<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240020i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Diuretic Combinations: Pathophysiology, Evidence, and Clinical Practice</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2501-302X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mourilhe-Rocha</surname>
						<given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Ribeiro</surname>
						<given-names>Pedro Fernandes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2591-2773</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Sales</surname>
						<given-names>Ana Luíza Ferreira</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9891-676X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Spineti</surname>
						<given-names>Pedro Pimenta de Mello</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8692-1115</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Albuquerque</surname>
						<given-names>Felipe Neves de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1206-9489</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Bittencourt</surname>
						<given-names>Marcelo Imbroinise</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Complexo Hospitalar Américas</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospitais Vitória e Samaritano Barra</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar Américas - Hospitais Vitória e Samaritano Barra, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address:</label> Ricardo Mourilhe-Rocha • Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro - Av. 28 de setembro, 77. Postal Code 20551-030, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil E-mail: <email>ricardomourilhe@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
					<p> Luis Beck-da-Silva</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>19</day>
				<month>11</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>11</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>4</volume>
			<issue>3</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20240020</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>05</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>18</day>
					<month>09</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>30</day>
					<month>09</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Heart failure is a highly prevalent syndrome worldwide, including in Latin America, where prevalence rates are estimated at 1.2% to 2.1% of the population. This reality is no different in Brazil, where the syndrome is estimated to affect approximately 2% of the adult population, leading to an overwhelming financial impact of approximately 28.1 billion Brazilian reals in 2015 alone, when the total costs to society and the health system were measured. As if the broad economic impact were not enough, heart failure is also one of the leading causes and amplifiers of morbidity and mortality, including important prognostic asymmetries when comparing different socioeconomic realities among the population. In this context, given the unquestionable epidemiological and economic relevance of heart failure, the national BREATHE registry was carried out and published in 2015. It was able to assess that approximately 85.3% of heart failure decompensations in Brazil occurred in profiles with volume congestion, a result that remained similar in the study extension published in 2023. In this type of scenario, the use of diuretics is one of the central pillars of treatment, aiming to correct the volume status and relieve patients’ symptoms.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Diuretics</kwd>
				<kwd>Pathology</kwd>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="12"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="45"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Diuretic Combinations: Pathophysiology, Evidence, and Clinical Practice</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf01.tif"/>
						<attrib>Flowchart resuming proposed diuretic management in decompensated HF with congestion. HF: heart failure; NaU: urinary sodium concentration.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Heart failure (HF) is a highly prevalent syndrome worldwide, including in Latin America, where prevalence rates are estimated at 1.2% to 2.1% of the population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> This reality is no different in Brazil, where the syndrome is estimated to affect approximately 2% of the adult population, leading to an overwhelming financial impact of approximately 28.1 billion Brazilian reals in 2015 alone, when the total costs to society and the health system were measured.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> As if the broad economic impact were not enough, HF is also one of the leading causes and amplifiers of morbidity and mortality, including important prognostic asymmetries when comparing different socioeconomic realities among the population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Other registries involving Latin America have also been able to observe that the population over 45 years of age with symptomatic HF reaches an overwhelming 9.3%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In this context, given the unquestionable epidemiological and economic relevance of HF, the national BREATHE registry<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> was carried out and published in 2015. It was able to assess that approximately 85.3% of heart failure decompensations in Brazil occurred in profiles with volume congestion (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>), a result that remained similar in the study extension published in 2023.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> In this type of scenario, the use of diuretics is one of the central pillars of treatment, aiming to correct the volume status and relieve patients’ symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Therefore, given the devastating numbers of syndromic prevalence, as well as the predominant profile of clinical presentations, this review was designed to substantiate and systematize the approach to diuretic therapy in decompensated HF.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f02">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Hemodynamic profiles of heart failure decompensation in the BREATHE registry.5 Adapted by Albuquerque et al.6</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf02.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Neuroendocrine and circulatory pathophysiology of decompensated heart failure</title>
				<p>In its genesis, HF syndrome involves increased heart cavity pressures, which trigger multiple neuroendocrine loops that culminate in hydrosaline retention, increased catecholaminergic tone, and loss of the ability to modulate systemic vascular resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> In view of this, it is also worth noting the important role that the splanchnic venous bed plays in the process of volume redistribution and systemic congestion. This system is a high-capacitance vascular bed, and its primary function is to act as a reservoir of non-stressed volume. This non-stressed volume is primarily a large volume reservoir, and its recruitment is through the stimulation of alpha-adrenergic receptors, which are abundant in this bed.</p>
				<p>In patients with HF, activation of adrenergic loops leads to hyperstimulation of these receptors, redistributing volume that, under normal conditions, would not be stressed to the systemic circulation, causing congestion. Accordingly, when proposing the use of vasodilators, such as nitrates, the aim is to reestablish capacitance closer to the original one of the venous bed and to favor the outflow of systemic congestion. As illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>, in a model of vasculocentric circulatory compression, by reducing central venous pressures, it is possible to optimize venous return, which allows better flow from the periphery to the heart. In this model, the mean systemic filling pressure governs the venous system, so that the determinants of flow optimization (Q) are the amount of stressed volume and right atrial pressure. Therefore, recovering capacitance is equivalent to reducing the systemic outflow point, making it more efficient.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Schematic example demonstrating that increasing the capacitance of the venous bed results in optimized venous return and, therefore, outflow of vascular and tissue congestion. Adapted Magder.8</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Once the compartmental volumes have been redistributed, it is also necessary to readjust the volume content to the vascular and tissue structures, which is achieved through diuretic-induced natriuresis.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment of congestion</title>
				<p>The use of diuretics is extremely common in HF treatment, and they are the most widely used class of drugs prescribed to hospitalized patients (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f04">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– In-hospital medications prescribed for the treatment of acute heart failure. ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin II receptor blocker. Adapted by Rohde et al.9</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf04.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>This approach becomes especially important in view of the therapeutic targets for hospitalized patients with HF, as put forth by the Brazilian Society of Cardiology,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> which involve the following:</p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Diuresis of 1.5 to 2.5 ml/kg within the first 6 hours;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Absence of orthopnea and heightened respiratory effort within the first 24 hours;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Absence of dyspnea upon minimal effort within 72 hours;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Oxygen saturation greater than 90% on room air;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Heart rate less than 100 beats per minute;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Respiratory rate less than 22 breaths per minute;</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Systolic pressure below 110 to 130 mmHg.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Diuretic classes</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Loop diuretics</title>
					<p>Loop diuretics are the most widely used class in the decongestion process in HF due to their great potential to induce natriuresis and negative fluid balance. Their mechanism of action (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4</xref>), involves blocking the sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter (NKCC) in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle, leading to dilution of the medullary gradient and reducing hydrosaline reabsorption capacity in the functional units of the kidney.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f05">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Mechanisms of action of diuretics used in the decongestion process. Adapted by Mullens et al.11 DCT: distal convoluted tubuli; HF: heart failure.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf05.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>The main representatives of the loop diuretic class are furosemide, bumetanide, and torsemide; the latter is not yet available in Brazil. Routinely used dosages and intervals are displayed in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 5</xref>. It is important to note that the dose spectrum of loop diuretics is quite broad, and the decision regarding the doses applied in the decongestion process for each patient can be better elucidated by understanding the concepts of bioavailability, drug half-life, and diuretic threshold. The bioavailability of orally administered furosemide is extremely limited and variable, making the intravenous route preferable for administration during the decongestion process. Nevertheless, the drug’s half-life is approximately 6 hours. During this period, the plasma concentration of the drug must be able to exceed the patient’s diuretic threshold. Therefore, administrations at shorter intervals (4 to 6 hours for each dose) are preferable, as long as the doses administered at each time are capable of inducing a urinary output compatible with what is desired for the decongestion process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f06">
