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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20240029i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240029i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Impact of COVID-19 on Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Magalhães</surname><given-names>Luiz Felipe da Silva</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Sant’Anna</surname><given-names>Guilherme Capetini</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Figueira</surname><given-names>João Carlos Amorelli Bohrer de Andrade</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1654-4531</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Villacorta</surname><given-names>Humberto</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Cardiovasculares, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address: Humberto Villacorta •</label> Universidade Federal Fluminense - Faculdade de Medicina - Rua Desembargador Athayde Parreiras, 100, sala 601. Postal Code <postal-code>24070-090</postal-code>, Niterói, RJ - Brazil E-mail: <email>hvillacorta@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potential conflict of interest</label><p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label> <p>Lídia Zytynski Moura</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>18</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>4</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240029</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received"><day>14</day><month>05</month><year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd"><day>26</day><month>08</month><year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>26</day><month>09</month><year>2024</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>SARS-CoV-2 infection affects multiple organs and systems, including the cardiovascular system. Cardiovascular complications include myocarditis, pericarditis, acute coronary syndrome, acute heart failure (HF), pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular dysfunction, and arrhythmias. Inflammation is a mechanism that is present in both COVID-19 and HF. The mechanisms of myocardial injury due to COVID-19 include direct damage by the pathogen, hypoxemic stress, endothelial dysfunction with associated thromboembolic phenomena, and effects of systemic inflammatory syndrome. Impaired cardiopulmonary reserve makes patients with chronic HF more susceptible to decompensation during the course of COVID-19. Coronary and pulmonary vascular alterations lead to worse prognosis in relation to ischemic and thromboembolic events. These patients have longer hospital stays, increased risk of mechanical ventilation, and higher mortality.</p>
<p>COVID-19 increases the incidence of cardiovascular complications in the first 12 months after acute infection, including cerebrovascular, arrhythmic, thromboembolic, and ischemic events, in addition to inflammatory heart disease. An increased risk of developing HF with preserved ejection fraction has also been reported. During the 12 months following acute infection, myocardial injury has been associated with persistent symptoms, as well as increased rates of hospital readmission and mortality.</p>
<p>Therefore, HF is related to increased mortality, length of hospital stay, and incidence of complications in patients who are affected by SARS-CoV-2, and individuals with chronic HF who have COVID-19 show a higher rate of events during post-COVID follow-up.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
<kwd>Prognosis</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="4"/>
<table-count count="4"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="25"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<p><fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-04-e20240029-gf01.tif"/>
</fig></p>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has resulted in more than 700 million people becoming ill, with approximately 6.9 million deaths worldwide, according to the World Health Organization. Illness due to SARS-CoV-2 infection affects multiple organs and systems, including the cardiovascular system. Acute cardiovascular complications of COVID-19 infection include myocarditis, pericarditis, acute coronary syndrome, acute heart failure (HF), pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular (RV) dysfunction, and arrhythmias.</p>
<p>Medium-term follow-up has shown that, even after recovery from acute infection, there is an increased incidence of many of these complications (arrhythmias, HF, coronary ischemic events), in addition to arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and myocardial fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>HF is among the leading causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide, and it is associated with high resource use and health care expenditures. Due to population aging and improved care and treatment, the prevalence of HF has rapidly increased. It is estimated that 26 million people suffer from this clinical syndrome. In Brazil, the prevalence of HF is approximately 2 million patients, and its incidence is 240,000 new cases per year.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> HF is associated with increased mortality and increased incidence of complications in patients who become ill with SARS-CoV-2. Nonetheless, few studies have evaluated the long-term effects of COVID-19 on the progress of patients with chronic HF.</p>
<p>In this review, we will address the impact of HF as a comorbidity on the in-hospital progress of patients with COVID-19 and the impact of COVID-19 on the post-discharge progress of patients with chronic HF, as well as its impact on the incidence of HF.</p>
<sec>
<title>Pathophysiology of myocardial injury in COVID-19</title>
