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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20250040i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="other">abchf.20250040i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing in Heart Failure: Updating the Theory into Clinical Practice</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5959-9359</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rossi</surname><given-names>João Manoel</given-names><suffix>Neto</suffix></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Statistical analysis and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Rossi</surname><given-names>Raphael Machado</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Mattos</surname><given-names>Victor B. M.</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7545-2683</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Wolf</surname><given-names>Plinio J. W.</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Finger</surname><given-names>Marco Aurelio A.</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Santos</surname><given-names>Carolina Casadei dos</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Grupo Fleury</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Grupo Fleury, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>João Manoel Rossi Neto</bold> • Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia – Av. Dante Pazzanese, 500. Postal Code <postal-code>04012-909</postal-code>, São Paulo, SP- Brazil E-mail: <email>jmrossi@sti.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label><p>Germano Souza</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>31</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2025</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2025</year></pub-date>
<volume>5</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20250040</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>14</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>09</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>25</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) is a central tool in the functional assessment of heart failure (HF), integrating cardiovascular, ventilatory, and metabolic responses into a single examination. In light of evidence published between 2023 and 2025, its diagnostic and prognostic role has been expanded, incorporating more refined pathophysiological foundations, submaximal parameters, and updated criteria for heart transplantation according to ISHLT 2024. This narrative review, based on studies indexed in PubMed, international consensus statements, and contemporary analyses, addresses the main mechanisms of exercise limitation in HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) and preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), as well as the clinical relevance of key CPET variables, including peak VO<sub>2</sub>, VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope, OUES, O<sub>2</sub> pulse, chronotropic response, and VO<sub>2</sub> recovery kinetics.</p>
<p>The body of evidence confirms that the CPET is the most comprehensive tool for characterizing cardiocirculatory, ventilatory, and peripheral limitations, with reduced peak VO<sub>2</sub> and elevated VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope remaining the most robust prognostic markers, even in submaximal tests. Recent studies also demonstrate that emerging therapies — such as SGLT2 inhibitors, ARNIs, and GLP-1 agonists — promote functional benefits detectable by CPET before cardiac structural changes, highlighting its role as a monitor of therapeutic response. Additionally, CPET remains fundamental in risk stratification and transplant decision-making, following the updated thresholds of the ISHLT. Thus, the examination is consolidated as an essential instrument in modern HF practice, integrating diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic monitoring, as well as guiding rehabilitation strategies and the selection of advanced therapies.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Exercise Test</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Gas Exchange</kwd>
<kwd>Prognosis</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiac Rehabilitation</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="4"/>
<table-count count="6"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="49"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-005-03-e20250040-gf01.tif"/>
<p>Integrated representation of the role of cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) in heart failure (HF). CPET integrates central, ventilatory, and peripheral responses, allowing functional assessment in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) and preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). Key variables, such as peak exercise oxygen consumption (VO<sub>2</sub> peak), slope of the ventilation/minute-carbon dioxide production ratio (VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope), and oxygen pulse (O<sub>2</sub> pulse), support prognostic stratification and identification of transplant candidates according to the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT) 2024 (VO<sub>2</sub> peak ≤12–14 mL/kg/min; VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope ≥35). The figure also illustrates new applications of CPET, including the assessment of response to sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, angiotensin-neprilysin receptor (ARNI) inhibitors, and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists, as well as artificial intelligence (AI)-based approaches. VE: minute/ventilation; VCO<sub>2</sub>: carbon dioxide production; VO<sub>2</sub>: oxygen consumption.</p>
</fig>
<sec>
<title>Historical aspects</title>
<p>Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) began to be applied clinically in the 1960s–1970s, when Wasserman et al.¹ systematized ventilatory principles and introduced the concept of cardiorespiratory integration. In cardiology, it was consolidated in the 1980s after Weber and Janicki² demonstrated the prognostic value of peak oxygen consumption (VO<sub>2</sub>) in heart failure (HF). Since then, CPET has evolved from a diagnostic tool to a central prognostic and therapeutic instrument. Contemporary publications, such as those by Guazzi et al.³ and Puttini et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> have reaffirmed its role as the gold standard in integrated functional assessment, including stable patients, those in advanced stages, or post-rehabilitation.</p>
<sec>
<title>Pathophysiological basis of exercise limitation</title>
<p>The CPET assesses VO<sub>2</sub> according to Fick&apos;s equation, VO<sub>2</sub> = [cardiac output (CO) × peripheral oxygen extraction (CaO<sub>2</sub>– CvO<sub>2</sub>)], integrating CO and (CaO<sub>2</sub>–CvO<sub>2</sub>). CO — determined by heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV) — represents the central contribution, while adequate ventilation ensures efficient gas exchange; mechanical alterations or increased dead space can lead to ventilation-perfusion mismatch. Thus, VO<sub>2</sub> reflects, in an integrated way, cardiac function, pulmonary ventilation, and muscle metabolism<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> (Central Illustration).</p>
<p>In HF, exercise limitation is characterized by reduced peak VO<sub>2</sub>, high carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) ventilatory efficiency (VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope), flattened oxygen pulse (VO<sub>2</sub>/HR), chronotropic incompetence, and limited effort. Recent evidence has detailed distinct mechanisms: in HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), invasive cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) shows increased filling pressures and ventilatory inefficiency, indicating contractile dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> In HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), dynamic congestion with variation in pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (ΔPCWP) ≥5 mmHg<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> stands out, in addition to specific profiles such as engine-chassis mismatch in obese individuals,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> early submaximal limitation,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> and the impact of muscle quality on exercise tolerance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> These findings reinforce CPET as a tool for functional phenotyping and identification of the main determinants of exercise intolerance. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> summarizes the key parameters of the examination and their clinical reference values.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Main variables of the cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET), their pathophysiological significance, and clinical cutoff/reference values</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Variable (CPET)</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Physiopathological significance</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Cutoff value / clinical reference</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Peak VO<sub>2</sub> (mL/kg/min)</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">It reflects the maximum oxygen consumption and overall performance of the heart pump; it integrates cardiac output, perfusion, and muscle metabolism.