							<label>Figure 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Classes, dosages, and intervals of diuretics routinely used in the decongestion process. Adapted Rohde et al.9</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf06.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Specifically in HF, the activation of neurohumoral axes that result in hydrosaline retention are substantially amplified, and the induction of natriuresis and negative fluid balance may require high doses of furosemide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> To better elucidate the approach to dosage and results of decongestion, the DOSE Trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> evaluated 308 patients in a 2-by-2 factorial randomized, placebo-controlled design for continuous versus intermittent infusion in high-dose groups (defined as 2 to 2.5 times the previously used oral diuretic dose) versus low-dose groups. Although the study was negative regarding the primary outcome of subjective symptom improvement, different pre-specified secondary outcomes, such as objective improvement in dyspnea, weight loss, and negative fluid balance, were achieved in a consistent and statistically significant manner in the group that received higher doses of diuretics. It is also important to underscore that there was no difference between the continuous and intermittent infusion groups, with a greater number of adverse effects in worsening renal function in the continuous administration group. These findings rationalize the proposals that, during the decongestion process, high doses of loop diuretics should be applied and continuous or intermittent administration is not relevant, provided that each patient’s intervals and diuretic thresholds are respected. Worsening renal function during the decongestion process occurs in 30% to 50% of patients hospitalized for HF, and this incidence varies substantially depending on the definition of worsening renal function applied.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A final observation on the use of diuretics in the decongestion process is the concern regarding hypotension associated with the use of high doses of diuretics. This issue has been evaluated in multiple studies, including the DOSE Trial itself,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> in addition to studies with models of patients using substantial doses of vasopressors and lung injury associated with sepsis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> and they did not observe greater incidence of hypotension in the arms of patients exposed to high doses of loop diuretics. In this context, it is necessary to propose that the use of loop diuretics, ideally in high doses, is the centerpiece in treatment of congestion and does not depend on absolute blood pressure levels, although it may depend on perfusion parameters, which are often dissociated from one other in patients with HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Mechanisms of resistance to loop diuretics and their clinical implications</title>
			<p>A significant proportion of patients hospitalized for HF with congestion are unable to achieve decongestion targets despite the use of high doses of loop diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> This occurs due to several mechanisms, including the following: low chloride concentration in the NKCC pump, generally present in more advanced stages of the decongestion process; hypoalbuminemia, since this is the serum protein that carries furosemide from the plasma to its effector site; poor perfusion states in which correction of the perfusion deficit is a priority, including in relation to decongestion itself, and which can be resolved with the use of inotropic agents.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In the case of hypochloremia, it is intuitive to conclude that its occurrence is due to rarefaction of the substrate necessary for the NKCC cotransporter, inhibited by the diuretic, resulting in reduced efficacy of the drug. In these situations, it is possible to consider providing chloride in high concentrations, for example, by means of 3% saline solution concomitantly with diuretic therapy, to achieve the desired natriuresis. Furthermore, furosemide is carried by albumin in plasma, and severe hypoalbuminemia impairs the delivery of the drug to its effector site. Thus, the administration of albumin solution may also be able to maximize diuretic-mediated urinary output.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> There is still room for debate as to whether this increase in diuresis mediated by albumin delivery is due to greater availability of the carrier or to the inexorable delivery of chloride, since the concentration of this ion is high in the majority of commercially available albumin solutions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Thiazides</title>
			<p>Even in view of the aforementioned corrective measures, it is possible that patients are unable to establish negative balances compatible with the treatment goals, making it necessary to combine diuretics with the aim of blocking sequential segments of the nephron, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> This is because the activity of distal tubular sodium reabsorption seems to be supplanted by the blockade of different parts of the nephron.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Thus, they are used in conjunction with loop diuretics according to the dosages explained in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 5</xref>. It is also worth noting that the use of thiazide diuretics in monotherapy is not encouraged, seeing that their isolated natriuretic potential is lower than that of loop diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
			<p>It is necessary to consider that sequential nephron blockade with the combined use of thiazides and loop diuretics necessarily involves a greater risk of serious hydroelectrolytic disorders, such as hyponatremia and hypokalemia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> which require caution and monitoring of concentrations in order to correct their plasma concentrations.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists</title>
			<p>The use of aldosterone receptor antagonists is highly recommended in the subgroup of patients with HF with reduced ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> However, their use as diuretic adjuvants in the decongestion process has been little studied, and the largest study that concluded their efficacy and safety for this purpose was the ATHENA-HF Trial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> In this publication, the authors randomized patients to high doses (100 mg/day of spironolactone) versus low doses or placebo (12.5 to 25 mg/day of spironolactone) with the evaluation of the surrogate endpoint of NT-proBNP levels at baseline and 96 hours after randomization, concluding that there was no difference regarding the primary endpoint or intermediate endpoint, including urinary output, decongestion time, diuretic doses used, or improvement in subjective dyspnea scores, between the groups that received low doses or high doses of spironolactone. However, the study concluded that high doses of spironolactone were widely safe in terms of the occurrence of hyperkalemia, hypotension, or worsening renal function, leaving open the possibility of future studies evaluating even higher doses, such as 200 to 400 mg of spironolactone per day, which are usually used in patients with liver cirrhosis. In any case, guidelines for the management of acute HF still recommend low to intermediate doses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors</title>
			<p>Acetazolamide is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor that acts on the proximal convoluted tubule, reducing sodium absorption in this nephron territory.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Its use in the decongestion process was evaluated in the ADVOR Trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study that evaluated the addition of intravenous acetazolamide to the diuretic regimen of hospitalized patients with congestive HF. In this study, there was greater success in decongestion (defined as the absence of signs of volume overload assessed by a trained cardiologist) in the acetazolamide group, thus making it possible to conclude that it plays a role as a natriuretic adjuvant in this population. It is also interesting to note that, in the ADVOR Trial, the dosage of acetazolamide used was 250 to 500 mg per day of the intravenous formulation, which is not available in Brazil.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Vasopressin receptor antagonists</title>
			<p>The neurohumoral regime in HF reaches the common point of hydrosaline retention, and the consequent positive fluid balance with symptoms of congestion is also mediated by the arginine-vasopressin (AVP) pathway. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In light of this knowledge about the AVP system, a new class of diuretics was created, namely, vasopressin receptor antagonists, also known as “vaptans.” They act at the level of the collecting duct, inhibiting V2 receptors and promoting “aquaresis” by inhibiting aquaporins, which are channels that promote water reabsorption in this nephron territory.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Their mechanism of action gives the class the specific potential to act directly on one of the major pathways that result in hyponatremia, an isolated prognostic marker in HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> There are several representatives of the vaptans class, but tolvaptan is especially interesting for patients hospitalized with HF, as the EVEREST Trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> compared tolvaptan versus placebo as a diuretic adjuvant in the decongestion process. The study was negative for its primary outcome of reduced all-cause mortality and for the combined outcome of reduced mortality and hospitalization for HF. However, it was positive for several intermediate outcomes that are highly relevant to the decongestion process, such as weight loss, improved dyspnea, and resolution of hyponatremia and edema. Although they have exhibited an excellent hemodynamic profile with good decongestion results, the use of vaptans is limited by their high cost, so that they are currently considered a cost-effective treatment only in the subpopulation of patients with high doses of furosemide and hyponatremia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Furthermore, tolvaptan is not currently available in Brazil.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>SGLT2 Inhibitors</title>
			<p>Inhibitors of the sodium-glucose cotransporter in the proximal convoluted tubule play an established role in populations with diabetes and high cardiovascular risk,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> patients with HF with reduced ejection fraction,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> and patients with HF with preserved ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> The benefits offered to specific populations are so broad and compelling that Eugene Braunwald went so far as to consider them the statins of the twenty-first century.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Despite their well-deserved fame, SGLT2 inhibitors do not yet appear to play a central role as diuretics in the treatment of acute HF with congestion, seeing that their natriuretic effect is limited and short-lived, and their benefits are attributed to other characteristics of modulation of myocardial energy metabolism and systemic metabolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Even so, they are safe to introduce in this scenario,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> and they add medium-term benefits when introduced during hospitalization<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> or on an outpatient basis in patients who are experiencing clinical worsening.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Decongestion process and renal function</title>
			<p>During the decongestion process, up to three quarters of patients may present worsening renal function, which may or may not be permanent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> In this context, it is natural to conclude and possible to observe that those who present persistent dysfunction tend to have worse prognosis; however, it is interesting to highlight that those who recover renal function after hospitalization have similar prognosis to those whose renal function remained unchanged.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Furthermore, during the decongestion process, some serum components tend to concentrate, such as hematocrit. In the ESCAPE Trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> patients who presented hemoconcentration were strongly associated with worsening renal function, but they were also the group with the best survival after hospitalization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Accordingly, it is possible to infer that complete decongestion is a priority for protecting renal function during the process of volume correction, since hospital discharge with residual congestion is strongly correlated with early readmission and increased mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In addition to volume and hydrostatic considerations that concern the maintenance of renal filtration and secretion capacity, the perfusion status of patients hospitalized with HF must also be routinely assessed. This is because up to 23% of hospitalizations occur in so-called “cold” profiles,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> and, when a perfusion deficit is present, the priority is to correct it, to the detriment of resolving fluid intoxication, since other key organs, such as the brain and heart, may also be at risk of perfusion. Finally, the analysis of biomarkers that indicate tubular injury in patients undergoing aggressive diuretic therapy for decongestion in HF in the ROSE Trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> allowed the conclusion that worsening serum markers of renal function was not accompanied by indicators of tubular injury,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> thus reinforcing the current concept that fluctuations in urea and creatinine are mostly benign findings resulting from a phenomenon of water redistribution, to the detriment of the impression of kidney injury with long-term complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Achieving Euvolemia</title>
			<p>Assessing bedside volume is extremely challenging, to the point that trained examiners, when guided exclusively by physical examination findings, demonstrate much lower accuracy than would be desired.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Accordingly, it is necessary to assess multiple variables in a serial manner in order to obtain greater accuracy. For this purpose, it is possible to use, for example, daily body weight measurement, radiological instruments such as chest X-ray, volume assessment with point-of-care ultrasound, laboratory measurements such as NT-proBNP at discharge in relation to admission, and invasive measurements such as pulmonary artery catheter or transpulmonary thermodilution measurements. A possible approach to the decongestion process is shown in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Central Illustration</xref>, where the points always revolve around ensuring adequate perfusion and aggressive choice of diuretic therapy dose.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Conversion to outpatient care</title>
