, os quais prejudicam a atividade de proteínas sarcoméricas, do disco Z ou de moduladores intracelulares de cálcio.</p>
				<p>Segundo a <italic>Heart Failure Society of America</italic>, é recomendado que os testes genéticos sejam solicitados em qualquer momento após o diagnóstico da cardiomiopatia. Sendo realizada uma abordagem sistemática, com avaliação da história familiar, fenótipo e rastreamento de familiares em risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Dessa maneira, busca-se validar o diagnóstico, solicitar o teste genético mais adequado (<italic>Whole Exome Sequencing</italic> (WES), Painel genético ou <italic>Whole Genome Sequencing</italic> (WGS)) e classificar a variante com base nos critérios propostos pela <italic>American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics</italic> (ACMG).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Conforme as diretrizes da <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic>, em caso de resultado positivo – variante patogênica, possivelmente patogênica – deve-se prosseguir com o rastreamento em cascata,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> por meio do estudo de co-segregação e rastreio genético de familiares pelo Método de Sanger.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="methods">
				<title>Métodos</title>
				<p>Para a realização desta revisão sistemática, foi realizada uma busca abrangente nas principais bases de dados científicas, incluindo PubMed e OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man), com o objetivo de identificar artigos relevantes para o tema em questão.</p>
				<p>A pesquisa na PubMed foi realizada utilizando combinações de palavras-chave relacionadas ao tema, utilizando operadores booleanos (<italic>“AND”, “OR”, “NOT</italic>”) para refinar os resultados. As palavras-chave selecionadas foram “<italic>cardiomyopathy</italic>”, “<italic>hypertrophic</italic>”, “<italic>dilated</italic>”, “<italic>genetic</italic>” e o gene em questão. A busca no OMIM foi conduzida usando os números de identificação (MIM) e palavras-chave associadas às doenças ou síndromes de interesse. A base de dados OMIM foi consultada para garantir uma cobertura completa das doenças genéticas e suas respectivas manifestações clínicas.</p>
				<p>Foram incluídos artigos publicados em inglês ou português que tratassem das alterações associadas com a mutação, com ênfase em relatos de caso, estudos clínicos, genéticos e moleculares associados à cardiomiopatia.</p>
				<p>Após a execução das buscas, os artigos foram selecionados com base nos títulos e resumos. Os artigos que atenderam aos critérios de inclusão foram analisados integralmente para verificar a qualidade e relevância das informações. A síntese dos dados foi realizada de maneira qualitativa, resumindo os principais achados de cada estudo.</p>
				<p>A principal limitação deste estudo foi a restrição a publicações em inglês e português, o que pode ter resultado na exclusão de estudos relevantes publicados em outros idiomas.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>ALPK3</title>
					<p>O gene ALPK3 é responsável pela codificação de uma alfa-proteinoquinase, proteína responsável pelo processo de diferenciação dos cardiomiócitos, atuando como regulador dos fatores de transcrição cardíacos. Variantes com perda de função nesse gene estão relacionadas com o desenvolvimento precoce de cardiomiopatia hipertrófica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Estudos demonstram que variantes homozigóticas levam ao desenvolvimento de cardiomiopatia dilatada (CMD) na infância com progressão posterior para o fenótipo hipertrófico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Apesar de seu caráter tipicamente recessivo, foi demonstrado que variantes heterozigóticas em ALPK3 também estão associadas ao desenvolvimento da doença, com casos caracterizados por cardiomiopatia hipertrófica de início tardio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Apresentações sindrômicas são possíveis, com a associação de alterações musculoesqueléticas tais como dismorfismos faciais, anormalidades esqueléticas e <italic>pectus excavatum</italic>. O desenvolvimento do fenótipo pode ocorrer da infância até a quarta década de vida com progressão gradual da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>BAG3</title>
					<p>A <italic>BCL2-associated Athanogene 3</italic> (BAG3) faz parte de uma família de proteínas que regulam as chaperonas da família Hsp70, auxiliando no dobramento e transporte de outras proteínas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Dessa maneira, os impactos de variantes de BAG3 estão relacionados a alterações de sua expressão, considerando que no tecido cardíaco normal sua expressividade é alta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Entre as associações patológicas das variantes desse gene, a CMD foi correlacionada a uma herança autossômica dominante, na qual foram identificadas variação do número de cópias e deleções em membros afetados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Relativo às manifestações nos probandos avaliados, o resultado foi variado. A idade de diagnóstico da CMD foi de 21 a 64 anos e a gravidade foi alta em aproximadamente metade dos pacientes (necessidade de transplante ou insuficiência cardíaca (IC) grave), enquanto nos demais a doença foi mínima ou ausente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Entre as teorias para a fisiopatologia de doenças causadas pelas variantes de BAG3, estão o prejuízo da ligação entre proteínas essenciais para a integridade e funcionalidade das células, como Bcl-2 que tem como função inibir a morte celular por apoptose. Outra teoria é que a ligação entre BAG3 e Hsc70 seria necessária para manter a integridade miofibrilar cardíaca durante a atividade contrátil cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Complexo Troponínico</title>