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">≤14 mL/kg/min (without beta-blocker) or ≤12 mL/kg/min (with beta-blocker): severe limitation and transplant criterion.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>O<sub>2</sub> pulse (VO<sub>2</sub>/HR)</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">It expresses the effective stroke volume and O<sub>2</sub> transport capacity; flattening indicates central limitation.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&lt;85% of predicted or flattened curve: ventricular dysfunction / low SV</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">It measures ventilatory efficiency and ventilation-perfusion coupling; high values indicate compensatory hyperventilation.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;34 (moderate inefficiency); <break/>&gt;45 (high risk).</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>RER (VCO<sub>2</sub>/VO</bold><sub>2</sub>)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">It indicates the degree of effort and the predominant metabolic activity (aerobic vs. anaerobic).</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">≥1.05: maximum effort; <break/>&lt;1.05: consider submaximal.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Ventilatory reserve (%MVV)</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">This represents the lung recruitment margin; low values suggest ventilatory limitation.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&lt;15–20%: ventilatory limitation.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Anaerobic threshold (VT1)</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">It defines the metabolic transition point and exercise tolerance; reduced in peripheral limitation.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&lt;40% of predicted VO<sub>2</sub>: low functional capacity.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>OUES</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Quantifies the overall efficiency of O<sub>2</sub> uptake; useful in submaximal tests.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&lt;1.4 (low); &lt;1.0 indicates severe inefficiency.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>VO<sub>2</sub> recovery kinetics</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">It reflects the rate of energy restitution and muscle mitochondrial function.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VO<sub>2</sub> takes &gt;90 s to reduce by 50%: abnormal recovery.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>ΔPCP in effort</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">It estimates dynamic congestion and diastolic compliance.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Increase ≥5 mmHg: typical of HFpEF.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Heart rate and chronotropic response</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">They indicate the autonomic reserve and responsiveness of the sinus node.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Chronotropic incompetence: Heart rate &lt;80% of predicted or attenuated curve.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><p>VO<sub>2</sub>: oxygen consumption; HR: heart rate; VE: ventilation; VCO<sub>2</sub>: carbon dioxide production; VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope: CO<sub>2</sub> ventilatory efficiency; RER: respiratory exchange ratio; MVV: maximum voluntary ventilation; OUES: oxygen ventilatory efficiency; ΔPCWP: change in pulmonary capillary wedge pressure; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> shows the main variables of the CPET, their pathophysiological significance, and clinical cutoff/reference values.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Practical interpretation of the CPET</title>
<p>CPET may seem complex, but its interpretation can be systematized through a few fundamental steps (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Diagram for interpreting the cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) in heart failure (HF). The seven steps summarize the integrated analysis of the CPET, including peak exercise oxygen consumption (VO<sub>2</sub> peak), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), slope of the ventilation/minute-carbon dioxide production relationship (VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope), ventilatory reserve (VR), oxygen pulse (O<sub>2</sub> pulse), chronotropic response (CR), and clinical-hemodynamic integration. VE: ventilation/minute; VCO<sub>2</sub>: carbon dioxide production; VO<sub>2</sub>: oxygen consumption.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-005-03-e20250040-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>These parameters can be interpreted as a &quot;functional map of heart failure&quot;, capable of distinguishing limitations of central, ventilatory, or peripheral origin (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p><bold>Central route:</bold> Peak VO<sub>2</sub> expresses the maximum limit of oxygen consumption and summarizes the overall performance of the heart pump, while the O<sub>2</sub> pulse (VO<sub>2</sub>/HR) represents the effective stroke volume during exertion. It is important to highlight that, in the central pathway, the ventilatory reserve is generally normal; however, the ventilatory efficiency of CO<sub>2</sub> (VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope) is usually increased, as its alteration derives from cardiocirculatory imbalance—and not from pulmonary limitation—reflecting the severity of HF (prognostic value: the higher, the worse).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Ventilation route:</bold></p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>The VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope quantifies the ventilatory efficiency in eliminating carbon dioxide (the lower the ventilation required to eliminate CO<sub>2</sub>, the more efficient the system);</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>The respiratory exchange ratio (RER), which at rest is typically 0.7–0.8, indicates the degree of exertion and the predominant metabolic activity (aerobic or anaerobic);</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Ventilatory reserve (VR) reflects the range of lung recruitment at the end of exercise, and is useful for identifying patterns of ventilatory inefficiency and ventilation-perfusion mismatch, usually associated with ventilatory limitation or concomitant lung disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p></list-item>
</list></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Peripheral route:</bold></p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>The anaerobic threshold (VT1 or LV1) marks the beginning of the anaerobic metabolic contribution;</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Oxygen uptake ventilation efficiency (OUES) estimates the overall efficiency of oxygen uptake, even in submaximal tests;</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>VO<sub>2</sub> recovery kinetics reflect the rate of energy restitution and muscle mitochondrial performance, characterizing peripheral metabolic efficiency.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p></list-item></list></list-item>
</list>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption><title>Central, ventilatory, and peripheral limitations for exercise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Limitation</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Main structure</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Key parameters</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Central</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Heart (CO and chronotropic response)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reduced peak VO<sub>2</sub> <break/>Flattened O<sub>2</sub> pulse Inadequate chronotropic response</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Ventilatory</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Lungs (gas exchange, ventilation, and ventilation/perfusion ratio)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Elevated VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope Ventilation disproportionate to the effort. <break/>Reduced ventilatory reserve</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Peripheral</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Skeletal muscle (extraction and oxidative metabolism)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Early anaerobic threshold <break/>Reduced metabolic efficiency Slow VO<sub>2</sub> recovery</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2"><p>CO: cardiac output; VO<sub>2</sub>: oxygen consumption; VE: ventilation; VECO<sub>2</sub>: carbon dioxide production; VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope: ventilatory efficiency of carbon dioxide.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>The Brazilian study by Costa RVC et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> demonstrated a significant correlation between functional class according to the New York Heart Association (NYHA) and CPET parameters, reinforcing the usefulness of the test to refine daily clinical assessment.</p>
