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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240046i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Echocardiographic Parameters for Evaluating the Right Ventricle in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Literature Review</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0107-8104</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Bispo</surname>
						<given-names>Irving Gabriel Araújo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-1749-7441</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Brambila</surname>
						<given-names>Vitor Morais</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-4139-3395</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Chagas</surname>
						<given-names>Gabriela Câmara</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-1453-3433</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pereira</surname>
						<given-names>Maria Luisa Ribeiro Gonçalves</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-0665-5341</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Melo</surname>
						<given-names>Maria Angélica Miqueri de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Municipal de São Caetano do Sul</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Caetano do Sul</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Municipal de São Caetano do Sul, São Caetano do Sul, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address</label>: Irving Gabriel Araújo Bispo • Avenida do Cursino 912, apt 23 B. Postal Code 04132-000, Saúde, São Paulo, SP - Brazil E-mail: <email>irvingbispo@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Garcia</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>19</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>1</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>5</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20240046</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>02</day>
					<month>08</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>24</day>
					<month>10</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>04</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract abstract-type="graphical">
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Echocardiographic Parameters for Evaluating the Right Ventricle in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Literature Review</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-1-e20240046-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</abstract>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a lung disease that often has an indolent course and systemic repercussions. Its main cause is constant and prolonged exposure to cigarette smoke or other gases. Such particles lead to reduced airflow and consequent lung hyperinflation with varying degrees of airway obstruction, also causing skeletal muscle dysfunction, respiratory failure, and decreased peripheral blood flow. COPD patients with concomitant cardiovascular disease (CVD) have a worse prognosis than simply the prognosis of each disease alone. However, it is difficult to establish what the risk is for a given group of patients due to the complex network of etiological and pathophysiological interactions underlying both diseases. Quantitative and qualitative echocardiographic assessment of right ventricular function is becoming of increasing interest in cardiac diseases that affect the right ventricle (RV), such as congenital heart disease and pulmonary hypertension (PH). However, it is still challenging due to the complex anatomy of the RV. The objective is to revisit the echocardiographic parameters that functionally assess the RV in patients with COPD, even if they do not present clinical signs of ventricular dysfunction.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Right Ventricular Dysfunction</kwd>
				<kwd>Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease</kwd>
				<kwd>Doppler Echocardiography</kwd>
				<kwd>Global Longitudinal Strain</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="35"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Since the first description of pulmonary circulation in the 16th century, knowledge of the complex interaction between the heart and lungs has improved considerably. Hypoxemia plays a classic role in the development of complications such as pulmonary hypertension and right ventricular (RV) dysfunction in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). However, more recent findings have revealed the presence of vascular structural and functional alterations of the RV, even in patients with mild COPD without hypoxemia or pulmonary hypertension. Compared with the left ventricle, the anatomy of the RV is unique and complex, which makes its assessment more difficult during routine examinations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>COPD is a chronic lung disease with an often indolent course and systemic repercussions. Its main cause is constant and prolonged exposure to cigarette smoke or other harmful gases that lead to reduced airflow with lung hyperinflation due to varying degrees of airway obstruction, causing skeletal muscle dysfunction, respiratory failure, and decreased peripheral blood flow.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>COPD patients with concomitant cardiovascular disease (CVD) have a worse prognosis than simply the prognosis of each disease alone. However, it is difficult to establish a risk ratio for a given patient due to the complex network of etiological and pathophysiological interactions underlying both diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>COPD is a heterogeneous and multifactorial clinical condition with an estimated global prevalence of 11.7%. Exacerbations are the leading cause of hospitalization for COPD, and different variables are associated with a significantly high number of readmissions in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>COPD exacerbations comprise an acute event in the natural course of the disease, with a change in baseline dyspnea, cough, and/or sputum color with a real need to change regular medication. COPD exacerbations represent a key factor in the increased morbidity, healthcare costs, and mortality in COPD and have received increasing attention in recent years. Most of these patients experience at least one exacerbation per year, and a considerable proportion (approximately 17%) experience three or more episodes per year. COPD exacerbations are classified as severe for those patients who require hospitalization, according to the GOLD classification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> These events, when more severe, mostly result in hospitalization and have a negative impact on quality of life, lung function, and functional capacity. Previous studies indicate that comorbidities associated with the primary respiratory disease may also worsen during hospitalization. It is known that COPD patients who experience exacerbations more frequently have lower quality of life and significantly higher mortality when compared to other COPD patients, in addition to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Quantitative echocardiographic assessment of right ventricular function is becoming of increasing interest in cardiac diseases affecting the right ventricle, such as congenital heart disease, pulmonary hypertension (PH), and COPD, but remains challenging due to the complex anatomy of the RV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Two-dimensional (2D) echocardiographic methods of RV performance analysis employ geometric models that do not accurately represent the RV shape. Real-time three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography allows us to measure RV end-diastolic volume and ejection fraction independently of its shape. Tissue Doppler and strain echocardiography are new means of assessing myocardial wall motion and deformation, and it has been suggested that the use of strain-derived indices could be proposed as an adjunctive tool in the overall assessment of right ventricular function. Three-dimensional echocardiography provides a rapid and comprehensive quantitative assessment of ventricular myocardial dynamics and has been applied to the study of the right ventricle, mainly in patients with pulmonary hypertension. However, the hemodynamic value of these new echocardiographic parameters in the clinical setting of RV dysfunction has not been clearly established.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The guidelines provided by the American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) indicate that the RV is often neglected, as it is a predominantly quantitative examination, due to its difficulty in assessing volumes and its geometric complexity. Regarding the use of echocardiography with the strain method, the ASE points out that among the advantages of using this method is the ability to provide an estimate of the regional and global function of the observed chamber; however, few studies have been carried out to evaluate the method in the RV truly.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Objective</title>