					<p>O complexo troponínico é composto por três subunidades (TnC, TnI e TnT) que, junto ao cálcio, medeiam a contração muscular. Alterações em genes relacionados a esse complexo estão associadas ao desenvolvimento de cardiomiopatia hipertrófica, restritiva e dilatada. O mecanismo fisiopatológico está relacionado à alteração na sensibilidade ao cálcio no processo de contração e relaxamento muscular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Mutações na troponina C (TNNC1) estão associadas ao desenvolvimento de CMD e hipertrófica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Por sua vez, variantes na troponina T (TNNT2) estão associadas a CMD, restritiva, hipertrófica familiar e não compactação de ventrículo esquerdo (VE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Alterações na troponina I (TNNI3), por fim, estão associadas ao desenvolvimento de CMD, restritiva familiar e hipertrófica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>DSP</title>
					<p>Os desmossomos são as junções intracelulares mais comuns nas células epiteliais dos vertebrados, sendo essenciais para a resistência e resiliência dos tecidos durante a tração. Entre as proteínas formadoras desta unidade, a desmoplaquina atua como um transdutor de força entre os desmossomos cardíacos e filamentos intermediários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Dentre as doenças cardíacas associadas a variantes de DSP, têm-se a cardiomiopatia arritmogênica do ventrículo direito (CAVD), proveniente de uma herança autossômica dominante, e a CMD, que pode se apresentar com herança autossômica dominante ou recessiva. Além disso, estas últimas, a depender da variante, podem constituir síndromes com outras alterações fenotípicas capilares, dérmicas e dentárias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Referente a CAVD, trata-se de uma doença na qual ocorre degeneração miocárdica progressiva, seguida por deposição de tecido fibrogorduroso. A apresentação clínica costuma ocorrer com arritmias originadas no ventrículo direito, que podem progredir para taquicardia e fibrilação ventriculares e em casos mais extremos até causar morte súbita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Já nas variantes relacionadas a CMD, o gene da desmoplaquina pode conferir alterações capilares, da epiderme palmoplantar, além da dilatação do VE associada a IC e morbidade precoces.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>FLNC</title>
					<p>A filamina C é uma proteína codificada a partir do gene FLNC, sendo responsável pela ligação cruzada dos filamentos de actina, essenciais para a contração do músculo cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> As variantes do gene FLNC são correlacionadas a miopatias e cardiomiopatias com variados fenótipos, entre eles: hipertrófico, dilatado, restritivo e Displasia Arritmogênica do Ventrículo Direito, todos com herança autossômica dominante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Relativo ao fenótipo de CMD familiar, apesar de não completamente esclarecido o mecanismo, acredita-se que a haploinsuficiência e os níveis reduzidos da filamina C contribuem para esta apresentação. Isso ocorreria devido ao prejuízo na estabilidade, fixação dos cardiomiócitos, deficiência na organização dos sarcômeros e na formação dos discos Z.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Entre as cardiomiopatias hipertróficas associadas a variantes da filamina C, apesar do fenótipo semelhante, as manifestações e prognóstico são distintos a depender da mutação. A variante <italic>missense</italic> p.A1539T, por exemplo, foi correlacionada com desordem e agregados sarcoméricos. Sendo que na família analisada, foi identificada manifestação precoce de hipertrofia ventricular e histórico de morte súbita em parente de primeiro grau.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>GLA</title>
					<p>O gene GLA está presente no cromossomo X e codifica a enzima alfa-galactosidase, uma hidrolase lisossomal. Variantes nesse gene levam à redução da produção dessa enzima, resultando na Doença de Fabry, uma cardiomiopatia infiltrativa que resulta no espessamento da parede do miocárdio por acúmulo de globotriaosilceramida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A Doença de Fabry apresenta tipicamente dois fenótipos, sendo o clássico e o não-clássico, acometendo ambos os sexos. Entretanto, em homens o início do quadro é mais precoce e ocorrem mais manifestações neurológicas e renais. Enquanto que, no sexo feminino as manifestações cardiovasculares são mais comuns e o início é mais tardio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Demais manifestações da doença incluem lesões típicas de pele (angioqueratomas), acroparestesias, opacidade córnea e episódios febris recorrentes.</p>