			<p>While they are still in the hospital, patients with HF must demonstrate clinical and volume stability for 24 hours on the oral drug regimen in order for discharge to be considered safe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> It is possible that discharge may be necessary while still on sequential blockade, especially in patients who require high doses of furosemide. In addition to hydrosaline management, it is necessary to ensure that patients are using the maximum dose tolerated during the hospital stay of the four classes of medications capable of altering their prognosis in the short, medium, and long term.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Finally, in the outpatient setting, it is important for these patients to be monitored with a regimen of more frequent visits in the post-discharge period, given that this is a period of greater fragility and risk of readmission, in addition to aggressive titration of disease-modifying doses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Take-home messages</title>
			<list list-type="bullet">
				<list-item>
					<p>The vast majority of patients with decompensated HF are found to be in volume overload at the time of decompensation;</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>The aggressive pursuit of euvolemia is a priority to the preservation of nitrogenous waste;</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>The combination of more than one diuretic class has proven to be an effective strategy to achieve decongestion;</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Patients’ perfusion status and urinary output should be reassessed at all times;</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Resolving congestion is as important as initiating treatment, even before discharge, with medications that are capable of impacting the medium- and long-term prognosis of patients with HF.</p>
				</list-item>
			</list>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>HF is a globally relevant problem, with major economic and human impacts. During its treatment, whether in-hospital or not, it is highly likely that the use of diuretics will be necessary for better volume management, and it is essential to understand the particularities of each class in order for the management of cases to be as assertive as possible, always aiming to minimize the chances of hospitalization and improve quality of life.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ref-list>
			<title>References</title>
			<ref id="B1">
				<label>1</label>
				<mixed-citation>1. Groenewegen A, Rutten FH, Mosterd A, Hoes AW. Epidemiology of Heart Failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2020;22(8):1342-56. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1858.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Groenewegen</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rutten</surname>
							<given-names>FH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mosterd</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoes</surname>
							<given-names>AW</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Epidemiology of Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>Eur J Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>22</volume>
					<issue>8</issue>
					<fpage>1342</fpage>
					<lpage>1356</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/ejhf.1858</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B2">
				<label>2</label>
				<mixed-citation>2. Stevens B, Pezzullo L, Verdian L, Tomlinson J, George A, Bacal F. The Economic Burden of Heart Conditions in Brazil. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2018;111(1):29-36. doi: 10.5935/abc.20180104.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Stevens</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pezzullo</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Verdian</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tomlinson</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>George</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bacal</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The Economic Burden of Heart Conditions in Brazil</article-title>
					<source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
					<year>2018</year>
					<volume>111</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>29</fpage>
					<lpage>36</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20180104</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B3">
				<label>3</label>
				<mixed-citation>3. Santos SC, Villela PB, Oliveira GMM. Mortality Due to Heart Failure and Socioeconomic Development in Brazil between 1980 and 2018. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2021;117(5):944-51. doi: 10.36660/abc.20200902.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Santos</surname>
							<given-names>SC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Villela</surname>
							<given-names>PB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Oliveira</surname>
							<given-names>GMM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Mortality Due to Heart Failure and Socioeconomic Development in Brazil between 1980 and 2018</article-title>
					<source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>117</volume>
					<issue>5</issue>
					<fpage>944</fpage>
					<lpage>951</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200902</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B4">
				<label>4</label>
				<mixed-citation>4. Jorge AL, Rosa ML, Martins WA, Correia DM, Fernandes LC, Costa JA, et al. The Prevalence of Stages of Heart Failure in Primary Care: A Population-Based Study. J Card Fail. 2016;22(2):153-7. doi: 10.1016/j.cardfail.2015.10.017.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Jorge</surname>
							<given-names>AL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rosa</surname>
							<given-names>ML</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Martins</surname>
							<given-names>WA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Correia</surname>
							<given-names>DM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Fernandes</surname>
							<given-names>LC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Costa</surname>
							<given-names>JA</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The Prevalence of Stages of Heart Failure in Primary Care: A Population-Based Study</article-title>
					<source>J Card Fail</source>
					<year>2016</year>
					<volume>22</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>153</fpage>
					<lpage>157</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.cardfail.2015.10.017</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B5">
				<label>5</label>
				<mixed-citation>5. Albuquerque DC, Souza JD Neto, Bacal F, Rohde LE, Bernardez-Pereira S, Berwanger O, et al. I Brazilian Registry of Heart Failure - Clinical Aspects, Care Quality and Hospitalization Outcomes. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2015;104(6):433-42. doi: 10.5935/abc.20150031.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Albuquerque</surname>
							<given-names>DC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Souza</surname>
							<given-names>JD</given-names>
							<suffix>Neto</suffix>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bacal</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rohde</surname>
							<given-names>LE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bernardez-Pereira</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Berwanger</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>I Brazilian Registry of Heart Failure - Clinical Aspects, Care Quality and Hospitalization Outcomes</article-title>
					<source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
					<year>2015</year>
					<volume>104</volume>
					<issue>6</issue>
					<fpage>433</fpage>
					<lpage>442</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20150031</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B6">
				<label>6</label>
				<mixed-citation>6. Albuquerque DC, Silva PGMB, Lopes RD, Hoffmann-Filho CR, Nogueira PR, Reis H, et al. In-Hospital Management and Long-term Clinical Outcomes and Adherence in Patients with Acute Decompensated Heart Failure: Primary Results of the First Brazilian Registry of Heart Failure (BREATHE). J Card Fail. 2024;30(5):639-50. doi: 10.1016/j.cardfail.2023.08.014.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Albuquerque</surname>
							<given-names>DC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Silva</surname>
							<given-names>PGMB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lopes</surname>
							<given-names>RD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hoffmann-Filho</surname>
							<given-names>CR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nogueira</surname>
							<given-names>PR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Reis</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>In-Hospital Management and Long-term Clinical Outcomes and Adherence in Patients with Acute Decompensated Heart Failure: Primary Results of the First Brazilian Registry of Heart Failure (BREATHE)</article-title>
					<source>J Card Fail</source>
					<year>2024</year>
					<volume>30</volume>
					<issue>5</issue>
					<fpage>639</fpage>
					<lpage>650</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.cardfail.2023.08.014</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B7">
				<label>7</label>
				<mixed-citation>7. Boorsma EM, Maaten JMT, Damman K, Dinh W, Gustafsson F, Goldsmith S, et al. Congestion in Heart Failure: A Contemporary Look at Physiology, Diagnosis and Treatment. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2020;17(10):641-55. doi: 10.1038/s41569-020-0379-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Boorsma</surname>
							<given-names>EM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Maaten</surname>
							<given-names>JMT</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Damman</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dinh</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gustafsson</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Goldsmith</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Congestion in Heart Failure: A Contemporary Look at Physiology, Diagnosis and Treatment</article-title>
					<source>Nat Rev Cardiol</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>17</volume>
					<issue>10</issue>
					<fpage>641</fpage>
					<lpage>655</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/s41569-020-0379-7</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B8">
				<label>8</label>
				<mixed-citation>8. Magder S. Volume and its Relationship to Cardiac Output and Venous Return. Crit Care. 2016;20(1):271. doi: 10.1186/s13054-016-1438-7.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Magder</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Volume and its Relationship to Cardiac Output and Venous Return</article-title>
					<source>Crit Care</source>
					<year>2016</year>
					<volume>20</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<size units="pages">271</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s13054-016-1438-7</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B9">
				<label>9</label>
				<mixed-citation>9. Rohde LEP, Montera MW, Bocchi EA, Clausell NO, Albuquerque DC, Rassi S, et al. Diretriz Brasileira de Insuficiência Cardíaca Crônica e Aguda. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2018;111(3):436-539. doi: 10.5935/abc.20180190.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rohde</surname>
							<given-names>LEP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Montera</surname>
							<given-names>MW</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bocchi</surname>
							<given-names>EA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Clausell</surname>
							<given-names>NO</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Albuquerque</surname>
							<given-names>DC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rassi</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Diretriz Brasileira de Insuficiência Cardíaca Crônica e Aguda</article-title>
					<source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
					<year>2018</year>
					<volume>111</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>436</fpage>
					<lpage>539</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20180190</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B10">
				<label>10</label>
				<mixed-citation>10. Ellison DH, Felker GM. Diuretic Treatment in Heart Failure. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(20):1964-75. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1703100.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ellison</surname>
							<given-names>DH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Felker</surname>
							<given-names>GM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Diuretic Treatment in Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2017</year>
					<volume>377</volume>
					<issue>20</issue>
					<fpage>1964</fpage>
					<lpage>1975</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMra1703100</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B11">
				<label>11</label>
				<mixed-citation>11. Mullens W, Damman K, Harjola VP, Mebazaa A, La Rocca HPB, Martens P, et al. The Use of Diuretics in Heart Failure with Congestion - A Position Statement from the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail. 2019;21(2):137-55. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1369.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Mullens</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Damman</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Harjola</surname>