<p>Furthermore, recent reviews emphasize that the CPET complements clinical judgment and should not be replaced by isolated hemodynamic indices, as per Motiwala &amp; Nayor.¹² Peak VO<sub>2</sub> remains the main marker of aerobic capacity and clinical outcome in all forms of HF.¹³ However, complementary variables — especially VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope, OUES, O<sub>2</sub> pulse, and chronotropic response — add independent prognostic value, even when the effort is submaximal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recent studies reinforce this importance. The VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope, according to Guazzi et al.³ and Buber &amp; Robertson,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> is the ventilatory marker with the highest isolated predictive value for mortality in both forms of HF. A slope above 34 indicates significant ventilatory inefficiency, and values above 45 reflect advanced dysfunction and an increased risk of hospitalization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<p>The OUES was revalued by Chiang et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> who demonstrated its independent prognostic power, especially when indexed to body surface area.</p>
<p>The O<sub>2</sub> pulse, in turn, indirectly reflects stroke volume and is particularly useful in patients on beta-blockers, whose chronotropic response is attenuated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Finally, studies by Edward et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> and Naito et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> showed that combining CPET with invasive hemodynamics or stress echocardiography increases diagnostic and prognostic accuracy, allowing differentiation between dynamic congestion and ventilatory limitation.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Differences in the interpretation of cardiopulmonary exercise testing between HFrEF and HFpEF</title>
<p>The CPET allows distinguishing limiting mechanisms in the two main forms of HF — HFrEF and HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>In HFrEF, a central limitation predominates, characterized by peak VO<sub>2</sub> &lt;14 mL/kg/min, flattened O<sub>2</sub> pulse, attenuated chronotropic response, and VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope &gt;40–45.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> There is slow recovery of VO<sub>2</sub> and a disproportionate increase in ventilation, phenomena associated with contractile dysfunction and greater neuro-hormonal activation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>In HFpEF, VO<sub>2</sub> is usually moderately reduced (13–16 mL/kg/min), the O<sub>2</sub> pulse tends to be preserved, and ΔPCWP increases &gt;5 mmHg, reflecting dynamic congestion and diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The anaerobic threshold occurs early, and ventilatory efficiency is only moderately compromised.</p>
<p>Thus, while HFrEF shows a predominantly cardiocirculatory pattern, HFpEF presents a hemodynamic-peripheral pattern, useful for therapeutic stratification and transplant decision.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>CPET and new therapies for HF</title>
<p>CPET has become a sensitive tool for detecting early functional benefits of new therapies, often before significant structural cardiac changes occur.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (iSGLT2) and hemodynamics</title>
<p>Borlaug et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> demonstrated that dapagliflozin reduces left ventricular filling pressures at rest and during exercise, even without an immediate increase in peak VO<sub>2</sub>. These findings indicate hemodynamic and ventricular compliance improvement, rather than direct aerobic gain.</p>
<p>Subsequently, Takahashi &amp; Fukumoto<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> confirmed this effect, highlighting autonomic stability and metabolic improvement, reinforcing that the benefit of CPET may reflect cardiac efficiency rather than maximum power.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) and metabolism</title>
<p>In the STEP-ICFEP study, Borlaug et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> observed that semaglutide promoted a significant improvement in the 6-minute walk distance (6MWT) and in the quality of life score (KCCQ-CSS), correlating with weight loss and metabolic improvement. Although peak VO<sub>2</sub> remained stable, the CPET revealed improved ventilatory efficiency and early cardiovascular adaptation, demonstrating the sensitivity of the method to detect submaximal responses.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Neprilysin and Angiotensin Receptor Inhibitor (INRA) and verify</title>
<p>The REAL.IT study, conducted by Sarullo et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> showed improved functional capacity with the use of sacubitril/valsartan. Similarly, Zhan et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> showed parallel results with vericiguat, reinforcing the role of the CPET as a pharmacodynamic monitoring tool.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Combined impact</title>
<p>Recent reviews by Baracchini et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> and Campodonico et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> have consolidated the role of the CPET as an instrument capable of detecting early physiological responses to modern therapies based on hemodynamic and metabolic mechanisms.</p>
<p>More recently, Puttini et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> emphasized that integrating CPET parameters with biomarkers and hemodynamic data allows for personalized therapeutic monitoring, offering an integrated functional assessment of clinical evolution.</p>
<p>In summary, CPET allows for the quantification of integrated therapeutic responses, reflecting improvements in filling pressure, ventilatory efficiency, and exercise tolerance, even when peak absolute VO<sub>2</sub> does not change.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Risk stratification and heart transplantation</title>
<p>The most recent guideline from the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT 2024) reinforced the CPET as a cornerstone in the evaluation of candidates for heart transplantation (Tx).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> The updated criteria include peak VO<sub>2</sub> thresholds ≤12–14 mL/kg/min (adjusted for beta-blocker use) and VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope ≥35 as classic indicators of high risk and worse prognosis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Table 3</label>
<caption><title>Summary of cardiopulmonary exercise test parameters that support inclusion on the transplant list in different populations (ISHLT 2024<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup>)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Patient population</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parameter that supports inclusion on the transplant list.</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>With beta-blockers</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">A lower cutoff value for VO<sub>2</sub> max is indicative of inclusion on the transplant list, generally ≤12 ml/kg/min.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>No beta-blockers</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">A higher peak VO<sub>2</sub> can be considered a factor that favors inclusion on the transplant list, generally ≤14 ml/kg/min.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Patients with obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m<sub>2</sub>)</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VO<sub>2</sub> max adjusted for lean body mass ≤19 ml/kg/min</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Everyone, especially if CPET is submaximal.</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope &gt;35</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Women or patients ≤50 or ≥70 years old</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Peak VO<sub>2</sub> ≤ 50% of predicted</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3"><p>BMI: body mass index; CPET: cardiopulmonary exercise test; VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>: minute ventilation/carbon dioxide production. Maximum CPET: respiratory quotient (RER) &gt;1.05 and reaching the anaerobic threshold.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Studies by Landsteiner et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> and Brawner &amp; Lazar<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> confirm that these parameters remain the most reliable markers of mortality and need for Tx in patients with advanced HF.</p>
<p>Furthermore, Brás et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> showed that the use of sex-adjusted predicted percentages can correct for eligibility bias, especially in women, optimizing the selection for advanced therapies.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Contemporary advances</title>
<sec>
<title>Rehabilitation and training guided by CPET</title>
<p>Cardiac rehabilitation has evolved from generic protocols to individualized programs based on objective CPET data. Aerobic training prescribed according to ventilatory thresholds (VT1 and VT2) improves peak VO<sub>2</sub>, VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope, and quality of life.</p>
<p>Recent studies — Sakellaropoulos &amp; Mitsis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> and Sugita et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> — confirm the benefit of structured rehabilitation in patients with chronic HF, including those with HFpEF.</p>