					<p>O quadro típico cardiológico é o desenvolvimento de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, além de valvopatias, disfunção sistólica ou diastólica e defeitos no sistema de condução.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> A hipertrofia ventricular esquerda está presente em ambas as formas da Doença de Fabry, porém o índice de massa ventricular esquerda é maior na apresentação clássica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Além disso, a hipertrofia é comumente concêntrica, mas também pode apresentar padrão apical, septal e excêntrico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Nesses casos, o tratamento de escolha é a terapia de reposição enzimática,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> sendo o diagnóstico genético essencial para o manejo desses pacientes.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>LAMP2</title>
					<p>A Proteína de Membrana associada ao Lisossomo 2 (LAMP2) é uma das principais glicoproteínas componentes da membrana lisossomal. Devido a sua função na integridade dessas organelas, as variantes de LAMP2 são tipicamente associadas à Doença de Danon, na qual devido ao prejuízo do armazenamento de glicogênio, os pacientes podem apresentar manifestações neurológicas, hepáticas e de musculatura cardíaca e estriada esquelética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Por tratar-se de uma doença com herança ligada ao X, os homens são os principais afetados, com uma frequência de 1-3% das hipertrofias cardíacas primárias em adolescentes e homens jovens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A cardiomiopatia apresentada na Doença de Danon é caracterizada por uma hipertrofia cardíaca acentuada, anormalidades do sistema de condução e arritmias ventriculares. Durante a análise do impacto das variantes de LAMP2 na função dos cardiomiócitos, Alcalai et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> concluíram que o prejuízo autofágico interfere na homeostase do cálcio, nas vias metabólicas e na sobrevivência celular. Tais modificações, contribuem para a hipertrofia e anormalidades elétricas cardíacas apresentadas nesta condição.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>LMNA</title>
					<p>O gene LMNA codifica as proteínas lamina A e lamina C. As laminas são filamentos intermediários que compõem a lâmina nuclear que recobre o interior da membrana nuclear, de forma a determinar o tamanho e formato dos núcleos celulares. Alterações nesse gene estão associadas à CMD, além de outras doenças como Charcot-Marie-Tooth, distrofia de Emery-Dreifuss, síndrome de Holt-Oram, síndrome de Malouf e Síndrome de Hutchinson-Gilford.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Variantes em LMNA são a segunda causa genética mais comum de miocardiopatia dilatada não sindrômica, com uma frequência de 5% a 13% das cardiomiopatias dilatadas idiopáticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Estudos demonstram uma penetrância de 90 a 95% até a sétima década de vida, sem uma correlação genótipo-fenótipo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A CMD apresenta herança autossômica dominante, com quadro clínico caracterizado por dilatação do VE e/ou redução da função sistólica de início em adultos jovens. Comumente a cardiomiopatia é precedida ou acompanhada por um defeito do sistema de condução elétrica e arritmias,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> que podem se manifestar anos ou até uma década antes das demais modificações cardíacas. As alterações de condução mais comum são bradiarritmias sintomáticas; arritmias supraventriculares como flutter atrial, fibrilação atrial, síndrome de taquicardia-bradicardia; e arritmias ventriculares, podendo, inclusive, ocorrer morte súbita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Terapias-alvo contra a proteína MAP-quinase ainda estão em investigação, mas apresentam potencial para o tratamento das cardiomiopatias dilatadas causadas por variantes em LMNA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>MYBPC3</title>
					<p>A proteína C de ligação à miosina (MYBPC3) está presente nas bandas A do sarcômero miocárdico, conectando-se à cadeia pesada de miosina e a titina para exercer sua função. Apesar de não participar diretamente da contração muscular cardíaca, a MYBPC3 possui papel fundamental na modulação da velocidade de contração em resposta a estímulo adrenérgico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O fenótipo mais correlacionado a variantes da MYBPC3 é a Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica (CMH), sendo esta proteína associada a 15% dos casos familiares de CMH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Tal fenótipo possui múltiplas variantes, heranças autossômicas dominante e recessiva e apresentações clínicas heterogêneas. Entre as famílias estudadas, 58% dos adultos acima de 50 anos apresentaram hipertrofia cardíaca. A penetrância permaneceu incompleta até os 60 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Além disso, vale destacar que a sobrevivência global dos portadores de variantes de MYBPC3 com cardiomiopatia hipertrófica foi maior, quando comparada a outras mutações de proteínas sarcoméricas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Apesar das variantes de MYBPC3 possuírem correlação mais frequente com a CMH, alguns estudos identificaram fenótipos de CMD e não compactação isolada do VE associadas a alterações desse mesmo gene. Entretanto, nos fenótipos de CMD investigados a presença de fatores de confusão tornou algumas análises inconclusivas. Foi o caso das publicações de Konno et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> e de Shimizu et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> nas quais não foi possível comprovar a associação da variante apresentada ao quadro de CMD, devido a impossibilidade de descartar um quadro de progressão de cardiomiopatia hipertrófica.</p>