							<given-names>VP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mebazaa</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>La Rocca</surname>
							<given-names>HPB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Martens</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The Use of Diuretics in Heart Failure with Congestion - A Position Statement from the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology</article-title>
					<source>Eur J Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2019</year>
					<volume>21</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>137</fpage>
					<lpage>155</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/ejhf.1369</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B12">
				<label>12</label>
				<mixed-citation>12. Felker GM, Lee KL, Bull DA, Redfield MM, Stevenson LW, Goldsmith SR, et al. Diuretic Strategies in Patients with Acute Decompensated Heart Failure. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(9):797-805. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1005419.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Felker</surname>
							<given-names>GM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lee</surname>
							<given-names>KL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bull</surname>
							<given-names>DA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Redfield</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Stevenson</surname>
							<given-names>LW</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Goldsmith</surname>
							<given-names>SR</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Diuretic Strategies in Patients with Acute Decompensated Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2011</year>
					<volume>364</volume>
					<issue>9</issue>
					<fpage>797</fpage>
					<lpage>805</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa1005419</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B13">
				<label>13</label>
				<mixed-citation>13. Aronson D, Burger AJ. The Relationship between Transient and Persistent Worsening Renal Function and Mortality in Patients with Acute Decompensated Heart Failure. J Card Fail. 2010;16(7):541-7. doi: 10.1016/j.cardfail.2010.02.001.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Aronson</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Burger</surname>
							<given-names>AJ</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The Relationship between Transient and Persistent Worsening Renal Function and Mortality in Patients with Acute Decompensated Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>J Card Fail</source>
					<year>2010</year>
					<volume>16</volume>
					<issue>7</issue>
					<fpage>541</fpage>
					<lpage>547</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.cardfail.2010.02.001</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B14">
				<label>14</label>
				<mixed-citation>14. Famous KR, Delucchi K, Ware LB, Kangelaris KN, Liu KD, Thompson BT, et al. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Subphenotypes Respond Differently to Randomized Fluid Management Strategy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;195(3):331-8. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201603-0645OC.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Famous</surname>
							<given-names>KR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Delucchi</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ware</surname>
							<given-names>LB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kangelaris</surname>
							<given-names>KN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Liu</surname>
							<given-names>KD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Thompson</surname>
							<given-names>BT</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Subphenotypes Respond Differently to Randomized Fluid Management Strategy</article-title>
					<source>Am J Respir Crit Care Med</source>
					<year>2017</year>
					<volume>195</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>331</fpage>
					<lpage>338</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1164/rccm.201603-0645OC</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B15">
				<label>15</label>
				<mixed-citation>15. Trullàs JC, Morales-Rull JL, Casado J, Carrera-Izquierdo M, Sánchez-Marteles M, Conde-Martel A, et al. Combining Loop with Thiazide Diuretics for Decompensated Heart Failure: The CLOROTIC Trial. Eur Heart J. 2023;44(5):411-21. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehac689.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Trullàs</surname>
							<given-names>JC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Morales-Rull</surname>
							<given-names>JL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Casado</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Carrera-Izquierdo</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sánchez-Marteles</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Conde-Martel</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Combining Loop with Thiazide Diuretics for Decompensated Heart Failure: The CLOROTIC Trial</article-title>
					<source>Eur Heart J</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>44</volume>
					<issue>5</issue>
					<fpage>411</fpage>
					<lpage>421</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehac689</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B16">
				<label>16</label>
				<mixed-citation>16. Wilcox CS, Testani JM, Pitt B. Pathophysiology of Diuretic Resistance and Its Implications for the Management of Chronic Heart Failure. Hypertension. 2020;76(4):1045-54. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15205.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Wilcox</surname>
							<given-names>CS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Testani</surname>
							<given-names>JM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pitt</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Pathophysiology of Diuretic Resistance and Its Implications for the Management of Chronic Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>Hypertension</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>76</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>1045</fpage>
					<lpage>1054</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15205</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B17">
				<label>17</label>
				<mixed-citation>17. Lai AT, Zeller MP, Millen T, Kavsak P, Szczeklik W, Elahie A, et al. Chloride and Other Electrolyte Concentrations in Commonly Available 5% Albumin Products. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(4):326-9. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000002955.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Lai</surname>
							<given-names>AT</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zeller</surname>
							<given-names>MP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Millen</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kavsak</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Szczeklik</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Elahie</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Chloride and Other Electrolyte Concentrations in Commonly Available 5% Albumin Products</article-title>
					<source>Crit Care Med</source>
					<year>2018</year>
					<volume>46</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>326</fpage>
					<lpage>329</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1097/CCM.0000000000002955</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B18">
				<label>18</label>
				<mixed-citation>18. Gogikar A, Nanda A, Janga LSN, Sambe HG, Yasir M, Man RK, et al. Combination Diuretic Therapy with Thiazides: A Systematic Review on the Beneficial Approach to Overcome Refractory Fluid Overload in Heart Failure. Cureus. 2023;15(9):e44624. doi: 10.7759/cureus.44624.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gogikar</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nanda</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Janga</surname>
							<given-names>LSN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sambe</surname>
							<given-names>HG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Yasir</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Man</surname>
							<given-names>RK</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Combination Diuretic Therapy with Thiazides: A Systematic Review on the Beneficial Approach to Overcome Refractory Fluid Overload in Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>Cureus</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>15</volume>
					<issue>9</issue>
					<elocation-id>e44624</elocation-id>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.7759/cureus.44624</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B19">
				<label>19</label>
				<mixed-citation>19. Pitt B, Williams G, Remme W, Martinez F, Lopez-Sendon J, Zannad F, et al. THE EPHESUS Trial: Eplerenone in Patients with Heart Failure due to Systolic Dysfunction Complicating Acute Myocardial Infarction. Eplerenone Post-AMI Heart Failure Efficacy and Survival Study. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2001;15(1):79-87. doi: 10.1023/a:1011119003788.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Pitt</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Williams</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Remme</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Martinez</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lopez-Sendon</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zannad</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>THE EPHESUS Trial: Eplerenone in Patients with Heart Failure due to Systolic Dysfunction Complicating Acute Myocardial Infarction. Eplerenone Post-AMI Heart Failure Efficacy and Survival Study</article-title>
					<source>Cardiovasc Drugs Ther</source>
					<year>2001</year>
					<volume>15</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>79</fpage>
					<lpage>87</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1023/a:1011119003788</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B20">
				<label>20</label>
				<mixed-citation>20. Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, Cody R, Castaigne A, Perez A, et al. The Effect of Spironolactone on Morbidity and Mortality in Patients with Severe Heart Failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(10):709-17. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199909023411001.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Pitt</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zannad</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Remme</surname>
							<given-names>WJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cody</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Castaigne</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Perez</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The Effect of Spironolactone on Morbidity and Mortality in Patients with Severe Heart Failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>1999</year>
					<volume>341</volume>
					<issue>10</issue>
					<fpage>709</fpage>
					<lpage>717</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJM199909023411001</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B21">
				<label>21</label>
				<mixed-citation>21. Zannad F, McMurray JJ, Krum H, van Veldhuisen DJ, Swedberg K, Shi H, et al. Eplerenone in Patients with Systolic Heart Failure and Mild Symptoms. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(1):11-21. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1009492.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Zannad</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McMurray</surname>
							<given-names>JJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Krum</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>van Veldhuisen</surname>
							<given-names>DJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Swedberg</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Shi</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Eplerenone in Patients with Systolic Heart Failure and Mild Symptoms</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2011</year>
					<volume>364</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>11</fpage>
					<lpage>21</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa1009492</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B22">
				<label>22</label>
				<mixed-citation>22. Butler J, Anstrom KJ, Felker GM, Givertz MM, Kalogeropoulos AP, Konstam MA, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Spironolactone in Acute Heart Failure: The ATHENA-HF Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Cardiol. 2017;2(9):950-8. doi: 10.1001/jamacardio.2017.2198.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Butler</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Anstrom</surname>
							<given-names>KJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Felker</surname>
							<given-names>GM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Givertz</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kalogeropoulos</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Konstam</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Efficacy and Safety of Spironolactone in Acute Heart Failure: The ATHENA-HF Randomized Clinical Trial</article-title>
					<source>JAMA Cardiol</source>
					<year>2017</year>
					<volume>2</volume>
					<issue>9</issue>
					<fpage>950</fpage>
					<lpage>958</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1001/jamacardio.2017.2198</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B23">
				<label>23</label>
				<mixed-citation>23. Heidenreich PA, Bozkurt B, Aguilar D, Allen LA, Byun JJ, Colvin MM, et al. 2022 AHA/ACC/HFSA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2022;145(18):876-94. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000001062.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Heidenreich</surname>