<p>The OptimEx-Clin trial, conducted by Mueller et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> demonstrated that combined and interval training (HIIT) modalities provide superior VO<sub>2</sub> gains compared to moderate continuous exercise, particularly for patients with chronotropic incompetence.</p>
<p>Furthermore, serial analysis of the CPET allows monitoring of autonomic and ventilatory recovery. Velmeden et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> showed that slow heart rate recovery (HRR) after exertion reflects autonomic dysfunction and predicts worse survival. Similarly, Nasser et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> documented significant improvement in chronotropic response and peak VO<sub>2</sub> after supervised training, reinforcing the CPET as a guide for personalized rehabilitation.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Contemporary phenotyping and new pathophysiological frontiers</title>
<p>The CPET has become established as an integrated phenotyping tool, allowing the distinction between hemodynamic, ventilatory, and peripheral mechanisms of exercise limitation. In the study by Miller et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> four exercise response clusters were identified: (1) efficient, with good O<sub>2</sub> uptake and recovery; (2) ventilatory, marked by high VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> and reduced ventilatory reserve; (3) peripheral, with low peak VO<sub>2</sub> and reduced OUES; and (4) central, characterized by a flattened O<sub>2</sub> pulse and attenuated chronotropism. These patterns showed significant differences in mortality and HF progression (worse for central and peripheral), reinforcing the role of CPET in the individualized physiological classification of patients.</p>
<p>In a complementary way, in the study by Skow et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> the reduction in peripheral oxygen extraction was directly quantified by the smaller arteriovenous O<sub>2</sub> difference, while ventilatory inefficiency was identified by an elevated VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope and reduced end-expiratory partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PETCO<sub>2</sub>), demonstrating that the limitation of effort in HFpEF is mainly due to peripheral and ventilatory mechanisms. The combination of CPET with biological and molecular markers, as demonstrated by Shah et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> and Dixon et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> revealed that alterations in inflammatory (Interleukin-6, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha, C-reactive protein), metabolic [carnitine, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and oxidized and reduced adenine (NAD<sup>+</sup>/NADH)] and cardiac [N-terminal B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), galectin-3] biomarkers are associated with distinct patterns of functional limitation. This integration defines the concept of exercise-based molecular phenotyping, allowing the identification of physiological subgroups and guiding more personalized therapies in HF.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Artificial intelligence and machine learning</title>
<p>The study by Kato et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> demonstrated that machine learning models applied to submaximal parameters of CPET (VO<sub>2</sub> at the anaerobic threshold, VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>, HR, and OUES) predict exercise intolerance with &gt;85% accuracy, even without maximal effort. These approaches allow for the early identification of high-risk patients and the automation of complex cardiopulmonary exercise test interpretations in high-volume clinical settings.</p>
<p>Tepetes et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> proposed integrating the CPET with clinical and laboratory variables in artificial intelligence models to predict progression to advanced HF. The algorithm, which included peak VO<sub>2</sub>, VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope, O<sub>2</sub> pulse, NT-proBNP, and functional class, showed superior accuracy to traditional clinical scores, allowing for early identification of at-risk patients and optimizing the timing of referral to advanced therapies such as transplantation or ventricular assist.</p>
<p>The convergence of CPET, artificial intelligence, and multimodal data represents one of the main frontiers of personalized medicine in HF.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Cardiopulmonary exercise testing in acute HF and in the post-hospitalization period</title>
<p>Traditionally, CPET was reserved for clinically stable patients; however, recent evidence demonstrates its usefulness soon after hospital discharge, when there is hemodynamic stability and absence of active congestion.</p>
<p>Ding et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> showed that serial CPET during early rehabilitation in decompensated HF detects progressive improvement in peak VO<sub>2</sub> and ventilatory efficiency, reflecting hemodynamic and muscle recovery in the first weeks post-discharge. Chen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> complemented these findings, showing that simple variables derived from CPET can predict early readmissions and mortality, guiding clinical follow-up and therapeutic adjustments. Furthermore, Zimerman et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> and Hosoda et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> observed that patients with mild or recovering HF exhibit subclinical changes in VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> and O<sub>2</sub> pulse, which precede detectable functional decline, reinforcing CPET as a post-decompensation surveillance tool.</p>
<p>Therefore, post-hospitalization CPET should be viewed as an early functional surveillance strategy, capable of anticipating deterioration, adjusting therapies, and guiding rehabilitation based on ventilatory thresholds and chronotropic response.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Extracardiac conditions and CPET</title>
<p>In patients with associated chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, recent reviews demonstrate that dynamic hyperinflation and early ventilatory limitation reduce performance on CPET, with increased VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> and disproportionate dyspnea, potentially simulating or masking cardiac dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> In advanced HF scenarios, systemic comorbidities such as renal and hepatic disease and metabolic disorders contribute to a reduction in overall functional reserve, resulting in low peak VO<sub>2</sub> regardless of isolated ventricular function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Furthermore, cachexia and sarcopenia, mediated by chronic inflammation, reduce peripheral muscle mass and efficiency, compromising oxygen extraction and leading to significant changes in CPET even with relatively preserved hemodynamics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Conditions such as anemia/iron deficiency and renal disease tend to reduce peak VO<sub>2</sub> predominantly due to peripheral limitation and reduced oxygen transport/utilization capacity; obesity reduces weight-relative VO<sub>2</sub> and may mask hemodynamic severity; Pulmonary disease increases the VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> slope and reduces PETCO<sub>2</sub> due to increased dead space and V/Q mismatch; while diabetes, cancer, and frailty accentuate muscle inefficiency and exercise intolerance, with an additional impact on O<sub>2</sub>-pulse and VO<sub>2</sub> kinetics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Therefore, the interpretation of cardiac output in HF should be integrated and phenotyped, using multiple variables to differentiate primary cardiac limitation from the dominant effects of comorbidities, with direct implications for prognostic stratification and therapeutic decision-making.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>CPET has become the primary tool for functional and prognostic assessment in HF. More than just measuring oxygen consumption, cardiopulmonary exercise testing reflects the interaction between the heart, lungs, and peripheral muscles, offering an integrated view of the patient.</p>
<p>In the modern era of HF — marked by multimodal therapies, advanced phenotyping, and personalized medicine — the CPET remains the physiological benchmark that guides clinical decision-making, directs treatment, stratifies risk, and anticipates prognosis.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Sources of Funding</label>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>Study Association</label>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</label>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<name><surname>Martin</surname><given-names>ZT</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Identifying the Mechanisms of a Peripherally Limited Exercise Phenotype in Patients With Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
<source>Circ Heart Fail</source>
<year>2024</year>
<month>08</month>
<volume>17</volume>
<issue>8</issue>
<elocation-id>e011693</elocation-id>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Skow RJ, Sarma S, MacNamara JP, Bartlett MF, Wakeham DJ, Martin ZT, et al. Identifying the Mechanisms of a Peripherally Limited Exercise Phenotype in Patients With Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction. Circ Heart Fail. 2024 Aug;17(8):e011693. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.</mixed-citation>