					<p>Dessa maneira, a correlação mais fortemente estabelecida na atualidade ocorre entre variantes de MYBPC3 a Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> sendo essa uma causa de frequência elevada entre as etiologias familiares, que pode viabilizar uma melhor abordagem por meio do rastreamento a partir de caso índice.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>MYH7</title>
					<p>O gene MH7 é responsável por codificar a cadeia pesada da miosina presente no músculo esquelético, sendo expressa principalmente nos ventrículos cardíacos e fibras de contração lenta. Por causarem uma alteração nos sarcômeros, a função contrátil do músculo é prejudicada. Nesse sentido, variantes nesse gene estão relacionadas com cardiomiopatias e miopatias. Dentre as cardiomiopatias, os fenótipos associados são: dilatada, hipertrófica, restritiva, VE não compactado e outras variações de cardiomiopatias congênitas de herança predominantemente autossômica dominante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em relação à cardiomiopatia hipertrófica, estudos demonstram que alterações nesse gene estão presentes em 10% a 30% dos casos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> com predomínio de variantes <italic>missense.</italic> Além disso, é possível estabelecer uma relação genótipo-fenótipo a depender do domínio funcional afetado. Variantes em MYH7 são fortemente associadas à disfunção sistólica e pior prognóstico,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> sobretudo em alterações nos domínios de conversão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Já variantes compostas, ou seja, com mais de um alelo mutado, estão associadas com o desenvolvimento de quadros mais complexos e de pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Nesse cenário, estudos demonstram um efeito acumulativo na presença de múltiplas alterações, levando ao início mais precoce da doença, maior chance de morte súbita e maior gravidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Assim, variantes em MYH7 estão associadas a diversas apresentações fenotípicas em que mutações coexistentes aumentam a complexidade dos casos.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Noonan-RASopatias</title>
					<p>As RASopatias são um grupo de síndromes com quadro clínico similar decorrente de uma mesma patogênese. Esse grupo de doenças apresenta alterações em genes da via de sinalização celular Ras/MAPK (proteinaquinase ativada por mitógeno), levando a alterações cardíacas, cutâneas e déficit intelectual. Alguns exemplos são Síndrome de Noonan, Síndrome de Costello e Síndrome Cardio-facio-cutâneo. Os genes associados às RASopatias são BRAF, HRAS, KRAS, LZTR1, MAP2K1, MAP2K2, NRAS, PTPN11, RAF1, RASA2, RRAS2, RIT1, SOS1, SOS2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na Síndrome de Noonan, cardiopatias congênitas estão presentes em 50% a 80% dos pacientes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> manifestadas como estenose de valva pulmonar, defeitos de septo e Tetralogia de Fallot. Já a cardiomiopatia hipertrófica está presente em 20% a 30% dos indivíduos, podendo se manifestar ao nascimento ou infância,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> sendo metade diagnosticada aos 6 anos de idade. Os genes com maior correlação com o desenvolvimento de cardiomiopatia hipertrófica são LZTR1, MRAS, RAF1 e RIT1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A Síndrome de Costello apresenta um amplo espectro fenotípico. Em termos cardiológicos, as alterações mais comuns são a cardiomiopatia hipertrófica, cardiopatias congênitas (estenose pulmonar) e arritmias. Em relação à cardiomiopatia hipertrófica, cerca de 60% dos pacientes apresentam essa alteração,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> com apresentação tipicamente leve a moderada. O diagnóstico de Síndrome de Costello pode ser feito por meio do teste genético e a identificação de uma variante heterozigótica no gene HRAS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A Síndrome cardio-facio-cutâneo é caracterizada por alterações cardíacas, faciais e cutâneas. As alterações cardiológicas incluem cardiopatias congênitas (estenose pulmonar, valvopatias, defeitos de septo), arritmias e a cardiomiopatia hipertrófica. Os genes mais associados com essa síndrome são BRAF, KRAS, MAP2K1 e MAP2K2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>PRKAG2</title>
					<p>O gene PRKAG2 é responsável por codificar a subunidade gama não catalítica da proteinaquinase ativada por AMP (AMPK). Tal proteína é ativada em situações de estresse, em que ocorre aumento do AMP celular e redução dos níveis de ATP. Variantes nesse gene estão relacionadas com o desenvolvimento de cardiomiopatia hipertrófica, cardiomiopatia fatal congênita por depósito de glicose e Síndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A cardiomiopatia hipertrófica por PRKAG2 apresenta herança autossômica dominante. Frequentemente, indivíduos com essa variante apresentam concomitantemente distúrbios de condução, em especial a Síndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White, fibrilação atrial, pré-excitação ventricular e desenvolvimento progressivo de bloqueio atrioventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Indivíduos com variantes <italic>missense</italic>, que acarretam em ganho de função da AMPK, podem evoluir com formação e acúmulo de grânulos de glicogênio nos miócitos. Essa alteração metabólica culmina no desenvolvimento de hipertrofia ventricular e defeitos no sistema de condução elétrica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