							<given-names>PA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bozkurt</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Aguilar</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Allen</surname>
							<given-names>LA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Byun</surname>
							<given-names>JJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Colvin</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>2022 AHA/ACC/HFSA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>145</volume>
					<issue>18</issue>
					<fpage>876</fpage>
					<lpage>894</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIR.0000000000001062</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B24">
				<label>24</label>
				<mixed-citation>24. McDonagh TA, Metra M, Adamo M, Gardner RS, Baumbach A, Böhm M, et al. 2021 ESC Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute and Chronic Heart Failure. Eur Heart J. 2021;42(36):3599-726. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehab368.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>McDonagh</surname>
							<given-names>TA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Metra</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Adamo</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gardner</surname>
							<given-names>RS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Baumbach</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Böhm</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>2021 ESC Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute and Chronic Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>Eur Heart J</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>42</volume>
					<issue>36</issue>
					<fpage>3599</fpage>
					<lpage>3726</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehab368</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B25">
				<label>25</label>
				<mixed-citation>25. Martens P, Dauw J, Verbrugge FH, Nijst P, Meekers E, Augusto SN Jr, et al. Decongestion with Acetazolamide in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure Across the Spectrum of Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction: A Prespecified Analysis from the ADVOR Trial. Circulation. 2023;147(3):201-11. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.122.062486.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Martens</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dauw</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Verbrugge</surname>
							<given-names>FH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nijst</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Meekers</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Augusto</surname>
							<given-names>SN</given-names>
							<suffix>Jr</suffix>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Decongestion with Acetazolamide in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure Across the Spectrum of Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction: A Prespecified Analysis from the ADVOR Trial</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2023</year>
					<volume>147</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>201</fpage>
					<lpage>211</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.122.062486</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B26">
				<label>26</label>
				<mixed-citation>26. Rosner MH, Ronco C. Hyponatremia in Heart Failure: The Role of Arginine Vasopressin and its Antagonism. Congest Heart Fail. 2010;16(Suppl 1):7-14. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-7133.2010.00156.x.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rosner</surname>
							<given-names>MH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ronco</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Hyponatremia in Heart Failure: The Role of Arginine Vasopressin and its Antagonism</article-title>
					<source>Congest Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2010</year>
					<volume>16</volume>
					<supplement>Suppl 1</supplement>
					<fpage>7</fpage>
					<lpage>14</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1751-7133.2010.00156.x</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B27">
				<label>27</label>
				<mixed-citation>27. Narayen G, Mandal SN. Vasopressin Receptor Antagonists and Their Role in Clinical Medicine. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2012;16(2):183-91. doi: 10.4103/2230-8210.93734.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Narayen</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mandal</surname>
							<given-names>SN</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Vasopressin Receptor Antagonists and Their Role in Clinical Medicine</article-title>
					<source>Indian J Endocrinol Metab</source>
					<year>2012</year>
					<volume>16</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>183</fpage>
					<lpage>191</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4103/2230-8210.93734</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B28">
				<label>28</label>
				<mixed-citation>28. Rodriguez M, Hernandez M, Cheungpasitporn W, Kashani KB, Riaz I, Rangaswami J, et al. Hyponatremia in Heart Failure: Pathogenesis and Management. Curr Cardiol Rev. 2019;15(4):252-61. doi: 10.2174/1573403X15666190306111812.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Rodriguez</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hernandez</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cheungpasitporn</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kashani</surname>
							<given-names>KB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Riaz</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rangaswami</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Hyponatremia in Heart Failure: Pathogenesis and Management</article-title>
					<source>Curr Cardiol Rev</source>
					<year>2019</year>
					<volume>15</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>252</fpage>
					<lpage>261</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2174/1573403X15666190306111812</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B29">
				<label>29</label>
				<mixed-citation>29. Konstam MA, Gheorghiade M, Burnett JC Jr, Grinfeld L, Maggioni AP, Swedberg K, et al. Effects of Oral Tolvaptan in Patients Hospitalized for Worsening Heart Failure: The EVEREST Outcome Trial. JAMA. 2007;297(12):1319-31. doi: 10.1001/jama.297.12.1319.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Konstam</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gheorghiade</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Burnett</surname>
							<given-names>JC</given-names>
							<suffix>Jr</suffix>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Grinfeld</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Maggioni</surname>
							<given-names>AP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Swedberg</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Effects of Oral Tolvaptan in Patients Hospitalized for Worsening Heart Failure: The EVEREST Outcome Trial</article-title>
					<source>JAMA</source>
					<year>2007</year>
					<volume>297</volume>
					<issue>12</issue>
					<fpage>1319</fpage>
					<lpage>1331</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1001/jama.297.12.1319</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B30">
				<label>30</label>
				<mixed-citation>30. Nakao Y, Kawakami H, Saito M, Inoue K, Ikeda S, Yamaguchi O. Cost-effectiveness of Long-term Tolvaptan Administration for Chronic Heart Failure Treatment in Japan. J Cardiol. 2022;79(3):408-16. doi: 10.1016/j.jjcc.2021.10.026.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Nakao</surname>
							<given-names>Y</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kawakami</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Saito</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Inoue</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ikeda</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Yamaguchi</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Cost-effectiveness of Long-term Tolvaptan Administration for Chronic Heart Failure Treatment in Japan</article-title>
					<source>J Cardiol</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>79</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>408</fpage>
					<lpage>416</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jjcc.2021.10.026</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B31">
				<label>31</label>
				<mixed-citation>31. Sarafidis PA, Tsapas A. Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(11):1092. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc1600827.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Sarafidis</surname>
							<given-names>PA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tsapas</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2016</year>
					<volume>374</volume>
					<issue>11</issue>
					<size units="pages">1092</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMc1600827</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B32">
				<label>32</label>
				<mixed-citation>32. Fernández-Balsells MM, Sojo-Vega L, Ricart-Engel W. Canagliflozin and Cardiovascular and Renal Events in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(21):2098. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc1712572.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Fernández-Balsells</surname>
							<given-names>MM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sojo-Vega</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ricart-Engel</surname>
							<given-names>W</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Canagliflozin and Cardiovascular and Renal Events in Type 2 Diabetes</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2017</year>
					<volume>377</volume>
					<issue>21</issue>
					<size units="pages">2098</size>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMc1712572</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B33">
				<label>33</label>
				<mixed-citation>33. Wiviott SD, Raz I, Bonaca MP, Mosenzon O, Kato ET, Cahn A, et al. Dapagliflozin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(4):347-57. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1812389.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Wiviott</surname>
							<given-names>SD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Raz</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bonaca</surname>
							<given-names>MP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mosenzon</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kato</surname>
							<given-names>ET</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cahn</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Dapagliflozin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2019</year>
					<volume>380</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>347</fpage>
					<lpage>357</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa1812389</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B34">
				<label>34</label>
				<mixed-citation>34. McMurray JJV, Solomon SD, Inzucchi SE, Køber L, Kosiborod MN, Martinez FA, et al. Dapagliflozin in Patients with Heart Failure and Reduced Ejection Fraction. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(21):1995-2008. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1911303.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>McMurray</surname>
							<given-names>JJV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Solomon</surname>
							<given-names>SD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Inzucchi</surname>
							<given-names>SE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Køber</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kosiborod</surname>
							<given-names>MN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Martinez</surname>
							<given-names>FA</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Dapagliflozin in Patients with Heart Failure and Reduced Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2019</year>
					<volume>381</volume>
					<issue>21</issue>
					<fpage>1995</fpage>
					<lpage>2008</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa1911303</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B35">
				<label>35</label>
				<mixed-citation>35. Packer M, Anker SD, Butler J, Filippatos G, Pocock SJ, Carson P, et al. Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes with Empagliflozin in Heart Failure. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(15):1413-24. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2022190.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Packer</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Anker</surname>
							<given-names>SD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Butler</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Filippatos</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pocock</surname>
							<given-names>SJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Carson</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes with Empagliflozin in Heart Failure</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>383</volume>
					<issue>15</issue>
					<fpage>1413</fpage>
					<lpage>1424</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa2022190</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B36">
				<label>36</label>
				<mixed-citation>36. Anker SD, Butler J, Filippatos G, Ferreira JP, Bocchi E, Böhm M, et als. Empagliflozin in Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(16):1451-61. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2107038.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Anker</surname>
							<given-names>SD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Butler</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Filippatos</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ferreira</surname>