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<label>49</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Piepoli</surname><given-names>MF</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Corrà</surname><given-names>U</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Agostoni</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing in Patients with Heart Failure with Specific Comorbidities</article-title>
<source>Ann Am Thorac Soc</source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>14</volume>
<issue>Supplement_1</issue>
<fpage>S110</fpage>
<lpage>S115</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1513/AnnalsATS.201610-803FR</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Piepoli MF, Corrà U, Agostoni P. Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing in Patients with Heart Failure with Specific Comorbidities. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2017;14(Supplement_1):S110-5. doi: 10.1513/AnnalsATS.201610-803FR.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20250040</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Teste Cardiopulmonar na Insuficiência Cardíaca: Atualizando a Teoria para a Prática Clínica</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5959-9359</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rossi</surname><given-names>João Manoel</given-names><suffix>Neto</suffix></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>Análise estatística e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Rossi</surname><given-names>Raphael Machado</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Mattos</surname><given-names>Victor B. M.</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7545-2683</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Wolf</surname><given-names>Plinio J. W.</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Finger</surname><given-names>Marco Aurelio A.</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Santos</surname><given-names>Carolina Casadei dos</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Grupo Fleury, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>João Manoel Rossi Neto</bold> • Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia – Av. Dante Pazzanese, 500. CEP <postal-code>04012-909</postal-code>, São Paulo, SP- Brasil E-mail: <email>jmrossi@sti.com.br</email>
</corresp>
<fn fn-type="coi-statement"><label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label><p>Germano Souza</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>O teste cardiopulmonar de exercício (TCP) é uma das ferramentas centrais na avaliação funcional da insuficiência cardíaca (IC), integrando respostas cardiovasculares, ventilatórias e metabólicas em um único exame. À luz das evidências publicadas entre 2023 e 2025, seu papel diagnóstico e prognóstico foi ampliado, incorporando fundamentos fisiopatológicos mais refinados, parâmetros submáximos e critérios atualizados para transplante cardíaco segundo a ISHLT 2024. Nesta revisão narrativa, baseada em estudos indexados no PubMed, consensos internacionais e análises contemporâneas, são abordados os principais mecanismos de limitação ao exercício na IC com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFER) e preservada (ICFEP), bem como a relevância clínica das variáveis-chave do TCP, incluindo VO<sub>2</sub> pico, inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>, OUES, pulso de O<sub>2</sub>, resposta cronotrópica e cinética de recuperação do VO<sub>2</sub>.</p>
<p>O conjunto das evidências confirma que o TCP é a ferramenta mais abrangente para caracterizar limitação cardiocirculatória, ventilatória e periférica, mantendo o VO<sub>2</sub> pico reduzido e a inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> elevada como os marcadores prognósticos mais robustos, inclusive em testes submáximos. Estudos recentes demonstram ainda que terapias emergentes — como inibidores de SGLT2, ARNI e agonistas de GLP-1 — promovem benefícios funcionais detectáveis pelo TCP antes de alterações estruturais cardíacas, destacando seu papel como monitor de resposta terapêutica. Adicionalmente, o TCP permanece fundamental na estratificação de risco e na tomada de decisão para transplante, seguindo os limiares atualizados pela ISHLT. Assim, o exame se consolida como instrumento essencial na prática moderna da IC, integrando diagnóstico, prognóstico e monitoramento terapêutico, além de orientar estratégias de reabilitação e seleção de terapias avançadas.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Teste de Esforço</kwd>
<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
<kwd>Prognóstico</kwd>
<kwd>Reabilitação Cardíaca</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>

</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f3">
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-005-03-e20250040-gf01-pt.tif"/>
<p>Representação integrada do papel do teste cardiopulmonar de exercício (TCP) na insuficiência cardíaca (IC). O TCP integra respostas centrais, ventilatórias e periféricas, permitindo avaliação funcional em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFER) e preservada (ICFEP). Variáveis-chave, como consumo de oxigênio no pico do exercício (VO<sub>2</sub> pico), inclinação da relação ventilação/minuto-produção de dióxido de carbono (inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>) e pulso de oxigênio (pulso de O<sub>2</sub>), sustentam a estratificação prognóstica e a identificação de candidatos ao transplante segundo a International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT) 2024 (VO<sub>2</sub> pico ≤12–14 mL/kg/min; inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> ≥35). A figura também ilustra novas aplicações do TCP, incluindo a avaliação de resposta a inibidores do cotransportador sódio-glicose 2 (iSGLT2), inibidores do receptor de angiotensina e neprilisina (ARNI) e agonistas do receptor do peptídeo semelhante ao glucagon tipo 1 (GLP-1), além de abordagens baseadas em inteligência artificial (IA). VE: ventilação/minuto; VCO<sub>2</sub>: produção de dióxido de carbono; VO<sub>2</sub>: consumo de oxigênio</p>
</fig>
<sec>
<title>Aspectos históricos</title>
<p>O teste cardiopulmonar de exercício (TCP) começou a ser aplicado clinicamente nas décadas de 1960–1970, quando Wasserman et al.¹ sistematizaram os princípios ventilatórios e introduziram o conceito de integração cardiorrespiratória. Na cardiologia, consolidou-se nos anos 1980 após Weber e Janicki² demonstrarem o valor prognóstico do consumo de oxigênio (VO<sub>2</sub>) pico na insuficiência cardíaca (IC). Desde então, o TCP evoluiu de ferramenta diagnóstica para instrumento central prognóstico e terapêutico. Publicações contemporâneas, como as de Guazzi et al.³ e Puttini et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> reafirmaram seu papel de padrão-ouro na avaliação funcional integrada, incluindo pacientes estáveis, em fases avançadas ou pós-reabilitação.</p>
<sec>
<title>Fundamentos fisiopatológicos da limitação ao exercício</title>
<p>O TCP avalia o VO<sub>2</sub> segundo a equação de Fick, VO<sub>2</sub> = [débito cardíaco (DC) × extração periférica de oxigênio (CaO<sub>2</sub> – CvO<sub>2</sub>)] integrando DC e (CaO<sub>2</sub>–CvO<sub>2</sub>).O DC — determinado pela frequência cardíaca (FC) e volume sistólico (VS) — representa a contribuição central, enquanto a ventilação adequada garante trocas gasosas eficientes; alterações mecânicas ou aumento do espaço morto podem gerar desajuste ventilação–perfusão. Assim, o VO<sub>2</sub> reflete de forma integrada a função cardíaca, a ventilação pulmonar e o metabolismo muscular<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
<p>Na IC, a limitação ao esforço s caracteriza por VO<sub>2</sub> pico reduzido, eficiência ventilatória de gás carbônico (CO<sub>2</sub>) (inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>) elevada, pulso de O<sub>2</sub> (VO<sub>2</sub>/FC) achatado, incompetência cronotrópica e esforço limitado. Evidências recentes detalharam mecanismos distintos: na IC com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFER), o TCP invasivo mostra aumento das pressões de enchimento e ineficiência ventilatória, indicando disfunção contrátil.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Na IC com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEP), destaca-se a congestão dinâmica com variação na alteração da pressão capilar pulmonar (ΔPCP) ≥5 mmHg,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> além de perfis específicos como o <italic>engine–chassis mismatch</italic> em obesos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> limitação submáxima precoce<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> e impacto da qualidade muscular na tolerância ao exercício.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Esses achados reforçam o TCP como ferramenta de fenotipagem funcional e identificação dos principais determinantes da intolerância ao esforço. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref> resume os parâmetros-chave do exame e seus valores clínicos de referência.</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Principais variáveis do teste cardiopulmonar de exercício, seus significados fisiopatológicos e valores de corte/referência clínica</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Variável (TCP)</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Significado fisiopatológico</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Valor de corte / referência clínica</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VO<sub>2</sub> pico (mL/kg/min)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reflete o consumo máximo de oxigênio e o desempenho global da bomba cardíaca; integra débito cardíaco, perfusão e metabolismo muscular.