			<p>The objective is to revisit the echocardiographic parameters that functionally assess the RV in patients with COPD, even if they do not present clinical signs of ventricular dysfunction.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="methods">
			<title>Method</title>
			<p>This study was conducted through an integrative literature review in order to establish greater knowledge about RV echocardiographic parameters in patients with COPD. A qualitative integrative review was performed by searching for articles in the electronic databases LILACS, Scielo, Cochrane Library, and PubMed, using MeSH descriptors: “Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease”, “Right Ventricle”, “Echocardiogram” and “Systolic Function”.</p>
			<p>Independent researchers analyzed the articles. The data included the definition of subjects, methodology, sample size, measurement of variables, analysis method, and underlying concepts used. This protocol should include the databases that will be used, the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the descriptors used, in addition to indicating how the studies will be selected and the models to extract data and assess quality.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Two-dimensional evaluation of the right ventricle</title>
				<p>According to current guidelines for cardiac chamber quantification, echocardiographers must utilize multiple acoustic windows to visualize the RV accurately. Furthermore, there is a great need to measure multiple parameters (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Central Figure</xref>) since there is no single index of contractility that perfectly describes RV performance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In daily clinical practice, the most common indices that can be used to assess RV systolic function are tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), tricuspid lateral annular systolic velocity derived from tissue Doppler imaging (S’ wave), RV myocardial performance index (RVPI), and fractional area change (FAC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>TAPSE is a measure of RV longitudinal function. TAPSE &lt;16 mm indicates RV systolic dysfunction. This measurement is made from the lateral tricuspid annulus (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>). Although TAPSE expresses a measure of longitudinal function, it has been shown to correlate well with techniques for estimating global RV systolic function, such as radionuclide-derived ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– TAPSE.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-1-e20240046-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Right ventricular systolic function may be significantly impaired despite normal TAPSE in some cases of severe pulmonary arterial hypertension. On the other hand, RV performance may be preserved despite reduced TAPSE, as is frequently observed after cardiovascular surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Furthermore, this parameter is relatively load and angle-dependent; there may be some variations in the values depending on the rotation of the cardiac axis. However, TAPSE is the most frequently used index for assessing RV performance since it is easily obtained and demonstrates diagnostic and prognostic values in many stages of cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In patients with advanced heart failure and significant LV dysfunction, a TAPSE ≤ 14 mm predicted all-cause mortality in multivariate analysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Furthermore, a study by Alhamshari et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> reported that TAPSE could be a reliable tool for assessing RV function in obese patients admitted with acute myocardial infarction. They concluded that obese individuals had higher TAPSE at the time of acute myocardial infarction than non-obese patients. Furthermore, the authors reported that obese patients with better RV performance developed acute heart failure less frequently than the others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> McLaughlin et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> demonstrated that children with dilated cardiomyopathy were more likely to develop RV systolic dysfunction as measured by TAPSE, which was also associated with a worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<p>There is an interesting finding by Ozpelit et al. in their study of elderly individuals diagnosed with pulmonary arterial hypertension and COPD. The authors found that the indices that influence prognosis in elderly patients were different from those in younger patients (e.g., TAPSE was an independent predictor of death only in the elderly group).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The use of FAC as a reference method for RV systolic function is due to its proven efficacy as a parameter independent of age, LV ejection fraction, and heart failure, among others. The results obtained reinforce that FAC is a highly accurate method in the Chagas population, confirming the findings of Asmer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> It is also important to highlight the similar accuracy of FAC in comparison with TAPSE, a widely established method for assessing RV systolic function whose execution also uses M-mode as a tool.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Two-dimensional FAC &lt;35% indicates RV systolic dysfunction. It is important to ensure that the entire right ventricle is included in the section, including the apex and lateral wall in both systole and diastole. Care should be taken to exclude trabeculations during planimetry of the RV area.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The S’ wave is easy to measure, reliable, and reproducible. An S’ velocity &lt;10 cm/s indicates RV systolic dysfunction. This measurement correlates well with other measures of global RV systolic function. It is important to keep the basal segment and annulus aligned with the Doppler cursor to avoid errors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> As with TAPSE, the S’ wave reflects the function of the longitudinal fibers, which play an important role in RV contraction.</p>