							<given-names>JP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bocchi</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Böhm</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et als</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Empagliflozin in Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
					<source>N Engl J Med</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>385</volume>
					<issue>16</issue>
					<fpage>1451</fpage>
					<lpage>1461</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMoa2107038</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B37">
				<label>37</label>
				<mixed-citation>37. Peikert A, Martinez FA, Vaduganathan M, Claggett BL, Kulac IJ, Desai AS, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Dapagliflozin in Heart Failure with Mildly Reduced or Preserved Ejection Fraction According to Age: The DELIVER Trial. Circ Heart Fail. 2022;15(10):e010080. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.122.010080.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Peikert</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Martinez</surname>
							<given-names>FA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vaduganathan</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Claggett</surname>
							<given-names>BL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kulac</surname>
							<given-names>IJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Desai</surname>
							<given-names>AS</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Efficacy and Safety of Dapagliflozin in Heart Failure with Mildly Reduced or Preserved Ejection Fraction According to Age: The DELIVER Trial</article-title>
					<source>Circ Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>15</volume>
					<issue>10</issue>
					<elocation-id>e010080</elocation-id>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.122.010080</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B38">
				<label>38</label>
				<mixed-citation>38. Braunwald E. SGLT2 Inhibitors: The Statins of the 21st Century. Eur Heart J. 2022;43(11):1029-30. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehab765.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Braunwald</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>SGLT2 Inhibitors: The Statins of the 21st Century</article-title>
					<source>Eur Heart J</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>43</volume>
					<issue>11</issue>
					<fpage>1029</fpage>
					<lpage>1030</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehab765</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B39">
				<label>39</label>
				<mixed-citation>39. Ansary TM, Nakano D, Nishiyama A. Diuretic Effects of Sodium Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors and Their Influence on the Renin-Angiotensin System. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(3):629. doi: 10.3390/ijms20030629.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ansary</surname>
							<given-names>TM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nakano</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nishiyama</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Diuretic Effects of Sodium Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors and Their Influence on the Renin-Angiotensin System</article-title>
					<source>Int J Mol Sci</source>
					<year>2019</year>
					<volume>20</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>629</fpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/ijms20030629</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B40">
				<label>40</label>
				<mixed-citation>40. Damman K, Beusekamp JC, Boorsma EM, Swart HP, Smilde TDJ, Elvan A, et al. Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled, Multicentre Pilot Study on the Effects of Empagliflozin on Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Acute Decompensated Heart Failure (EMPA-RESPONSE-AHF). Eur J Heart Fail. 2020;22(4):713-22. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1713.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Damman</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Beusekamp</surname>
							<given-names>JC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Boorsma</surname>
							<given-names>EM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Swart</surname>
							<given-names>HP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Smilde</surname>
							<given-names>TDJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Elvan</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled, Multicentre Pilot Study on the Effects of Empagliflozin on Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Acute Decompensated Heart Failure (EMPA-RESPONSE-AHF)</article-title>
					<source>Eur J Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>22</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>713</fpage>
					<lpage>722</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/ejhf.1713</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B41">
				<label>41</label>
				<mixed-citation>41. Voors AA, Angermann CE, Teerlink JR, Collins SP, Kosiborod M, Biegus Jet al. The SGLT2 Inhibitor Empagliflozin in Patients Hospitalized for Acute Heart Failure: A Multinational Randomized Trial. Nat Med. 2022;28(3):568-74. doi: 10.1038/s41591-021-01659-1.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Voors</surname>
							<given-names>AA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Angermann</surname>
							<given-names>CE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Teerlink</surname>
							<given-names>JR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Collins</surname>
							<given-names>SP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kosiborod</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Biegus J</surname>
							<given-names>et al</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The SGLT2 Inhibitor Empagliflozin in Patients Hospitalized for Acute Heart Failure: A Multinational Randomized Trial</article-title>
					<source>Nat Med</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>28</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>568</fpage>
					<lpage>574</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/s41591-021-01659-1</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B42">
				<label>42</label>
				<mixed-citation>42. Binanay C, Califf RM, Hasselblad V, O'Connor CM, Shah MR, Sopko G, et al. Evaluation Study of Congestive Heart Failure and Pulmonary Artery Catheterization Effectiveness: The ESCAPE Trial. JAMA. 2005;294(13):1625-33. doi: 10.1001/jama.294.13.1625.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Binanay</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Califf</surname>
							<given-names>RM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hasselblad</surname>
							<given-names>V</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>O'Connor</surname>
							<given-names>CM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Shah</surname>
							<given-names>MR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sopko</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Evaluation Study of Congestive Heart Failure and Pulmonary Artery Catheterization Effectiveness: The ESCAPE Trial</article-title>
					<source>JAMA</source>
					<year>2005</year>
					<volume>294</volume>
					<issue>13</issue>
					<fpage>1625</fpage>
					<lpage>1633</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1001/jama.294.13.1625</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B43">
				<label>43</label>
				<mixed-citation>43. Testani JM, Chen J, McCauley BD, Kimmel SE, Shannon RP. Potential Effects of Aggressive Decongestion During the Treatment of Decompensated Heart Failure on Renal Function and Survival. Circulation. 2010;122(3):265-72. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.933275.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Testani</surname>
							<given-names>JM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chen</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McCauley</surname>
							<given-names>BD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kimmel</surname>
							<given-names>SE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Shannon</surname>
							<given-names>RP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Potential Effects of Aggressive Decongestion During the Treatment of Decompensated Heart Failure on Renal Function and Survival</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2010</year>
					<volume>122</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>265</fpage>
					<lpage>272</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.933275</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B44">
				<label>44</label>
				<mixed-citation>44. Ahmad T, Jackson K, Rao VS, Tang WHW, Brisco-Bacik MA, Chen HH, et al. Worsening Renal Function in Patients with Acute Heart Failure Undergoing Aggressive Diuresis Is Not Associated with Tubular Injury. Circulation. 2018;137(19):2016-28. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.030112.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ahmad</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jackson</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rao</surname>
							<given-names>VS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tang</surname>
							<given-names>WHW</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Brisco-Bacik</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chen</surname>
							<given-names>HH</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Worsening Renal Function in Patients with Acute Heart Failure Undergoing Aggressive Diuresis Is Not Associated with Tubular Injury</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2018</year>
					<volume>137</volume>
					<issue>19</issue>
					<fpage>2016</fpage>
					<lpage>2028</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.030112</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B45">
				<label>45</label>
				<mixed-citation>45. Mebazaa A, Davison B, Chioncel O, Cohen-Solal A, Diaz R, Filippatos G, et al. Safety, Tolerability and Efficacy of Up-titration of Guideline-directed Medical Therapies for Acute Heart Failure (STRONG-HF): A Multinational, Open-label, Randomised, Trial. Lancet. 2022;400(10367):1938-52. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02076-1.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Mebazaa</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Davison</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chioncel</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cohen-Solal</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Diaz</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Filippatos</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Safety, Tolerability and Efficacy of Up-titration of Guideline-directed Medical Therapies for Acute Heart Failure (STRONG-HF): A Multinational, Open-label, Randomised, Trial</article-title>
					<source>Lancet</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>400</volume>
					<issue>10367</issue>
					<fpage>1938</fpage>
					<lpage>1952</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02076-1</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Study association:</label>
				<p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Ethics approval and consent to participate:</label>
				<p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<label>Sources of funding:</label>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240020</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Combinações de Diuréticos: Fisiopatologia, Evidência e Prática Clínica</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2501-302X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mourilhe-Rocha</surname>
						<given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Ribeiro</surname>
						<given-names>Pedro Fernandes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2591-2773</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Sales</surname>
						<given-names>Ana Luíza Ferreira</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9891-676X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Spineti</surname>
						<given-names>Pedro Pimenta de Mello</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8692-1115</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Albuquerque</surname>
						<given-names>Felipe Neves de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1206-9489</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Bittencourt</surname>
						<given-names>Marcelo Imbroinise</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar Américas - Hospitais Vitória e Samaritano Barra, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência:</label> Ricardo Mourilhe-Rocha • Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro - Av. 28 de setembro, 77. CEP 20551-030, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil; E-mail: ricardomourilhe@gmail.com </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Luis Beck-da-Silva</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca é uma síndrome de alta prevalência em todo o mundo, com impacto financeiro, humano e trabalhista altíssimos. Registros recentes demonstram que boa parte desses pacientes, quando hospitalizados por descompensação da cardiopatia de base, o fazem em perfil congesto, ou seja, com sobrecarga hidrossalina. Nesse cenário, os diuréticos desempenham papel central para descongestão, visando alívio de sintomas e desospitalização segura para seguimento ambulatorial. Para isso, se fazem necessários o adequado manejo das doses terapêuticas, associações de classes e vigilância constante sobre aspectos de perfusão tecidual, que devem constantemente reger o cuidado com essa população de pacientes. Nessa revisão, versaremos sobre a fisiopatologia aplicada ao entendimento da congestão, bem como sua abordagem pautada pela evidência mais atual, com conceitos clínicos, farmacológicos e de exames complementares fundamentais para o atendimento do paciente internado com insuficiência cardíaca descompensada com congestão. Tudo isso visando o estabelecimento de estratégias e metas terapêuticas que otimizem tempo de permanência hospitalar, bem como desfechos clínicos dessa população.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Diuréticos</kwd>