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">≤14 mL/kg/min (sem betabloqueador) ou ≤12 mL/kg/min (com betabloqueador): limitação grave e critério de transplante.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pulso de O<sub>2</sub> (VO<sub>2</sub>/FC)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Expressa o volume sistólico efetivo e a capacidade de transporte de O<sub>2</sub>; achatamento indica limitação central.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&lt;85% do predito ou curva achatada: disfunção ventricular / baixo VS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Mede a eficiência ventilatória e o acoplamento ventilação–perfusão; valores altos indicam hiperventilação compensatória.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;34 (ineficiência moderada); <break/>&gt;45 (alto risco).</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">RER <break/>(VCO<sub>2</sub>/VO<sub>2</sub>)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indica o grau de esforço e o predomínio metabólico (aeróbico vs. anaeróbico).</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">≥1,05: esforço máximo; <break/>&lt;1,05: considerar submáximo.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reserva ventilatória (%VVM)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Representa a margem de recrutamento pulmonar; valores baixos sugerem limitação ventilatória.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&lt;15–20%: limitação ventilatória.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Limiar anaeróbico (VT1)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Define o ponto de transição metabólica e a tolerância ao exercício; reduzido em limitação periférica.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&lt;40% do VO<sub>2</sub> predito: baixa capacidade funcional.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">OUES</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Quantifica a eficiência global da captação de O<sub>2</sub>; útil em testes submáximos.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">&lt;1,4 (baixo); &lt;1,0 indica grave ineficiência.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cinética de recuperação do VO<sub>2</sub></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Reflete a taxa de restituição energética e a função mitocondrial muscular.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VO<sub>2</sub> demora &gt;90s para reduzir 50%: recuperação anormal.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">ΔPCP no esforço</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Estima a congestão dinâmica e a complacência diastólica.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aumento ≥5 mmHg: típico de ICFEP.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">FC e resposta cronotrópica</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Indicam a reserva autonômica e a capacidade de resposta do nó sinusal.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Incompetência cronotrópica: FC &lt;80% do predito ou curva atenuada.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4"><p>TCP: teste cardiopulmonar de exercício; VO<sub>2</sub>: consumo de oxigênio; FC: frequência cardíaca; VE: ventilação; VCO<sub>2</sub>: produção de gás carbônico; Inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>: eficiência ventilatória de CO<sub>2</sub>; RER: razão de trocas gasosas; VVM: ventilação voluntária máxima; OUES: eficiência ventilatória de O<sub>2</sub>; ΔPCP: variação na alteração da pressão capilar pulmonar ICFEP: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 1</xref> mostra as principais variáveis do TCP, seu significado fisiopatológico e valores de corte/referência clínica.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Interpretação prática do TCP</title>
<p>O TCP pode parecer complexo, mas sua interpretação pode ser sistematizada a partir de alguns passos fundamentais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Diagrama de interpretação do teste cardiopulmonar de exercício (TCP) na insuficiência cardíaca (IC). Os sete passos resumem a análise integrada do TCP, incluindo o consumo de oxigênio no pico do exercício (VO<sub>2</sub> pico), a razão de troca respiratória (respiratory exchange ratio, RER), a inclinação da relação ventilação/minuto-produção de dióxido de carbono (inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>), a reserva ventilatória (RV), o pulso de oxigênio (pulso de O<sub>2</sub>), a resposta cronotrópica (RC) e a integração clínico-hemodinâmica. VE: ventilação/minuto; VCO<sub>2</sub>: produção de dióxido de carbono; VO<sub>2</sub>: consumo de oxigênio.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-005-03-e20250040-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Esses parâmetros podem ser interpretados como um &quot;mapa funcional da insuficiência cardíaca&quot;, capaz de distinguir limitações de origem <bold>central</bold>, <bold>ventilatória</bold> ou <bold>periférica</bold> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p><bold>Rota central:</bold> o VO<sub>2</sub> pico expressa o limite máximo de consumo de oxigênio e sintetiza o desempenho global da bomba cardíaca, enquanto o pulso de O<sub>2</sub> (VO<sub>2</sub>/FC) representa o volume sistólico efetivo durante o esforço. Importante destacar que, na rota central, a reserva ventilatória geralmente é normal; ainda assim, a eficiência ventilatória de CO<sub>2</sub> (inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>) costuma estar aumentada, pois sua alteração deriva do desequilíbrio cardiocirculatório — e não de limitação pulmonar — refletindo a gravidade da IC (valor prognóstico: quanto maior, pior).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Rota ventilatória:</bold></p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>a inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> quantifica a eficiência ventilatória na eliminação de dióxido de carbono (quanto menor a ventilação necessária para eliminar CO<sub>2</sub>, mais eficiente é o sistema);</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>a razão de trocas respiratórias (RER), que em repouso é tipicamente 0,7–0,8, indica o grau de esforço e o predomínio metabólico (aeróbico ou anaeróbico);</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>a reserva ventilatória (RV) reflete a margem de recrutamento pulmonar ao final do exercício, sendo útil para identificar padrões de ineficiência ventilatória e desajuste ventilação–perfusão, geralmente associados à limitação ventilatória ou à doença pulmonar concomitante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p></list-item></list></list-item>
<list-item><p><bold>Rota periférica:</bold></p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>o limiar anaeróbico (VT1 ou LV1) marca o início da contribuição metabólica anaeróbica;</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>a eficiência ventilatória de O<sub>2</sub> (OUES) estima a eficiência global da captação de O<sub>2</sub>, mesmo em testes submáximos;</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>a cinética de recuperação do VO<sub>2</sub> reflete a taxa de restituição energética e o desempenho mitocondrial muscular, caracterizando a eficiência metabólica periférica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p></list-item></list></list-item></list>
<table-wrap id="t5">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption><title>Limitações de origem central, ventilatória e periférica para o exercício<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Limitação</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Estrutura principal</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetros-chave</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Central</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coração (DC e resposta cronotrópica)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VO<sub>2</sub> pico reduzido <break/>Pulso de O<sub>2</sub> achatado <break/>Resposta cronotrópica inadequada</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ventilatória</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pulmões (trocas gasosas, ventilação e relação ventilação/perfusão)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> elevada <break/>Ventilação desproporcional ao esforço <break/>Reserva ventilatória reduzida</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Periférica</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Músculo esquelético (extração e metabolismo oxidativo)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Limiar anaeróbico precoce <break/>Redução da eficiência metabólica <break/>Recuperação de VO<sub>2</sub> lenta</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN5"><p>DC: débito cardíaco; VO<sub>2</sub>: consumo de oxigênio; VE: ventilação; VECO<sub>2</sub>: produção de gás carbônico; Inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>: eficiência ventilatória de gás carbônico.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>O estudo brasileiro de Costa RVC et al.¹¹ demonstrou correlação significativa entre classe funcional pela <italic>New York Heart Association</italic> (NYHA) e parâmetros do TCP, reforçando a utilidade do exame para refinar a avaliação clínica cotidiana.</p>