					<p>É essencial diferenciar os casos de cardiomiopatia por PRKAG2 das demais cardiomiopatias hipertróficas sarcoméricas, visto que a apresentação, prognóstico e clínica são diferentes, sendo a morte súbita mais frequente em pacientes com variantes em PRKAG2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>TTN</title>
					<p>A Titina é uma proteína presente no músculo cardíaco que se situa entre a linha Z e M, sendo essencial para a contração e tensão do cardiomiócito durante a atividade cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> O gene TTN, é responsável pela codificação desta proteína, suas variantes podem ser <italic>nonsense, frameshift, splicing e large tandem insertion</italic>.</p>
					<p>Tais variantes seguem um padrão de herança autossômico dominante, com alta penetrância, atingindo até 95% depois dos 40 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Além disso, estão frequentemente associadas à CMD, identificadas em cerca de 25% dos casos familiares e 18% dos casos esporádicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Quanto à apresentação clínica, idade do diagnóstico, fração de ejeção, necessidade de transplante e mortalidade não foram detectadas diferenças significativas entre as cardiomiopatias com ou sem variantes da titina. Entretanto, entre os pacientes com a mutação, o sexo foi correlacionado a uma diferença nos desfechos cardíacos, sendo a IC mais precoce nos participantes do sexo masculino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Considerando as variantes de TTN, a causa genética mais comum associada à CMD,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> a possibilidade de identificar suas variantes em estágios iniciais pode colaborar para uma abordagem terapêutica mais precoce.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusões</title>
				<p>Mediante análise de cardiomiopatias genéticas, nota-se a importância da identificação precoce de casos suspeitos. Para essa finalidade, é essencial a solicitação de sequenciamento genético de pacientes diagnosticados com cardiomiopatias, de modo a rastrear familiares suscetíveis a variante abordada com presteza.</p>
				<p>Tendo em vista as particularidades de cada variante e a correlação genótipo-fenótipo, a investigação genética permite realizar uma abordagem precoce e direcionada, de modo a maximizar a prevenção de possíveis desfechos desfavoráveis e complicações. Portanto, é primordial o avanço do campo da Medicina de Precisão, de forma a promover o manejo mais individualizado dos pacientes com cardiomiopatias.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1002">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Correlação genótipo-fenótipo</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Fenótipo</th>
									<th align="left">Genótipo</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Hipertrófica</td>
									<td>MYH7, PRKAG2, MYBPC3, GLA, LAMP2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Dilatada</td>
									<td>TTN, DSP, MYH7, FLNC, LMNA</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Arritmogênica do VD</td>
									<td>DSP</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Restritiva</td>
									<td>MYBPC3, Complexo troponínico</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1002">
								<p>Adaptado de Vogiatzi et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref>
								</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2002">
						<label>Tabela 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Resumo das principais características de cada mutação</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Gene</th>
									<th align="left">Informações Principais</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>ALPK3</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>Cardiomiopatia hipertrófica</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Herança tipicamente recessiva</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Associações com alterações musculoesqueléticas associadas (dismorfismos faciais, anormalidades esqueléticas e pectus excavatum)</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>BAG3</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>CMD</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Herança autossômica dominante (variação do número de cópias e deleções)</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Idade de diagnóstico entre 21 a 64 anos, com gravidade variável (assintomáticos até insuficiência cardíaca grave)</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Complexo troponínico</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>Troponina C (TNNC1): CMD e hipertrófica</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Troponina T (TNNT2): CMD, restritiva, hipertrófica familiar e não compactação de ventrículo esquerdo</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Troponina I (TNNI3): CMD, restritiva familiar e hipertrófica</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DSP</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>Cardiomiopatia