				<p>The S’ wave is usually obtained by the approach apical 4-camera view, placing a tissue Doppler cursor at the lateral tricuspid annulus or mid-basal segment of the RV free wall. Care must be taken to achieve parallel alignment of the Doppler beam with the direction of RV longitudinal excursion. In addition, it is essential to measure the highest velocity of the ejection wave and not the anterior isovolumetric contraction wave, which is the most common error.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The advantages and disadvantages of the S’ wave (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>) are comparable to those observed during TAPSE. It is simple to obtain and has prognostic data, but on the other hand, it is angle-dependent, influenced by the overall motion of the heart, and does not always correspond to the global systolic function of the RV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– S wave.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-1-e20240046-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Wang et al. reported that tissue Doppler-derived S’ had a stronger correlation with RV ejection fraction measured by cardiovascular magnetic resonance (MRI) than other indices (TAPSE, FAC, myocardial acceleration during isovolumetric contraction) and the best parameter to detect RV dysfunction with EF≤ 20% wasS ‘ &lt; 8.79 cm/s.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The lower reference value for the S wave of pulsed tissue Doppler is 9.5 cm/s. Color tissue Doppler can also measure the S wave, but it is not prevalent. In this case, the cutoff value is low (6 cm/s) since the encoded data represent average velocities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				<p>RV-MPI (right ventricular myocardial performance index) is a calculation based on tissue Doppler velocities or RV pulse wave velocities (isovolumetric relaxation time − isovolumetric contraction time/RV ejection time). These variables are measured during flow and do not require full RV visualization. RV-MPI is limited in patients with irregular heart rates and when right atrial (RA) pressure is elevated, as this affects isovolumic relaxation time. An abnormal RV-MPI is &gt;0.43 if measured by pulsed-wave Doppler or &gt;0.54 if measured by tissue Doppler.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Studies to validate the quantification of Pulmonary Insufficiency (PI) by two-dimensional echocardiography tend to overestimate the value compared to magnetic resonance imaging. The greatest effectiveness for quantification by 2D is determined by the joint analysis of several indexes established in the literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Studies to validate the quantification of PI by echocardiography (2D) show a tendency to overestimate the value when compared to MRI. The greatest efficacy for quantification by 2D is determined by the joint analysis of several indexes established in the literature. Mercer-Rosa et al. showed a moderate correlation between the relationship of the time-velocity integral of pulmonary flow in diastole and systole and the regurgitant fraction by MRI, establishing a cutoff value to stratify the important degree, suggesting the incorporation of this index with the other parameters for greater efficacy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Regarding the assessment of right ventricular dimensions, the literature shows poor agreement between linear measurements assessed by 2D and MRI, with 2D tending to underestimate. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>) However, given the complex geometry of the RV that prevents visualization in a single plane, it is clear that linear measurement alone compromises the assessment. The inclusion of planimetry of the end-diastolic area, associated with two-dimensional measurements in the apical four-chamber and parasternal short-axis planes for assessment of the outflow tract, contributes to accuracy. In studies conducted by both authors, Shiran et al. and Alghamdi et al., in adults with pulmonary hypertension with COPD and children with congenital heart disease, it was possible to estimate volumes by measuring the diastolic area indexed in the two-dimensional plane with good correlation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Parameters assessed for right ventricle systolic function by two-dimensional echocardiography</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Parameter</th>
									<th>Normal Value</th>
									<th>Limitations</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Tissue Doppler S wave</td>
									<td align="center">Greater than 9.5 cm/s</td>
									<td align="center">Dependent angle It does not represent a complete assessment of right ventricular function, especially in transplant patients.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>TAPSE</td>
									<td align="center">Greater than 17 mm</td>
									<td align="center">Dependent angle</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Fractional Area Change (FAC)</td>
									<td align="center">Greater than 35%</td>
									<td align="center">Neglects the contribution of RV outflow tract for assessment of general systolic function</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Myocardial performance index (IPM)</td>
									<td align="center">Greater than 0.43 (pulsed Doppler)</td>
									<td align="center">Not reliable when right atrial pressure is elevated</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p>TAPSE: tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion; RV: right ventricle.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>A new parameter to assess RV systolic function, which is simple to acquire, was recently analyzed, called right ventricular outflow tract systolic excursion (RVOT_SE). This method proved to be accurate for assessing RV systolic function when compared with fractional area variation (FAC) and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), in addition to confirming a worse prognosis for those patients with values below the cutoff line for RV dysfunction. Since this entity has its own characteristics, including segmental RV alterations, it is essential to prove the applicability of RVOT_SE in further studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As demonstrated, several indices are routinely used, such as fractional change in area (FAC), tricuspid annular systolic excursion (TAPSE), tricuspid annular peak systolic velocity, and the myocardial performance index. Each of them has advantages and limitations, variable feasibility and reproducibility, and questionable diagnostic and prognostic efficacy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> It is believed that, at present, none of them, in isolation, is a good indicator of RV systolic function in patients with COPD. Since the vector of longitudinal contraction is the most important due to the orientation of the predominant longitudinal muscle fibers from the tricuspid annulus to the apex, preference will be given to indices that explore movement in the longitudinal axis in the assessment of regional or global RV longitudinal function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Current guidelines from the American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) indicate performing several quantitative methods using two-dimensional echocardiography to assess the RV adequately.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Evaluation of the right ventricle by the strain method</title>
				<p>Initially, the evaluation of 2D strain using the speckle-tracking method with already available software was limited to the analysis of left ventricular myocardial deformation, with the RV evaluation performed by these same programs generating inaccurate results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> However, through technological advances and artificial intelligence, it is now possible to perform, in a fully automated manner, the analysis of right ventricular longitudinal strain from two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) projections.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The assessment of peak systolic longitudinal strain has enabled greater accuracy in the functional analysis of the RV, with the peculiarity of enabling early detection of dysfunction that precedes the reduction of the conventional ejection fraction. The incorporation of strain into other conventional parameters of functional assessment has contributed to accuracy, representing an advance in the challenge of echocardiography for assessing the RV. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table2</xref>) The word “speckle” refers to the granular appearance of the image generated by an optical coherence imaging system, such as laser, optical coherence tomography, or ultrasonography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Most frequent echocardiographic findings in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseasepatients with right ventricle dysfunction</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="100%">