<p>Além disso, revisões recentes enfatizam que o TCP complementa o julgamento clínico e não deve ser substituído por índices hemodinâmicos isolados, conforme Motiwala &amp; Nayor.¹² O VO<sub>2</sub> pico continua sendo o principal marcador da capacidade aeróbica e do desfecho clínico em todas as formas de IC.¹³ Entretanto, variáveis complementares — especialmente inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>, OUES, pulso de O<sub>2</sub> e resposta cronotrópica — agregam valor prognóstico independente, mesmo quando o esforço é submáximo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Estudos recentes reforçam essa importância. A inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>, segundo Guazzi et al.³ e Buber e Robertson,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> é o marcador ventilatório de maior valor preditivo isolado de mortalidade em ambas as formas de IC. A inclinação acima de 34 indica ineficiência ventilatória significativa, e valores acima de 45 refletem disfunção avançada e risco aumentado de hospitalização.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<p>O OUES foi revalorizado por Chiang et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> que demonstraram seu poder prognóstico independente, sobretudo quando indexado à superfície corporal.</p>
<p>O pulso de O<sub>2</sub>, por sua vez, reflete indiretamente o volume sistólico e é particularmente útil em pacientes sob betabloqueador, cuja resposta cronotrópica está atenuada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Por fim, os estudos de Edward et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> e Naito et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> mostraram que a combinação do TCP com hemodinâmica invasiva ou ecocardiografia de esforço amplia a acurácia diagnóstica e prognóstica, permitindo distinguir congestão dinâmica da limitação ventilatória.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Diferenças na interpretação do teste cardiopulmonar entre ICFER e ICFEP</title>
<p>O TCP permite distinguir mecanismos limitantes nas duas principais formas de IC — ICFER e ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na ICFER, predomina uma limitação central, caracterizada por VO<sub>2</sub> pico &lt;14 mL/kg/min, pulso de O<sub>2</sub> achatado, resposta cronotrópica atenuada e inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>&gt;40–45.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Há recuperação lenta do VO<sub>2</sub> e aumento desproporcional da ventilação, fenômenos associados à disfunção contrátil e maior ativação neuro-hormonal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na ICFEP, o VO<sub>2</sub> costuma estar moderadamente reduzido (13–16 mL/kg/min), o pulso de O<sub>2</sub> tende a ser preservado e o ΔPCP aumenta &gt;5 mmHg, refletindo congestão dinâmica e disfunção diastólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> O limiar anaeróbico ocorre precocemente, e a eficiência ventilatória é apenas moderadamente comprometida.</p>
<p>Assim, enquanto a ICFER mostra um padrão predominantemente cardiocirculatório, a ICFEP apresenta um padrão hemodinâmico-periférico, útil para estratificação terapêutica e decisão de transplante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>TCP e novas terapias para IC</title>
<p>O TCP se tornou uma ferramenta sensível para detectar benefícios funcionais precoces de novas terapias, muitas vezes antes que ocorram alterações estruturais cardíacas significativas.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Inibidores do cotransportador sódio-glicose 2 (iSGLT<sub>2</sub>) e hemodinâmica</title>
<p>Borlaug et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> demonstraram que a dapagliflozina reduz as pressões de enchimento ventricular esquerdo em repouso e durante o exercício, mesmo sem aumento imediato do VO<sub>2</sub> pico. Esses achados indicam melhora hemodinâmica e de complacência ventricular, mais do que ganho aeróbico direto.</p>
<p>Posteriormente, Takahashi &amp; Fukumoto<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> confirmaram esse efeito, destacando estabilidade autonômica e melhora metabólica, reforçando que o benefício do TCP pode refletir eficiência cardíaca mais do que potência máxima.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Agonistas do receptor de GLP-1 (GLP-1RA) e metabolismo</title>
<p>No estudo STEP-ICFEP, Borlaug et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> observaram que a semaglutida promoveu melhora significativa na distância de caminhada de 6 minutos (TC6M) e no escore de qualidade de vida (KCCQ-CSS), correlacionando-se com perda ponderal e melhora metabólica. Embora o VO<sub>2</sub> pico permanecesse estável, o TCP revelou melhoria da eficiência ventilatória e adaptação cardiovascular precoce, demonstrando a sensibilidade do método para detectar respostas submáximas.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Inibidor da Neprilisina e do Receptor de Angiotensina (INRA) e vericiguat</title>
<p>O estudo REAL.IT, conduzido por Sarullo et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> evidenciou melhora da capacidade funcional com o uso de sacubitril/valsartana. De forma semelhante, Zhan et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> mostraram resultados paralelos com vericiguat, reforçando o papel do TCP como ferramenta de monitoramento farmacodinâmico.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Impacto combinado</title>
<p>Revisões recentes de Baracchini et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> e Campodonico et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> consolidaram o papel do TCP como instrumento capaz de detectar respostas fisiológicas precoces às terapias modernas baseadas em mecanismos hemodinâmicos e metabólicos.</p>
<p>Mais recentemente, Puttini et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> enfatizaram que a integração de parâmetros do TCP com biomarcadores e dados hemodinâmicos permite personalizar o monitoramento terapêutico, oferecendo uma avaliação funcional integrada da evolução clínica.</p>
<p>Em síntese, o TCP permite quantificar respostas terapêuticas integradas, refletindo melhora da pressão de enchimento, eficiência ventilatória e tolerância ao esforço, mesmo quando o VO<sub>2</sub> pico absoluto não se altera.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Estratificação de risco e transplante cardíaco</title>
<p>A diretriz mais recente da <italic>International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation</italic> (ISHLT 2024) reforçou o TCP como pilar na avaliação de candidatos ao transplante cardíaco (Tx).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Os critérios atualizados incluem limiares de VO<sub>2</sub> pico ≤12–14 mL/kg/min (ajustados pelo uso de betabloqueador) e inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> ≥35 como indicadores clássicos de alto risco e pior prognóstico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t6">
<label>Tabela 3</label>
<caption><title>Resumo dos parâmetros do teste cardiopulmonar de exercício que apoiam a inclusão na lista de transplantes em diferentes populações (ISHLT 2024<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup>)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#C58874">
<th align="left" valign="middle">População de pacientes</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Parâmetro que apoia a inclusão na lista de transplantes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Com betabloqueadores</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Um valor de corte inferior para o VO<sub>2</sub> máximo é um indicativo de inclusão na lista de transplantes, geralmente ≤12 ml/kg/min.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Sem betabloqueadores</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Um pico de VO<sub>2</sub> mais elevado pode ser considerado um fator que favorece a inclusão na lista de transplantes, geralmente ≤14 ml/kg/min.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes com obesidade (IMC ≥ 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VO<sub>2</sub> máximo ajustado para massa corporal magra ≤19 ml/kg/min</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Todos, especialmente se TCP submáximo</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> &gt;35</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Mulheres ou pacientes ≤50 ou ≥70 anos</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">VO<sub>2</sub> de pico ≤50% do previsto</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN6"><p>IMC: índice de massa corporal; TCP: teste cardiopulmonar de exercício; VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>: ventilação minuto/produção de dióxido de carbono; TCP máximo: quociente respiratório (RER) &gt;1,05 e atingindo o limiar anaeróbico.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Os estudos de Landsteiner et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> e Brawner &amp; Lazar<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> confirmam que esses parâmetros continuam sendo os marcadores mais confiáveis de mortalidade e necessidade de Tx em pacientes com IC avançada.</p>
<p>Além disso, Brás et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> mostraram que o uso de percentuais preditos ajustados por sexo pode corrigir viés de elegibilidade, especialmente em mulheres, otimizando a seleção para terapias avançadas.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avanços contemporâneos</title>