				<kwd>Patologia</kwd>
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Combinações de Diuréticos: Fisiopatologia, Evidência e Prática Clínica</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						<attrib>Fluxograma com proposta resumida sobre manejo de diuréticos na IC descompensada com congestão. IC: insuficiência cardíaca; IV: intravenosa; NaU: concentração urinária de sódio.</attrib>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) é uma síndrome de alta prevalência em todo o mundo, inclusive na América Latina, onde os percentuais de prevalência são estimados em 1,2% a 2,1% da população.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No Brasil, essa realidade se replica, com estimativa de que a síndrome afete cerca de 2% da população adulta, incorrendo num arrebatador impacto financeiro de aproximadamente R$ 28,1 bilhões apenas no ano de 2015, quando foram aferidos os custos totais à sociedade e ao sistema de saúde.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Não bastasse o amplo impacto econômico, a IC também se apresenta como um dos principais geradores e amplificadores de morbimortalidade, inclusive com assimetrias prognósticas importantes quando comparadas diferentes realidades socioeconômicas na população.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Outros registros que envolvem a América Latina foram também capazes de observar que a população acima de 45 anos portadora de IC sintomática chega a arrebatadores 9,3%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Nessa esteira, diante da inquestionável relevância epidemiológica e econômica da IC, foi realizado o registro nacional BREATHE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> publicado em 2015, que pôde avaliar que cerca de 85,3% das descompensações de IC no Brasil ocorrem em perfil volêmico congesto (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>), resultado esse que se mantem similar na extensão do estudo, publicada em 2023.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Nesse tipo de cenário, o uso de diuréticos é um dos pilares centrais do tratamento do paciente, visando correção do estado volêmico e alívio de seus sintomas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Portanto, dados os números contundentes de prevalência sindrômica, bem como o perfil predominante de suas apresentações clínicas, essa revisão é construída para substanciar e sistematizar a abordagem da terapia diurética na IC descompensada.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02002">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Perfil hemodinâmico da descompensação da insuficiência cardíaca no registro BREATHE. Adaptado de Albuquerque et al.6</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf02-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<sec>
					<title>A fisiopatologia neuroendócrina e circulatória da insuficiência cardíaca descompensada</title>
					<p>A síndrome de IC envolve, em sua gênese, o aumento das pressões cavitarias cardíacas, o que desencadeia múltiplas alças neuroendócrinas as quais culminam em retenção hidrossalina, aumento do tônus catecolaminérgico e perda da capacidade de modulação da resistência vascular sistêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Diante do exposto, cabe ainda notar o importante papel que o leito venoso esplâncnico desempenha no processo de redistribuição volêmica e congestão sistêmica. Esse sistema é um leito vascular de alta capacitância, sendo sua função primordial atuar como reservatório de volume não-estressado. Esse volume não-estressado é primordialmente um grande reservatório volêmico, e o seu recrutamento é feito por meio da estimulação dos receptores alfa-adrenérgicos, abundantes nesse leito.</p>
					<p>No portador de IC, a ativação das alças adrenérgicas leva à hiperestimulação desses receptores, redistribuindo o volume que, em condições normais, não seria estressado para a circulação sistêmica, gerando congestão. Desse modo, quando se propõe o uso de vasodilatadores, como nitratos, busca-se o reestabelecimento da capacitância mais próxima da original do leito venoso e o favorecimento do escoamento da congestão sistêmica. Como ilustra a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>, em um modelo de compressão circulatória vasculocêntrico, ao reduzir as pressões venosas centrais, é possível otimizar o retorno venoso, o que permite melhor fluxo da periferia para o coração. Neste esquema, a pressão de enchimento sistêmico médio rege o sistema venoso, de modo que os determinantes para a otimização do fluxo (Q) são a quantidade de volume estressado, bem como a pressão do átrio direito. Portanto, a recuperação da capacitância equivale à redução do ponto de escoamento sistêmico, tornando-o mais eficiente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Exemplificação esquemática demonstrando que o aumento da capacitância do leito venoso incorre em otimização do retorno venoso e, portanto, do escoamento da congestão vascular e tecidual. Adaptado de Magder.8</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Uma vez redistribuídos os volumes compartimentais, é necessário também readequar o conteúdo volêmico ao continente vascular e tecidual, o que é feito por meio de natriurese induzida pelos diuréticos.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento da congestão</title>
					<p>O uso de diuréticos é extremamente comum no tratamento da IC, sendo a classe de fármacos mais utilizada dentre as drogas prescritas para os pacientes que são hospitalizados (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04002">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Medicações intra-hospitalares prescritas para o tratamento de insuficiência cardíaca aguda. BRA: bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina II; IECA: inibidor da enzima de conversão da angiotensina. Adaptado de Rohde et al.9</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf04-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Essa conduta se torna especialmente importante à luz dos alvos terapêuticos do paciente hospitalizado com IC postulados pela Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> que envolvem:</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Diurese de 1,5 a 2,5 ml/kg nas primeiras 6 horas;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Ausência de ortopneia e esforço respiratório nas primeiras 24 horas;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Ausência de dispneia aos mínimos esforços em até 72 horas;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>SpO2 superior a 90% em ar ambiente;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Frequência cardíaca inferior a 100 batimentos por minuto;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Frequência respiratória inferior a 22 incursões por minuto;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Pressão sistólica inferior a 110 a 130 mmHg.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Classes de diuréticos</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Diuréticos de alça</title>
						<p>Os diuréticos de alça são a classe mais empregada no processo de descongestão na IC pelo seu grande potencial de induzir natriurese e balanço hídrico negativo. Seu mecanismo de ação (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4</xref>), envolve o bloqueio do cotransportador sódio-potássio-cloro (NKCC) na porção ascendente do túbulo de Henle, gerando diluição do gradiente medular e reduzindo a capacidade de reabsorção hidrossalina das unidades funcionais do rim.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f05002">
								<label>Figura 4</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Mecanismos de ação dos diuréticos empregados no processo de descongestão. Adaptado de Mullens et al.11 IC: insuficiência cardíaca; TCD: túbulo contorcido distal.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf05-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>Os principais representantes da classe dos diuréticos de alça são a furosemida, bumetanida e a torsemida, esta última ainda indisponível no nosso meio. As doses e posologias habitualmente empregadas são exibidas na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figura 5</xref>. Importante notar que o espectro de dose dos diuréticos de alça é bastante amplo e a decisão sobre as doses aplicadas ao processo de descongestão de cada paciente pode ser melhor elucidada com o entendimento dos conceitos de biodisponibilidade, meia-vida da droga e limiar diurético. A biodisponibilidade da furosemida administrada por via oral é extremamente limitada e variável, tornando a via venosa a preferencial para administração do fármaco durante o processo de descongestão. Não obstante, a meia-vida da droga é de aproximadamente 6 horas, período no qual a concentração plasmática da droga deve ser capaz de exceder o limiar diurético do paciente. Portanto, administrações em intervalos mais curtos (de 4 a 6 horas a cada dose) são preferenciais, desde que as doses administradas em cada horário sejam capazes de induzir um débito urinário compatível com o que se deseja para o processo de descongestão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f06002">
								<label>Figura 5</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Classes, posologias e intervalos de diuréticos habitualmente empregados no processo de descongestão. Adaptado de Rohde et al.9</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-4-3-e20240020-gf06-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>Especificamente na IC, a ativação dos eixos neuro-humorais que resultam em retenção hidrossalina estão substancialmente amplificados e a indução de natriurese e balanço hídrico negativo podem requerer doses elevadas de furosemida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Para melhor elucidação quanto à abordagem posológica e ao resultado de descongestão, o DOSE Trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> avaliou 308 pacientes em um formato fatorial randomizado 2 por 2 placebo-controlado para infusão contínua <italic>versus</italic> intermitente em grupos de altas doses (definidas como 2 a 2,5 vezes a dose de diurético oral previamente utilizada) <italic>versus</italic> grupo de baixas doses. Apesar do estudo ter sido negativo quanto ao desfecho primário de melhora subjetiva de sintomas, diversos desfechos secundários pré-especificados, como melhora objetiva da dispneia, perda de peso e balanço hídrico negativo, foram atingidos de forma consistente e estatisticamente relevante no grupo que usou doses mais altas de diuréticos. Ainda importante ressaltar que não houve diferença entre os grupos de infusão contínua e intermitente, com maior número de efeitos adversos em piora de função renal no grupo de administração contínua. Esses achados tornam razoáveis as propostas de que, durante o processo de descongestão, se apliquem doses altas de diuréticos de alça e que sua administração contínua ou intermitente não é relevante, desde que respeitados os intervalos e limiares diuréticos de cada paciente. A piora de função renal durante o processo de descongestão ocorre em 30% a 50% dos pacientes hospitalizados por IC e essa incidência varia substancialmente a depender da definição de piora de função renal aplicada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Uma última observação sobre o uso de diuréticos no processo de descongestão é o receio de hipotensão associada ao uso de doses elevadas de diuréticos. Esse tema é avaliado em diversos trabalhos, no próprio DOSE Trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> mas também em trabalhos com modelos de pacientes com uso de doses substanciais de vasopressores e lesão pulmonar associada à sepse,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> e não se observa maior incidência de hipotensão nos braços de pacientes expostos a doses elevadas de diurético de alça. Nessa esteira, é necessário propor que o uso de diurético de alça, idealmente em doses altas, é a peça central do tratamento da congestão e independe de níveis tensionais absolutos, mas talvez dependa de parâmetros perfusionais, que muitas vezes estão dissociados um do outro no paciente com IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Mecanismos de resistência aos diuréticos de alça e suas implicações clínicas</title>
				<p>Uma parcela significativa de pacientes hospitalizados por IC com congestão não consegue atingir os alvos de descongestão a despeito do emprego de doses elevadas de diuréticos de alça.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Isso acontece por diversos mecanismos, como: baixa concentração de cloro à bomba NKCC, geralmente presente em estágios mais avançados do processo de descongestão; hipoalbuminemia, pois é essa a proteína sérica que leva a furosemida do plasma ao seu sítio efetor; estados de má perfusão em que a correção do déficit perfusional é prioritária, inclusive em relação à descongestão em si e que podem ser resolvidos com uso de inotrópicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>No caso da hipocloremia, é intuitivo concluir que sua ocorrência se dá por rarefação do substrato necessário para o co-transportador NKCC, inibido pelo diurético, resultando numa menor eficácia do fármaco. Nessas situações, é possível considerar aporte de cloreto em concentrações altas, como por meio de solução salina a 3% concomitantemente à diureticoterapia para que se obtenha a natriurese desejada. Além disso, a furosemida é carreada pela albumina no plasma e estados de hipoalbuminemia grave prejudicam a entrega do fármaco ao seu sítio efetor. Dessa forma, a administração de solução de albumina também pode ser capaz de maximizar o débito urinário mediado pelo diurético.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Cabe ainda o debate se esse aumento da diurese mediado pelo aporte de albumina se dá pela maior disponibilidade do carreador ou se pelo inexorável aporte de cloreto, já que a concentração desse íon na maior parte das soluções de albumina comercialmente disponíveis é alta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Tiazídicos</title>