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Decreased TAPSE in patients with severe pulmonary hypertension</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>TAPSE as an independent predictor of mortality in elderly patients with pulmonary hypertension</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Assessment of right ventricular function by various methods in patients with COPD</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Use of global longitudinal strain to detect early RV dysfunction</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p>RV: right ventricle; COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The strain offers an approach to assessing contractile capacity that rectifies displacement inaccuracies, resulting in reduced sensitivity to the orientation of the acquired imaging plane. The operational suitability of the two-dimensional strain method is conditioned by the intrinsic quality of the images obtained, with the correct identification of the endocardial border emerging as the determining factor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The assessment of myocardial deformation using the speckle tracking technique (STE-2D) is influenced by cardiac translational motion, Doppler angle, and pre- and post-load states. Right ventricular systolic contraction is predominantly mediated by the deformation of longitudinally oriented myocardial fibers, representing approximately 75% of the total, while the impact of the deformation of radial fibers is remarkably limited. This circumstance reinforces the recent contribution of right ventricular longitudinal strain as a relevant tool in the assessment of right ventricular systolic function and directing the analysis, especially to the endocardial and epicardial borders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Furthermore, it is important to highlight the assessment of three-dimensional strain of the right ventricle, an approach of significant utility, since it provides comprehensive information not only on the longitudinal function but also on the circumferential and radial functions of this cardiac cavity. However, it is worth highlighting that the main limitations of advanced techniques for assessing RV function are the presence of a limited acoustic thoracic window, inadequate temporal resolution, and arrhythmias, as well as, in the case of deformation indices, the variability of the software of different brands of equipment. In addition, this methodology presents a solid agreement with the results obtained through MRI, recognized as the reference standard.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>This technique has been used to detect subclinical RV dysfunction, with the global longitudinal strain (GLS) parameter (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 3</xref>) as the strongest predictor in patients with COPD. Therefore, in patients with COPD, it is possible to select those who require careful monitoring and early intervention to prevent the development of RV dysfunction and cardiovascular complications based on the analysis of these echocardiographic parameters, which could thus lead to an improvement in the patient’s life expectancy. Its use has also been consolidated for both diagnosis and prognosis, especially in patients with heart failure, pulmonary hypertension, ischemic heart disease, restrictive heart disease, and valvular heart disease, supporting RV strain as a highly relevant tool for clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f04">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Strain VD.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-1-e20240046-gf04.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Furthermore, the incorporation of advanced computational solutions driven by artificial intelligence not only improves procedural efficiency but also mitigates disparities between observers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Evaluation of the right ventricle by three-dimensional echocardiogram</title>
				<p>Three-dimensional echocardiography, used primarily in experimental settings, is now widely available in hospitals. Its method of operation is described as “an emitted ultrasound pulse that propagates in a straight line, interacting with the different acoustic interfaces of the thoracic cavity until it reaches the heart.”<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography has contributed to volumetric and functional assessment, allowing the analysis of all segments without contraindications, but requires specific equipment that is not available in all echocardiography laboratories. There is a significant correlation between 3D and MRI and a certain tendency for 3D to underestimate volumes when there is marked dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>New techniques, such as 3D ejection fraction (EF) and RV longitudinal strain (RVLS)/strain ratio, allow us to overcome some imperfections of traditional indices, but unfortunately, they are not always available.</p>
				<p>Botelho et al. compared RV anatomy and systolic function assessed by traditional methods and advanced echocardiographic parameters in 20 patients, mainly men, with stable, moderate to severe COPD, with 20 control patients. Patients with COPD had significantly higher pulmonary artery systolic pressure and RV-free wall thickness than controls. In contrast, they showed lower TAPSE, lower volume by 3D echocardiography, and lower strain values than controls. Only one (5%) patient with COPD showed no RV-related echocardiographic abnormalities. In conclusion, their results indicated subclinical RV dysfunction in patients with stable COPD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusions</title>
			<p>Assessment of right ventricular systolic and diastolic performance using echocardiographic parameters is a powerful prognostic indicator in patients with COPD since RV dysfunction is related to reduced exercise capacity and an unfavorable prognosis and is essential for stratifying cardiovascular risk in these patients. Two-dimensional methods need to be performed concomitantly and using several slices. Therefore, it is worth emphasizing that the clinical attitude for decision-making in the evaluation of the RV in patients with COPD depends on an integrated approach between clinical data and different echocardiographic methods, thus seeking the best perspective for the patient. The use of strain and three-dimensional echocardiography has been gaining more and more ground for the adequate evaluation of RV function in this population.</p>
			<p>Further studies with a larger number of individuals with mild to severe COPD and with exacerbation of the disease need to be carried out to validate new echocardiographic methods using strain and 3D echocardiography.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Study association:</label>
				<p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Ethics approval and consent to participate:</label>
				<p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<label>Sources of funding:</label>
				<p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240046</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Parâmetros Ecocardiográficos de Avaliação do Ventrículo Direito em Pacientes com Doença Pulmonar Obstrutiva Crônica: Revisão de Literatura</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0107-8104</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Bispo</surname>