<sec>
<title>Reabilitação e treinamento guiado pelo TCP</title>
<p>A reabilitação cardíaca evoluiu de protocolos genéricos para programas individualizados baseados em dados objetivos do TCP. O treinamento aeróbico prescrito segundo os limiares ventilatórios (VT1 e VT2) melhora VO<sub>2</sub> pico, inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> e qualidade de vida.</p>
<p>Estudos recentes — Sakellaropoulos &amp; Mitsis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> e Sugita et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> — confirmam o benefício da reabilitação estruturada em pacientes com IC crônica, incluindo aqueles com ICFEP.</p>
<p>O ensaio OptimEx-Clin, conduzido por Mueller et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> demonstrou que modalidades combinadas e intervaladas (HIIT) proporcionam ganhos superiores de VO<sub>2</sub> comparados ao exercício contínuo moderado, com destaque para pacientes com incompetência cronotrópica.</p>
<p>Além disso, a análise seriada do TCP permite monitorar a recuperação autonômica e ventilatória. Velmeden et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> mostraram que a recuperação lenta da frequência cardíaca (HRR) após o esforço reflete disfunção autonômica e prediz pior sobrevida. De modo semelhante, Nasser et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> documentaram melhora significativa da resposta cronotrópica e do VO<sub>2</sub> pico após treinamento supervisionado, reforçando o TCP como guia de reabilitação personalizada.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Fenotipagem contemporânea e novas fronteiras fisiopatológicas</title>
<p>O TCP se consolidou como uma ferramenta de fenotipagem integrada, permitindo distinguir mecanismos hemodinâmicos, ventilatórios e periféricos da limitação ao esforço. No estudo de Miller et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> foram identificados quatro agrupamentos de resposta ao exercício: (1) eficiente, com boa captação e recuperação de O<sub>2</sub>; (2) ventilatório, marcado por VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> elevada e reserva ventilatória reduzida; (3) periférico, com VO<sub>2</sub> pico baixo e OUES reduzido; e (4) central, caracterizado por pulso de O<sub>2</sub> achatado e cronotropismo atenuado. Esses padrões apresentaram diferenças significativas em mortalidade e progressão da IC (pior para central e periférico), reforçando o papel do TCP na classificação fisiológica individualizada dos pacientes.</p>
<p>De forma complementar, no estudo de Skow et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> a redução da extração periférica de oxigênio foi quantificada diretamente pela menor diferença arterio–venosa de O<sub>2</sub>, enquanto a ineficiência ventilatória foi identificada por inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> elevada e pressão parcial de dióxido de carbono ao final da expiração (PETCO<sub>2</sub>) reduzida, demonstrando que a limitação ao esforço na ICFEP decorre principalmente de mecanismos periféricos e ventilatórios. A combinação do TCP com marcadores biológicos e moleculares, como demonstrado por Shah et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> e Dixon et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> revelou que alterações em biomarcadores inflamatórios (Interleucina-6, Fator de Necrose Tumoral-alfa, proteína C reativa), metabólicos [carnitina, dinucleotídeo de nicotinamida e adenina oxidada e reduzida (NAD<sup><sup>+</sup></sup>/NADH)] e cardíacos [peptídeo natriurético tipo B N-terminal (NT-proBNP), galectina-3] se associam a padrões distintos de limitação funcional. Essa integração define o conceito de fenotipagem molecular baseada no exercício, permitindo identificar subgrupos fisiológicos e guiar terapias mais personalizadas na IC.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Inteligência artificial e aprendizado de máquina</title>
<p>O estudo de Kato et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> demonstrou que modelos de aprendizado de máquina aplicados a parâmetros submáximos do TCP (VO<sub>2</sub> no limiar anaeróbico, VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>, FC e OUES) predizem intolerância ao exercício com acurácia &gt;85%, mesmo sem esforço máximo. Essas abordagens permitem identificar precocemente pacientes de alto risco e automatizar interpretações complexas do TCP em ambientes clínicos de grande volume.</p>
<p>Tepetes et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> propuseram integrar o TCP a variáveis clínicas e laboratoriais em modelos de inteligência artificial para prever a progressão para IC avançada. O algoritmo, que incluía VO<sub>2</sub> pico, inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub>, pulso de O<sub>2</sub>, NT-proBNP e classe funcional, apresentou acurácia superior aos escores clínicos tradicionais, permitindo identificar precocemente pacientes em risco e otimizar o momento do encaminhamento para terapias avançadas como transplante ou assistência ventricular.</p>
<p>A convergência entre TCP, inteligência artificial e dados multimodais representa uma das principais fronteiras da medicina personalizada na IC.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Teste cardiopulmonar na IC aguda e no período pós-internação</title>
<p>Tradicionalmente, o TCP era reservado a pacientes clinicamente estáveis; contudo, evidências recentes demonstram sua utilidade logo após a alta hospitalar, quando há estabilidade hemodinâmica e ausência de congestão ativa.</p>
<p>Ding et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> mostraram que o TCP seriado durante reabilitação precoce em IC descompensada detecta melhora progressiva do VO<sub>2</sub> pico e da eficiência ventilatória, refletindo recuperação hemodinâmica e muscular nas primeiras semanas pós-alta. Chen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> complementaram esses achados, mostrando que variáveis simples derivadas do TCP podem predizer reinternações e mortalidade precoces, orientando seguimento clínico e ajustes terapêuticos. Além disso, Zimerman et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> e Hosoda et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> observaram que pacientes com IC leve ou em recuperação exibem alterações subclínicas de VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> e pulso de O<sub>2</sub>, que precedem declínio funcional detectável, reforçando o TCP como ferramenta de vigilância pós-descompensação.</p>
<p>Assim, o TCP pós-internação deve ser encarado como uma estratégia de vigilância funcional precoce, capaz de antecipar deteriorações, ajustar terapias e direcionar reabilitação com base em limiares ventilatórios e resposta cronotrópica.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Condições extra cardíacas e TCP</title>
<p>Em pacientes com doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica associada, revisões recentes demonstram que a hiperinsuflação dinâmica e a limitação ventilatória precoce reduzem o desempenho no TCP, com aumento do VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> e dispneia desproporcional, podendo simular ou mascarar disfunção cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Em cenários de IC avançada, comorbidades sistêmicas como doença renal, hepática e distúrbios metabólicos contribuem para redução da reserva funcional global, resultando em VO<sub>2</sub> pico baixo independentemente da função ventricular isolada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Além disso, caquexia e sarcopenia, mediadas por inflamação crônica, reduzem a massa e a eficiência muscular periférica, comprometendo a extração de oxigênio e levando a alterações importantes no CPET mesmo com hemodinâmica relativamente preservada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Condições como anemia/deficiência de ferro e doença renal tendem a reduzir o VO<sub>2</sub> pico predominantemente por limitação periférica e menor capacidade de transporte/utilização de oxigênio; obesidade reduz o VO<sub>2</sub> relativo ao peso e pode mascarar a gravidade hemodinâmica; doença pulmonar eleva a inclinação VE/VCO<sub>2</sub> e reduz o PETCO<sub>2</sub> por aumento de espaço morto e incompatibilidade V/Q; enquanto diabetes, câncer e fragilidade acentuam a ineficiência muscular e a intolerância ao esforço, com impacto adicional sobre O<sub>2</sub>-pulso e cinética do VO<sub>2</sub>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Portanto, interpretação do TCP na IC deve ser integrada e fenotipada, usando múltiplas variáveis para diferenciar limitação cardíaca primária de efeitos dominantes das comorbidades, com implicações diretas para estratificação prognóstica e decisão terapêutica.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>O TCP consolidou-se como a principal ferramenta de avaliação funcional e prognóstica na insuficiência cardíaca. Mais do que medir o consumo de oxigênio, o TCP traduz a interação entre coração, pulmão e musculatura periférica, oferecendo uma visão integrada do paciente.</p>
<p>Na era moderna da insuficiência cardíaca — marcada por terapias multimodais, fenotipagem avançada e medicina personalizada — o TCP permanece como o referencial fisiológico que orienta a decisão clínica, direciona o tratamento, estratifica o risco e antecipa o prognóstico.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><label>Vinculação Acadêmica</label>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</label>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