<p>The mechanisms of myocardial injury due to COVID-19 include direct damage by the pathogen, hypoxemic stress related to lung injury, endothelial dysfunction with associated thrombotic and embolic phenomena, and effects of systemic inflammatory syndrome (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>). Postmortem studies have demonstrated the main histological patterns in the lungs and heart. In the lungs, they include diffuse alveolar damage with extensive hyaline membrane, edema, and microthrombi in small vessels. In the heart, they include massive inflammatory infiltrates with myocarditis, pericarditis, vasculitis, as well as foci of necrosis and vascular fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Mechanisms of myocardial injury in COVID-19 and their repercussions. Source: figure prepared by the authors.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-04-e20240029-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Inflammation is a mechanism that is present in COVID-19 as well as in individuals with HF. This shared pathophysiological mechanism may, in part, explain the development of acute ventricular dysfunction in COVID-19 and the worse progress of patients with chronic HF who have COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Rey et al. published a study with 3080 patients who sought emergency care with COVID-19 infection. Of these patients, 2.5% showed symptoms of acute HF at the time of admission, and 77.9% of acute HF cases were in patients who had no previous history of HF. Proportionally, patients with chronic HF had a greater percentage of acute HF (11.2% versus 1.8%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> These data may reflect the damage caused by SARS-CoV-2 to the myocardium and vascular endothelium, with the release of large amounts of pro-inflammatory chemokines, promoting a prothrombotic state. Other viral infections, such as the influenza virus, may also cause direct myocardial damage and damage due to inflammatory mechanisms. In these cases, an increase in cases of HF decompensation during influenza infection has been documented, but it had a lower mortality rate than that recorded in COVID-19 (1.8% in patients with HF who were not vaccinated against influenza and 1.4% in those who were vaccinated).</p>
<p>Cardiac arrhythmias, especially atrial tachyarrhythmias, have a higher incidence during viral infection. Patients with HF are even more susceptible to this complication, which is associated with increased hospital stay and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> This increased incidence of cardiac rhythm disorders due to disturbances in myocyte cell membrane homeostasis is due both to the pathophysiological mechanisms of infection (inflammation and hypoxia) and to electrolyte disturbances related to renal dysfunction and muscle injury. Given that it is a prothrombotic state, episodes of atrial fibrillation/flutter are associated with an increased occurrence of events such as stroke.</p>
<p>Myocardial injury is a marker of poor prognosis, because it is associated with higher mortality. It has been identified in 12% of patients with COVID-19, in 41% of patients with severe forms, and in 76% of patients who progressed to death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> An increase in circulating endothelial cells was also associated with worse prognosis during COVID-19 infection. Patients requiring intensive care unit admission have shown an elevated number of circulating endothelial cells. These cells originate from the desquamation of the vascular endothelium stressed by inflammatory injury, and they indicate a correlation between endothelial injury and organic dysfunctions in severe COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Inflammatory infiltration of the myocardium accompanied by vasculitis and followed by vascular fibrosis and necrosis culminates in reduced tissue oxygen supply and, consequently, impaired myocardial relaxation. Szekely et al. analyzed the echocardiographic images of 100 patients hospitalized for COVID-19 and identified that left ventricular (LV) systolic function was preserved in most patients, but LV diastolic function and RV function were impaired. Myocardial injury and clinical deterioration during patient follow-up are associated with acute RV dysfunction, regardless of the presence of deep vein thrombosis. During follow-up, 20% of patients developed acute LV systolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Similar findings were observed in a retrospective study from New York City including 105 patients with COVID-19 and similar age distribution. RV hypokinesia and moderate to severe tricuspid regurgitation were the most prevalent changes in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 and RV enlargement. Mortality was higher in patients with RV dysfunction when compared to patients without these echocardiographic alterations (41% versus 11%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Effects of HF as a comorbidity on the progress of patients with COVID-19</title>
<p>Patients hospitalized for HF in Brazil have shown a mortality rate of 12.6% according to data from the BREATHE study. This elevated value may increase when it is associated with COVID-19 as the cause of HF decompensation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> summarizes the main studies that have evaluated the effects of chronic HF on the outcomes of COVID-19. Impaired cardiopulmonary reserve makes individuals with chronic HF more susceptible to HF decompensation during the course of COVID-19. Vascular alterations in coronary and pulmonary circulation lead to worse prognosis in relation to ischemic and thromboembolic events. Garcia et al. studied a retrospective cohort with 6,439 patients admitted with COVID-19. Their analyses allowed them to conclude that patients with chronic HF and COVID-19 had a longer hospital stay (8 days versus 6 days; p &lt; 0.001), increased risk of mechanical ventilation (22.8% versus 11.9%; adjusted odds ratio: 3.64; 95% confidence interval: 2.56 to 5.16; p &lt; 0.001), and greater mortality (40.0% versus 24.9%; adjusted odds ratio: 1.88; 95% confidence interval: 1.27 to 2.78; p = 0.002).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Yonas et al. found similar data in a meta-analysis with 18 published studies, totaling 21,640 patients. HF was associated with hospitalization in COVID-19 (hazard ratio: 2.37 [1.48; 3.79; p &lt; 0.001], with high heterogeneity [I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> 82%; p &lt; 0.001]), worse outcomes (odds ratio: 2.86 [2.07; 3.95; p &lt; 0.001], with high heterogeneity [I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> 80%; p &lt; 0.001]), and greater mortality in patients with preexisting HF (odds ratio: 3.46 [2.52; 4.75; p &lt; 0.001], with moderately high heterogeneity [I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> 77%; p &lt; 0.001]).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Effects of chronic HF as a comorbidity on the outcomes of COVID-19</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Author</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Number of participants</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Main results</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Alvarez-Garcia et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6,439</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Patients with chronic HF and COVID-19 had longer hospital stays, increased risk of MV, and greater mortality.