						<given-names>Irving Gabriel Araújo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-1749-7441</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Brambila</surname>
						<given-names>Vitor Morais</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-4139-3395</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Chagas</surname>
						<given-names>Gabriela Câmara</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-1453-3433</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pereira</surname>
						<given-names>Maria Luisa Ribeiro Gonçalves</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-0665-5341</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Melo</surname>
						<given-names>Maria Angélica Miqueri de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Municipal de São Caetano do Sul, São Caetano do Sul, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência</label>: Irving Gabriel Araújo Bispo • Avenida do Cursino 912, apt 23 B. CEP 04132-000, Saúde, São Paulo, SP - Brasil E-mail: irvingbispo@yahoo.com.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Marcelo Garcia</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract abstract-type="graphical">
				<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Parâmetros Ecocardiográficos de Avaliação do Ventrículo Direito em Pacientes com Doença Pulmonar Obstrutiva Crônica: Revisão de Literatura</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-1-e20240046-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</abstract>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica (DPOC) é uma doença pulmonar com evolução muitas vezes indolente e repercussões sistêmicas. Sua principal causa é a exposição constante e prolongada à fumaça do cigarro ou outros gases. Tais partículas levam à redução do fluxo de ar e consequente hiperinsuflação pulmonar com vários graus de obstrução das vias áreas, também causando disfunção do músculo esquelético, insuficiência respiratória e diminuição do fluxo de sangue periférico. Pacientes com DPOC com doença cardiovascular (DCV) concomitante têm pior prognóstico do que simplesmente o prognóstico de cada doença isoladamente. No entanto, é difícil estabelecer qual é o risco para um determinado grupo de pacientes, devido à complexa rede de interações etiológicas e fisiopatológicas subjacente a ambas as doenças. A avaliação ecocardiográfica quantitativa e qualitativa da função ventricular direita está se tornando de crescente interesse em doenças cardíacas que afetam o ventrículo direito (VD), como doença cardíaca congênita e hipertensão pulmonar (HP), mas ainda é desafiador devido à anatomia complexa do VD. O objetivo é revisitar os parâmetros ecocardiográficos que avaliam o VD de forma funcional nos pacientes com DPOC mesmo que não apresentem sinais clínicos de disfunção ventricular.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Disfunção Ventricular Direita</kwd>
				<kwd>Doença Pulmonar Obstrutiva Crônica</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia Doppler</kwd>
				<kwd>Deformação Longitudinal Global</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>Desde a primeira descrição da circulação pulmonar no século XVI, o conhecimento da interação complexa entre o coração e os pulmões melhorou bastante. A hipoxemia desempenha um papel clássico no desenvolvimento de complicações como hipertensão pulmonar e disfunção do ventrículo direito (VD) em pacientes que apresentam doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica (DPOC). No entanto, resultados mais recentes revelaram a presença de alterações estruturais e funcionais vasculares da VD, mesmo em pacientes com DPOC leve sem hipoxemia ou hipertensão pulmonar. Em comparação com o ventrículo esquerdo, a anatomia do VD é única e complexa, o que torna sua avaliação mais difícil durante os exames de rotina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A DPOC é uma doença pulmonar crônica com evolução muitas vezes indolente e repercussões sistêmicas. Sua principal causa é a exposição constante e prolongada à fumaça do cigarro ou outros gases nocivos que levam à redução do fluxo de ar com hiperinsuflação pulmonar devido a vários graus de obstrução das vias aéreas, causando disfunção do músculo esquelético, insuficiência respiratória e diminuição do sangue periférico fluxo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Pacientes com DPOC com doença cardiovascular (DCV) concomitante têm pior prognóstico do que simplesmente o prognóstico de cada doença isoladamente. No entanto, é difícil estabelecer uma taxa de risco para um determinado paciente, devido à complexa rede de interações etiológicas e fisiopatológicas subjacente a ambas as doenças.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A DPOC é uma condição clínica heterogênea e multifatorial com prevalência global estimada de 11,7%. As exacerbações são a principal causa de hospitalização pela DPOC, e diferentes variáveis são associadas com número significativamente alto de readmissões desses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As exacerbações da DPOC compreendem um evento agudo no curso natural da doença, com mudança na dispneia basal, tosse e/ou coloração do escarro com real necessidade de mudança da medicação regular. As exacerbações da DPOC representam um fator chave no aumento da morbidade, custos de saúde e mortalidade na DPOC e têm recebido atenção ainda maior nos últimos anos. A maioria destes pacientes apresenta pelo menos uma exacerbação por ano, e uma proporção considerável (cerca de 17%) apresenta três ou mais episódios por ano. A exacerbação da DPOC é classificada como grave para aqueles pacientes que necessitam de hospitalização, de acordo com a classificação GOLD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Estes eventos, quando mais graves, resultam em sua maioria em internações e impacto negativo na qualidade de vida, função pulmonar e capacidade funcional. Estudos prévios apontam que as comorbidades associadas com a doença respiratória primária podem também se agravar durante o período da internação. É conhecido que os pacientes com DPOC, que exacerbam com mais frequência, apresentam qualidade de vida inferior e mortalidade significativamente maior quando comparado a outros pacientes com DPOC, além de risco aumentado para doenças cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A avaliação ecocardiográfica quantitativa da função ventricular direita está se tornando de crescente interesse em doenças cardíacas que afetam o ventrículo direito, como cardiopatia congênita, hipertensão pulmonar (HP) e DPOC, mas ainda é desafiador devido à anatomia complexa do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Os métodos ecocardiográficos bidimensionais (2D) de análise do desempenho do VD empregam modelos geométricos que não representam o formato do VD com precisão. A ecocardiografia tridimensional em tempo real (3D) nos permite medir o volume diastólico final do VD e a fração de ejeção, independentemente de seu formato. O Doppler tecidual e a ecocardiografia pelo <italic>strain</italic> são novos meios de avaliação dos movimentos e deformações da parede do miocárdio, e foi sugerido que o uso de índices derivados do <italic>strain</italic> pode ser proposto como ferramenta adjuvante na avaliação geral da função ventricular direita. A ecocardiografia tridimensional fornece uma avaliação quantitativa rápida e abrangente da dinâmica ventricular do miocárdio e foi aplicada ao estudo do ventrículo direito principalmente com hipertensão pulmonar. No entanto, o valor hemodinâmico desses novos parâmetros ecocardiográficos no cenário clínico de disfunção de VD não foi claramente estabelecido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A diretriz disponibilizada pela Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia (ASE) aponta que o VD é muitas vezes negligenciado, sendo um exame majoritariamente quantitativo, devido a sua dificuldade de avaliar volumes e sua complexidade geométrica. Em relação à utilização da ecocardiografia com método de <italic>strain</italic>, a ASE aponta que dentre as vantagens de utilizar este método está a capacidade de fornecer uma estimativa da função regional e global da câmara observada, entretanto poucos estudos já foram realizados para a real avaliação do método no VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Objetivo</title>