arritmogênica do ventrículo direito</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>herança autossômica dominante</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>CMD</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– heranças autossômicas dominante e recessiva</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– síndromes com alterações capilares, dérmicas e dentárias</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>FLNC</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>Hipertrófico, dilatado, restritivo e displasia arritmogênica do ventrículo direito</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Herança autossômica dominante</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Variantes associadas a cardiomiopatia hipertrófica possuem prognósticos distintos, a depender da mutação. Tal diferenciação auxilia na estratificação de risco</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>GLA</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>Cardiomiopatia hipertrófica</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Herança ligada ao cromossomo X</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Associado a Doença de Fabry</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Tratamento com reposição enzimática</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>LAMP2</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>Cardiomiopatia hipertrófica</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Associado a doença de Danon:</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Ligada ao X</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Defeito no armazenamento de glicogênio</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Manifestações neurológicas, hepáticas e da musculatura estriada esquelética e cardíaca</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>LMNA</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>CMD (segunda causa genética mais comum de miocardiopatia dilatada não sindrômica)</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Herança autossômica dominante</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Associado as seguintes doenças e síndromes:</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Charcot-Marie-Tooth</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Distrofia de Emery-Dreifuss</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Síndrome de Holt-Oram</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Síndrome de Malouf</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Síndrome de Hutchinson-Gilford</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Em estudo terapias alvo contra a proteína MAP-quinase para tratamento de cardiomiopatias dilatadas associadas à LMNA</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>MYBPC3</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>Cardiomiopatia hipertrófica (mais frequente e mais fortemente correlacionada), dilatada e não compactação isolada do ventrículo esquerdo</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Herança autossômica dominante e recessiva</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Clinicamente heterogêneas</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>MYH7</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>Cardiomiopatia hipertrófica</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Associada a miopatias do músculo esquelético</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Noonan RASopatias</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>Cardiomiopatia hipertrófica</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Genes:</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– BRAF, HRAS, KRAS, LZTR1, MAP2K1, MAP2K2, NRAS, PTPN11, RAF1, RASA2, RRAS2, RIT1, SOS1, SOS2</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Síndromes associadas</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Síndrome de Noonan</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Síndrome de Costello</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Síndrome Cardio-facio-cutâneo (CFC)</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>PRKAG2</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>Cardiomiopatia hipertrófica</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Herança autossômico dominante</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Outros distúrbios de condução cardíaca associados:</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Síndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Fibrilação atrial</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Pré-excitação ventricular</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>– Bloqueio atrioventricular</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>TTN</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>CMD</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Herança autossômico dominante</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Variantes nonsense, frameshift, splicing e large tandem insertion</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2002">
								<p>CMD: cardiomiopatia dilatada.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Vinculação acadêmica:</label>
					<p> Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado:</label>
					<p> Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<label>Fontes de financiamento:</label>
					<p> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>