				<p>Ainda diante das medidas de correção citadas, é possível que os pacientes não consigam estabelecer balanços negativos compatíveis com as metas do tratamento, tornando-se necessária a associação de diuréticos, com objetivo de bloquear segmentos sequenciais do néfron, como exibe a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Isso é porque a atividade de reabsorção distal tubular de sódio parece ser suplantada com o bloqueio de diferentes partes do néfron.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Assim, são empregados em conjunto com os diuréticos de alça conforme as posologias explicitadas na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figura 5</xref>. É válido ainda ressaltar que o uso de diuréticos tiazídicos em monoterapia não é encorajado, visto que seu potencial natriurético isolado é inferior ao dos diuréticos de alça.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>É necessário considerar que o bloqueio sequencial do néfron com o uso combinado de tiazídicos e diuréticos de alça envolve, necessariamente, um risco maior de distúrbios hidroeletrolíticos graves, como hiponatremia e hipocalemia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> o que deve inspirar cuidado e vigilância de suas concentrações visando a correção de suas concentrações plasmáticas.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Antagonistas dos receptores de mineralocorticoide</title>
				<p>O uso dos antagonistas de receptores de aldosterona é consagrado no subgrupo de pacientes com IC de fração de ejeção reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> No entanto, sua adjuvância diurética no processo de descongestão é pouco estudada, de modo que o maior trabalho que concluiu sua eficácia e segurança para essa finalidade foi o ATHENA-HF Trial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Nesse documento, os autores randomizaram pacientes para doses altas (100 mg/dia espironolactona) <italic>versus</italic> doses baixas ou placebo (12,5 a 25 mg/dia de espironolactona) com a avalição de um desfecho substituto: os níveis NT-proBNP da entrada e de 96 horas após a randomização, concluindo que não houve diferença quanto ao desfecho primário nem quanto a desfechos intermediários, como débito urinário, velocidade de descongestão, doses de diurético empregadas ou melhora de escores subjetivos de dispneia, entre os grupos que receberam baixas doses ou altas doses de espironolactona. No entanto, o estudo concluiu ampla segurança de doses elevadas de espironolactona quanto à ocorrência de hipercalemia, hipotensão ou piora de função renal, deixando em aberto ainda a possibilidade de estudos futuros avaliarem doses ainda mais altas como 200 a 400 mg de espironolactona por dia, que são habitualmente empregadas nos pacientes com cirrose hepática. De toda forma, diretrizes de abordagem à IC aguda ainda preconizam doses baixas a intermediárias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Inibidores de anidrase carbônica</title>
				<p>A acetazolamida é um inibidor de anidrase carbônica que atua no túbulo contorcido proximal, reduzindo a absorção de sódio nesse território do néfron.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Seu emprego no processo de descongestão foi avaliado no ADVOR Trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> um estudo multicêntrico, duplo-cego e placebo controlado, que avaliou a adição de acetazolamida em sua formulação venosa ao regime diurético de pacientes hospitalizados com IC com congestão. Nesse estudo, houve maior sucesso de descongestão (sucesso esse definido como ausência de sinais de sobrecarga volêmica avaliados por um cardiologista treinado) no grupo da acetazolamida, permitindo assim a conclusão do seu papel como adjuvante natriurético nessa população. Interessante ainda ressaltar que, no ADVOR Trial, a posologia de acetazolamida utilizada era a de 250 a 500 mg por dia de sua formulação venosa, indisponível no Brasil.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Os antagonistas de receptores de vasopressina</title>
				<p>O regime neuro-humoral vigente na IC atinge o ponto comum de retenção hidrossalina e o consequente balanço hídrico positivo com sintomas de congestão também é mediado pela via da arginina-vasopressina (AVP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>De posse do conhecimento sobre o sistema AVP, uma nova classe de diuréticos foi criada: os antagonistas dos receptores de vasopressina. São também denominados “vaptans” e atuam ao nível do ducto coletor, inibindo os receptores V2 e promovendo “aquarese” por inibição das aquaporinas, que são canais que promovem a reabsorção de água nesse território do néfron.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Seu mecanismo de ação confere à classe o específico potencial de agir diretamente sobre uma das maiores vias que resultam em hiponatremia, um marcador prognóstico isolado na IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Existem diversos representantes da classe dos vaptans, mas o tolvaptan é de especial interesse para pacientes hospitalizados com IC, uma vez que o EVEREST Trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> se prestou a sua comparação <italic>versus</italic> placebo como adjuvante diurético no processo de descongestão. O estudo foi negativo para seu desfecho primário de redução de mortalidade por todas as causas e para o desfecho combinado de redução de mortalidade e hospitalização por IC. No entanto, foi positivo para diversos desfechos intermediários muito pertinentes ao processo de descongestão, como perda de peso, melhora da dispneia, resolução da hiponatremia e do edema. Apesar de exibir um excelente perfil hemodinâmico com bons resultados de descongestão, os vaptans têm seu uso limitado pelo alto custo, de modo que atualmente é considerado como tratamento custo-efetivo somente na subpopulação de pacientes com altas doses de furosemida e hiponatremia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Além disso, o tolvaptan atualmente não está disponível no Brasil.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Inibidores da SGLT2</title>
					<p>Os inibidores do cotransportador de sódio e glicose do túbulo contorcido proximal têm seu papel consolidado para as populações diabética com alto risco cardiovascular,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> portadora de IC com fração de ejeção reduzida<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> e portadora de IC de fração de ejeção preservada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Os benefícios exercidos às populações específicas são tão amplos e contundentes que Eugene Braunwald chegou a considerá-las as estatinas do século XXI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Apesar de sua merecida notoriedade, os iSGLT2 ainda não parecem ter um papel central como diuréticos no tratamento da IC aguda com congestão, visto que seu efeito natriurético é limitado e de curta duração, e seus benefícios, atribuídos a outras características de modulação do metabolismo energético miocárdico e metabólico sistêmico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Ainda assim, são seguros para serem introduzidos nesse cenário<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> e agregam benefício de médio prazo com sua introdução ainda durante a internação,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> ou também em regime ambulatorial em pacientes que se apresentam em curva de piora clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Processo de descongestão e função renal</title>
					<p>Durante o processo de descongestão, até três quartos dos pacientes podem apresentar piora de função renal, de forma permanente ou não.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, é natural concluir e possível observar que aqueles que apresentam disfunção persistente tendem a ter um prognóstico pior, no entanto, é interessante ressaltar que aqueles que recuperam a função renal após sua internação, têm prognóstico similar àqueles cuja função renal permaneceu inalterada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Ademais, durante o processo de descongestão, alguns componentes séricos tendem a se concentrar, como o hematócrito. No ESCAPE Trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> os pacientes que apresentaram hemoconcentração foram fortemente associados à piora de função renal, mas também o grupo com a melhor sobrevida após a internação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Dessa forma, é possível inferir que a descongestão completa é prioritária à proteção da função renal durante o processo de correção volêmica, visto que a alta hospitalar com congestão residual se correlaciona fortemente com reinternação precoce e aumento da mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Além das considerações volêmicas e hidrostáticas que concernem à manutenção da capacidade de filtração e secreção renais, há ainda que se qualificar, rotineiramente, o estado perfusional do paciente internado com IC. Isso porque até 23% das internações acontecem em perfis ditos “frios”<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> e, em vigência de déficit perfusional, a prioridade é a sua correção em detrimento da resolução da intoxicação hídrica, já que outros órgãos nobres, como cérebro e coração podem também estar em risco perfusional. Por fim, a análise de biomarcadores que indicam lesão tubular dos pacientes submetidos a diureticoterapia agressiva para descongestão em IC no ROSE Trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> permitiu a conclusão que a piora de marcadores séricos de função renal não é acompanhada de indicadores de lesão tubular,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> assim reforçando o atual conceito de que as flutuações de ureia e creatinina são achados majoritariamente benignos frutos de um fenômeno de redistribuição hídrica, em detrimento da impressão de lesão renal com complicações de longo prazo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Atingindo a Euvolemia</title>
					<p>A avaliação volêmica na beira do leito é extremamente desafiadora a ponto de que examinadores treinados, quando pautados exclusivamente por achados de exame físico, têm um desempenho de acurácia muito inferior ao que seria desejado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Dessa forma, torna-se necessária a avaliação de múltiplas variáveis de forma seriada para que se obtenha maior acurácia. Para essa finalidade, é possível lançar mão de instrumentos como de aferição do peso corporal diariamente, radiológicos, como radiografia de tórax, ultrassonográficos, com avaliação volêmica do POCUS (<italic>point of care ultrasound</italic>), laboratoriais, como o NT-proBNP da alta em relação ao da admissão e medidas invasivas, como medidas de cateter de artéria pulmonar, ou de termodiluição transpulmonar. Uma abordagem possível ao processo de descongestão é oferecida na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura Central</xref>, onde os pontos giram sempre em torno da garantia de perfusão adequada e da agressividade na eleição da dose de diurético terapia.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conversão para o regime ambulatorial</title>
					<p>Ainda durante a internação, o paciente portador de IC precisa demonstrar estabilidade clínica e volêmica por 24 horas com o regime de drogas por via oral para que a alta seja considerada segura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> É possível que seja necessária desospitalização ainda com regime de bloqueio sequencial, especialmente em pacientes que demandam altas doses de furosemida. Além do manejo hidrossalino, é necessário se certificar de que o paciente está em uso da máxima dose tolerada no período hospitalar das quatro classes de medicações capazes de alterar seu prognóstico no curto, médio e longo prazo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Por fim, ambulatorialmente é importante que esses pacientes sejam acompanhados por um regime de visitas mais frequentes no período pós-alta, por se tratar de um período de maior fragilidade e risco de reinternação, além da titulação agressiva das doses modificadoras de doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Mensagens principais</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>A enorme maioria dos pacientes com IC descompensada se encontra com sobrecarga volêmica no momento da descompensação;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>A busca agressiva pela euvolemia é prioritária à preservação de escórias nitrogenadas;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>A combinação de mais de uma classe de diurético se mostrou como uma estratégia eficaz para atingir a descongestão;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>O estado perfusional e o débito urinário do paciente devem ser reavaliados a todo momento;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Resolver a congestão é tão importante quanto instaurar o tratamento, ainda antes da alta, com as drogas que são capazes de impactar no prognóstico de médio e longo prazo dos pacientes com IC.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A IC é um problema mundialmente relevante, com grande impacto econômico e humano. Durante seu tratamento, intra-hospitalar ou não, é muito provável que o uso de diuréticos seja necessário para melhor manejo volêmico e conhecer as particularidades de cada classe é fundamental para que a condução dos casos seja a mais assertiva possível, visando sempre minimizar as chances de hospitalização e ganho de qualidade de vida.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Vinculação acadêmica:</label>
					<p> Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado:</label>
					<p> Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<label>Fontes de financiamento:</label>
					<p> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>