				<p>O objetivo é revisitar os parâmetros ecocardiográficos que avaliam o VD de forma funcional nos pacientes com DPOC mesmo que não apresentem sinais clínicos de disfunção ventricular.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="methods">
				<title>Métodos</title>
				<p>Este estudo foi realizado por meio de uma revisão integrativa da literatura, a fim de estabelecer um maior conhecimento sobre parâmetros ecocardiográficos do VD em pacientes com DPOC. Foi realizada uma revisão integrativa qualitativa com busca de artigos nas bases eletrônicas LILACS, Scielo, Cochrane Library e PubMed, utilizando descritores MeSH: “Doença Pulmonar Obstrutiva Crônica”, “Ventrículo Direito”, “Ecocardiograma” e “Função Sistólica”.</p>
				<p>Foi realizada a análise dos artigos por pesquisadores independentes. Os dados incluíram: definição dos sujeitos, metodologia, tamanho da amostra, mensuração de variáveis, método de análise e conceitos embasadores empregados. Neste protocolo, devem ser incluídos: as bases de dados que serão utilizadas, os critérios de inclusão e exclusão, os descritores utilizados, além de indicar como serão selecionados os estudos e os modelos para extrair os dados e avaliar a qualidade.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Avaliação bidimensional do ventrículo direito</title>
					<p>De acordo com as diretrizes atuais para quantificação da câmara cardíaca, os ecocardiografistas devem utilizar múltiplas janelas acústicas para visualizar o VD com precisão. Além disso, há uma grande necessidade de medir vários parâmetros (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura central</xref>), uma vez que não existe um único índice de contratilidade que descreva perfeitamente o desempenho do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na prática clínica diária, os índices mais comuns que podem ser utilizados para avaliar a função sistólica do VD são: excursão sistólica do plano anular tricúspide (TAPSE), velocidade sistólica do anel lateral tricúspide derivada de imagem tecidual Doppler (onda S’), índice de desempenho miocárdico do VD (IMP) e alteração de área fracionada (FAC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O TAPSE é uma medida da função longitudinal do VD. TAPSE &lt;16 mm indica disfunção sistólica do VD. Essa medida é feita a partir do anel lateral tricúspide (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">figura 1</xref>). Embora o TAPSE expresse uma medida da função longitudinal, ele tem demonstrado boa correlação com as técnicas de estimativa de função sistólica global de VD como fração de ejeção derivada de radionuclídeo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– TAPSE.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-1-e20240046-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>A função sistólica do ventrículo direito pode ser significativamente prejudicada apesar do TAPSE normal em alguns casos de hipertensão arterial pulmonar importante. Por outro lado, o desempenho do VD pode ser preservado apesar da redução do TAPSE, como é frequentemente observado após cirurgia cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Além disso, este parâmetro é relativamente dependente da carga e do ângulo; pode haver algumas variações nos valores de acordo com a rotação do eixo cardíaco. No entanto, o TAPSE é o índice mais frequentemente utilizado para avaliação do desempenho do VD, uma vez que é facilmente obtido e demonstra valores diagnósticos e prognósticos em muitos estágios de doenças cardiovasculares e pulmonares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca avançada e disfunção importante do VE, um TAPSE ≤ 14 mm previu mortalidade por todas as causas em análise multivariada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Além disso, um estudo de Alhamshari et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>relatou que o TAPSE poderia ser uma ferramenta confiável para avaliação da função do VD em pacientes obesos internados com infarto agudo do miocárdio. Eles concluíram que indivíduos obesos apresentavam TAPSE mais elevado no momento do infarto agudo do miocárdio do que pacientes não obesos. Além disso, os autores relataram que pacientes obesos com melhor desempenho do VD desenvolveram insuficiência cardíaca aguda com menos frequência do que os demais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Mc Laughlin et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> demonstraram que crianças com cardiomiopatia dilatada tinham maior probabilidade de desenvolver disfunção sistólica do VD medida pelo TAPSE, o que também estava associado a piores prognósticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Há um achado interessante de Ozpelit et al. no estudo em idosos com diagnóstico de hipertensão arterial pulmonar e DPOC. Os autores descobriram que os índices que influenciam o prognóstico em pacientes idosos eram diferentes dos de pacientes jovens (por exemplo, o TAPSE foi um preditor independente de morte apenas no grupo de idosos).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A utilização da FAC como método de referência para função sistólica do VD deve-se a sua comprovada eficácia como parâmetro independente de idade, fração de ejeção do VE e insuficiência cardíaca, entre outros. Os resultados obtidos reforçam que a FAC é um método de alta acurácia também na população de chagásicos, confirmando os achados de Asmer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Importante ressaltar também a acurácia semelhante da FAC em comparação com o TAPSE, método amplamente consagrado de avaliação da função sistólica do VD cuja execução também utiliza o modo-M como ferramenta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>FAC bidimensional &lt;35% indica disfunção sistólica do VD. É importante ter certeza que todo o ventrículo direito esteja incluído no corte, incluindo o ápice e a parede lateral tanto na sístole quanto na diástole. Deve-se ter cuidado para excluir trabeculações durante a planimetria da área de VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A onda S’ é de fácil medida, confiável e reprodutível. Velocidade de S’ &lt;10cm/s indica disfunção sistólica de VD. Essa medida apresenta boa correlação com as outras medidas da função sistólica global de VD. É importante manter o segmento basal e o anel alinhados com o cursor do Doppler para evitar erros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Tal como acontece com o TAPSE, a onda S’ reflete a função das fibras longitudinais, que desempenham um papel importante na contração do VD.</p>
					<p>A onda S’ geralmente é obtida pela abordagem apical 4 câmeras, colocando-se um cursor Doppler tecidual no anel tricúspide lateral ou no meio do segmento basal da parede livre do VD. Deve-se ter cuidado para conseguir o alinhamento paralelo do feixe Doppler com a direção da excursão longitudinal do VD. Além disso, é essencial medir a velocidade mais alta da onda de ejeção e não a onda de contração isovolumétrica anterior, que consiste no erro mais comum.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>As vantagens e desvantagens da onda S’ (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">figura 2</xref>) são comparáveis àquelas observadas durante a realização do TAPSE. É simples de obter e tem dados prognósticos, mas, por outro lado, é dependente do ângulo, influenciado pelo movimento geral do coração e nem sempre corresponde à função sistólica global do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Onda S.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-1-e20240046-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Wang et al. relataram que S’ derivado de doppler tecidual teve uma correlação mais forte com a fração de ejeção do VD medida por ressonância magnética cardiovascular (RNM) do que outros índices (TAPSE, FAC, aceleração miocárdica durante a contração isovolumétrica) e o melhor parâmetro para detectar disfunção do VD com FE ≤ 20% foi S ‘ &lt; 8,79 cm/s.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O valor de referência inferior para a onda S do Doppler tecidual pulsado é de 9,5cm/s. A medida da onda S’ também pode ser realizada pelo Doppler tecidual colorido, mas não é prevalente. Neste caso, o valor de corte é baixo (6 cm/s), uma vez que os dados codificados representam velocidades médias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O IPM (índice de performance miocárdico do ventrículo direito) é um cálculo baseado nas velocidades do Doppler tecidual ou nas velocidades das ondas de pulso do VD (tempo de relaxamento isovolumétrico − tempo de contração isovolumétrica/tempo de ejeção do VD). Essas variáveis são medidas durante o fluxo e não requerem visualização completa do VD. O IMP é limitado em pacientes com frequência cardíaca irregular e quando a pressão do átrio direito (AD) está elevada, pois isso afeta o tempo de relaxamento isovolumétrico. Um IMP anormal é &gt;0,43 se medido por Doppler de onda pulsada ou &gt;0,54 se medido por Doppler tecidual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estudos para validar a quantificação de Insuficiência Pulmonar (IP) por ecocardiografia bidimensional tendem a superestimar o valor em comparação com a ressonância magnética. A maior eficácia para quantificação por 2D é determinada pela análise conjunta de vários índices estabelecidos na literatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estudos para validação da quantificação da IP pelo ecocardiograma (2D) demonstram tendência a superestimar o valor quando comparado à RNM. A maior eficácia para quantificação pelo 2D é determinada pela análise conjunta de diversos índices estabelecidos na literatura. Mercer-Rosa et al. evidenciaram correlação moderada entre a relação da integral tempo-velocidade do fluxo pulmonar na diástole e sístole e a fração regurgitante pela RNM, estabelecendo um valor de corte para estratificar o grau importante sugerindo a incorporação deste índice aos demais parâmetros para maior eficácia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em relação à avaliação da dimensão do VD, a literatura mostra fraca concordância entre as medidas lineares avaliadas pelo 2D e a RNM, com tendência do 2D a subestimar. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>) Entretanto, dada à geometria complexa do VD que impede a visualização em um único plano, é notório que a medida linear isolada compromete a avaliação. A inclusão da planimetria da área diastólica final, associada às medidas bidimensionais nos planos apical de quatro câmaras e paraesternal eixo curto para avaliação da via de saída contribuem para a precisão. Nos estudos realizados por ambos os autores, Shiran et al. e Alghamdi et al., em adultos com hipertensão pulmonar com DPOC e crianças portadoras de cardiopatia congênita foi possível estimar os volumes por meio da medida da área diastólica indexada no bidimensional com boa correlação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Parâmetros avaliados para função sistólica do ventrículo direito pelo ecocardiograma bidimensional</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Parâmetro</th>
										<th>Valor Normal</th>
										<th>Limitações</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Onda S de Doppler Tecidual</td>
										<td align="center">Maior que 9.5 cm/s</td>
										<td align="center">Ângulo dependente Não representa a avalição completa da função do VD, principalmente em pacientes transplantados</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>TAPSE</td>
										<td align="center">Maior que 17 mm</td>
										<td align="center">Ângulo dependente</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Alteração da área fracionada (FAC)</td>
										<td align="center">Maior que 35%</td>
										<td align="center">Negligencia a contribuição do trato de saída do VD para a avaliação da função sistólica geral</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Índice de performance miocárdico (IPM)</td>
										<td align="center">Maior que 0.43 (doppler pulsátil)</td>
										<td align="center">Não confiável quando a pressão do átrio direito está elevada</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1002">
									<p>TAPSE: excursão sistólica do plano anular tricúspide; VD: ventrículo direito.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>Recentemente foi analisado um novo parâmetro para avaliar a função sistólica do VD, de simples aquisição, denominado excursão sistólica da via de saída do ventrículo direito (ES_VSVD). Esse método mostrou-se acurado para avaliação da função sistólica do VD quando comparado com a variação fracional da área (FAC) e excursão sistólica do plano do anel tricúspide (TAPSE), além de confirmar pior prognóstico para aqueles pacientes com valores abaixo da linha de corte para disfunção do VD. Como essa entidade apresenta características próprias, incluindo alterações segmentares do VD, é fundamental a necessidade de comprovação da aplicabilidade da ES_VSVD em mais estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Como se demonstrou, vários índices são utilizados rotineiramente como a mudança fracional da área (FAC), a excursão sistólica do anel tricúspide (TAPSE), a velocidade de pico sistólico do anel tricúspide e o índice de performance miocárdica. Cada um deles tem vantagens e limitações, variável exequibilidade e reprodutibilidade, com discutível eficácia diagnóstica e prognóstica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Acredita-se que, no momento, nenhum deles seja, isoladamente, um bom indicador da função sistólica do VD nos pacientes com DPOC. Uma vez que o vetor da contração longitudinal é o mais importante, pela orientação das fibras musculares longitudinais predominantes do anel tricúspide ao ápice, dar-se-á preferência aos índices que exploram a movimentação no eixo longitudinal na avaliação da função longitudinal regional ou global do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					<p>As diretrizes atuais da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia (ASE) indicam realizar vários métodos quantitativos pelo ecocardiograma bidimensional para avaliar adequadamente o VD.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Avaliação do ventrículo direito pelo método strain</title>
					<p>Inicialmente, a avaliação do <italic>strain</italic> 2D mediante o método de <italic>speckle-tracking</italic> com softwares já disponíveis, restringiam-se à análise da deformação miocárdica do ventrículo esquerdo, sendo a avaliação do VD realizada por esses mesmos programas gerando resultados imprecisos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Entretanto, por intermédio do avanço tecnológico e da inteligência artificial, atualmente é permitido executar, de modo inteiramente automatizado, a análise do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal do ventrículo direito a partir de projeções bidimensionais (2D) e tridimensionais (3D).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A avaliação do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal de pico sistólico tem possibilitado maior acurácia na análise funcional do VD, com a peculiaridade de possibilitar a detecção precoce da disfunção que precede a redução da fração de ejeção convencional. A incorporação do <italic>strain</italic> aos demais parâmetros convencionais de avaliação funcional tem contribuído com a acurácia, sendo um avanço no desafio da ecocardiografia para avaliação do VD. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">tabela 2</xref>) A palavra “<italic>speckle</italic>” refere-se à aparência granular da imagem gerada por um sistema de imagem de coerência óptica, tal como o laser, tomografia de coerência óptica ou ultrassonografia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t2002">
							<label>Tabela 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Achados mais frequentes ecocardiográficos dos pacientes portadores de doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica com disfunção do ventrículo direito</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="100%">
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Diminuição do TAPSE em pacientes com hipertensão pulmonar importante</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>TAPSE como preditor independente de mortalidade em pacientes idosos com hipertensão pulmonar</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Avaliação da função do VD por vários métodos em pacientes portadores de DPOC</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Uso do <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal para detectar disfunção precoce do VD</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN2002">
									<p>TAPSE: excursão sistólica do plano anular tricúspide; VD: ventrículo direito; DPOC: doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>O <italic>Strain</italic> oferece uma abordagem para avaliar a capacidade contrátil, que retifica imprecisões de deslocamento, resultando em menor sensibilidade à orientação do plano de imagem obtido. A aptidão operacional do método de <italic>strain</italic> bidimensional é condicionada pela qualidade intrínseca das imagens obtidas, com a correta identificação da borda endocárdica alçando-se como o fator determinante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>A avaliação da deformação miocárdica por meio da técnica do <italic>speckle tracking</italic> (STE-2D) possui influências do movimento translacional cardíaco, ângulo Doppler e estados de pré e pós-carga. A contração sistólica do ventrículo direito é predominantemente mediada pela deformação das fibras miocárdicas orientadas longitudinalmente, representativas de cerca de 75% da totalidade, enquanto o impacto da deformação das fibras radiais é notavelmente limitado. Esta circunstância reforça a contribuição recente do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal do ventrículo direito como uma ferramenta de relevância na avaliação da função sistólica ventricular direita e direcionando a análise em especial às bordas endocárdicas e epicárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Ainda, é relevante destacar a avaliação do <italic>strain</italic> tridimensional do ventrículo direito, uma abordagem de significativa utilidade, pois ela oferece informações abrangentes não apenas sobre a função longitudinal, mas também sobre as funções circunferencial e radial dessa cavidade cardíaca. Contudo, vale evidenciar que as principais limitações das técnicas avançadas de avaliação da função do VD são a presença de janela torácica acústica limitada, resolução temporal inadequada e arritmias, bem como, no caso de índices de deformação, a variabilidade do software das diferentes marcas de equipamentos. Além disso, essa metodologia apresenta uma sólida concordância com os resultados obtidos através da RNM, reconhecida como padrão de referência.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Essa técnica tem se destacado na detecção subclínica de disfunção do mesmo com o parâmetro de deformação longitudinal global (GLS) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">figura 3</xref>) como o mais forte preditor em pacientes com DPOC. Sendo assim, em pacientes com DPOC é possível selecionar aqueles que necessitam de vigilância cuidadosa e intervenção precoce para prevenir o desenvolvimento de disfunção do VD e complicações cardiovasculares a partir da análise destes parâmetros ecocardiográficos, que poderiam desse modo levarem a melhorar a expectativa de vida do paciente. Seu uso também se demonstra consolidado tanto para diagnóstico quanto prognóstico, principalmente em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca, hipertensão pulmonar, cardiopatia isquêmica, cardiopatias restritivas e valvopatias, respaldando o strain do VD como um artifício de grande relevância para a prática clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04002">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Strain VD.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-5-1-e20240046-gf04-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Ademais, a incorporação de soluções computacionais avançadas, impulsionadas pela inteligência artificial, não apenas aprimora a eficiência processual, mas também mitiga as disparidades entre observadores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Avaliação do ventrículo direito pelo ecocardiograma tridimensional</title>
					<p>O ecocardiograma tridimensional, utilizado principalmente em ambientes experimentais, agora está disponível de forma ampla em hospitais. Seu método de funcionamento é descrito como “um pulso de ultrassom emitido que se propaga em linha reta, interagindo com as diferentes interfaces acústicas da cavidade torácica até atingir o coração”.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A ecocardiografia tridimensional (3D) tem contribuído para avaliação volumétrica e funcional, possibilita a análise de todos os segmentos com ausência de contraindicação, mas requer equipamento específico não disponível em todos os laboratórios de ecocardiografia. Há significativa correlação entre o 3D e a RNM e certa tendência do 3D a subestimar os volumes quando há dilatação acentuada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Novas técnicas, como fração de ejeção 3D (FE) e deformação longitudinal do VD (RVLS)/taxa de deformação, nos permitem superar algumas imperfeições dos índices tradicionais, mas infelizmente nem sempre estão disponíveis.</p>
					<p>Botelho et al. compararam a anatomia do VD e função sistólica avaliada por métodos tradicionais e avançados parâmetros ecocardiográficos em 20 pacientes, principalmente homens com DPOC estável, moderada a grave com 20 pacientes controles. Pacientes com DPOC tiveram significativamente maior pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar e espessura da parede livre do VD do que os controles. Em contrapartida, mostraram menor TAPSE, menor volume pelo ecocardiograma 3D e menores valores de <italic>strain</italic> do que controles. Apenas um (5%) paciente com DPOC não mostrou nenhuma alteração ecocardiográfica relacionada ao VD. Em conclusão, os seus resultados indicaram disfunção subclínica do VD nos pacientes com DPOC estável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusões</title>
				<p>A avaliação do desempenho sistólico e diastólico do VD por meio de parâmetros ecocardiográficos é um poderoso indicador prognóstico em pacientes com DPOC, pois a disfunção de VD está relacionada à menor capacidade de exercício e a um prognóstico desfavorável, sendo fundamental para a estratificação do risco cardiovascular desses pacientes. Os métodos bidimensionais necessitam ser realizados de maneira concomitante e por diversos cortes. Desta forma, vale ressaltar que a atitude clínica para a tomada de decisão na avaliação do VD no paciente com DPOC depende da abordagem integrada entre os dados clínicos e os diferentes métodos ecocardiográficos, buscando desse modo a melhor perspectiva para o paciente. O uso do <italic>strain</italic> e do ecocardiograma tridimensional vêm ganhando cada vez mais espaço para a avaliação adequada da função do VD nessa população.</p>
				<p>Mais estudos com maior número de indivíduos com DPOC leve a grave e com exacerbação da doença precisam ser realizados para validar novos métodos ecocardiográficos com uso do strain e ecocardiograma 3D.</p>
			</sec>
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					<label>Vinculação acadêmica:</label>
					<p> Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado:</label>
					<p> Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<label>Fontes de financiamento:</label>
					<p> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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