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Regardless of LVEF or use of ACEI/ARB, there was no difference in these outcomes.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Rey et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">3,080</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>There was a higher incidence of acute HF during COVID-19 infection in patients with prior history of HF (11.2% versus 2.1%; p &lt; 0.001). This increased incidence of acute HF was accompanied by higher NT-proBNP levels and higher mortality rates (48.7% versus 19.0%; p &lt; 0.001).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Patients without prior history of HF who developed the acute form also had higher mortality compared to patients who did not develop this complication (46.8% versus 19.7%; p &lt; 0.001).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>The withdrawal of ACEI/ARB, beta-blockers, and aldosterone antagonists was associated with a significant increase in in-hospital mortality.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Yonas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21,640</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>HF was associated with increased hospital and ICU admission rates, need for MV, and unfavorable outcomes (severe forms of COVID-19 and death).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Prior history of HF was associated with greater mortality.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pimentel et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">241</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Atrial tachyarrhythmias were the most frequent.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Length of hospital stay was longer in those who presented cardiac arrhythmias.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>The occurrence of cardiac arrhythmias was more frequent in men, patients on MV, and those with a history of HF.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><label>1</label><p>ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019; HF: heart failure; ICU: intensive care unit; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; MV: mechanical ventilation; NT-proBNP: N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>SARS-CoV-2 uses as its cell entry receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme type 2 (ACE-2), a molecule that is abundantly expressed on the surface of endothelial cells, kidneys, lungs, heart, and other organs. The use of medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) increases the expression of ACE-2 receptors in different tissues, including the lungs and heart. In spite of the hypothetical risk that the use of these medications could facilitate SARS-CoV-2 infection, there is evidence that patients with HF should continue using these medications, because the withdrawal of ACEI/ARB, beta-blockers, or aldosterone antagonists has been associated with a significant increase in in-hospital mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a significant reduction in seeking health care for chronic diseases, which include some of the most important cardiovascular risk factors: hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia. Dale et al. analyzed data from the United Kingdom during a 3-month period of the pandemic and identified a significant reduction in the dispensing of medications for these comorbidities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> It is difficult to estimate the direct impact of the reduction in care for these diseases and the increase in the incidence of cardiovascular complications, but they certainly potentiated the effects of the direct action of SARS-CoV-2 infection.</p>
<p>A retrospective cohort compared the number of hospital admissions due to HF, the average length of hospital stay, and the 30-day readmission rate before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. During the period evaluated, there was a reduction in the number of hospitalizations (774 versus 864; p &lt; 0.001), while the mean length of stay (6.05 versus 5.25 days; p &lt; 0.001) and the readmission rate increased (20.6% versus 19.1%; p &lt; 0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Effects of COVID-19 on exacerbation of pre-existing diseases correlated with chronic HF</title>
<p>COVID-19 symptoms can mimic HF decompensation. The 2021 update of the Brazilian Heart Failure Guideline recommends testing for SARS-CoV-2 by means of RT-PCR in both emergency room and outpatient settings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Some symptoms resulting from COVID-19 can persist for a long time after recovery from the acute infection, a condition known as long COVID. Huang et al. followed patients discharged after hospitalization for COVID-19 for 3 months. The team found that approximately 76% of cases persisted with at least one of the symptoms of fatigue, tiredness, myalgia, arthralgia, and insomnia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Salah et al. found an even higher percentage, with 87% of patients persisting with complaints of dyspnea and fatigue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>There is evidence that COVID-19 increases the incidence of cardiovascular complications in the first 12 months after acute infection. A prospective study demonstrated that the presence of myocardial injury was associated with the persistence of symptoms over the 12 months following acute infection, as well as increased rates of hospital readmission and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Xie et al. identified a significant increase in cerebrovascular, arrhythmic, thromboembolic, and ischemic events, in addition to inflammatory heart diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Individuals who have recovered from COVID-19 have a 90% additional risk of developing HF within the first 9 months after acute infection. This risk is directly influenced by age and history of systemic arterial hypertension, and it is higher in the initial period of recovery from the acute infection phase. However, this risk is not restricted only to this initial phase, and it is necessary to consider individuals who have recovered from infection as a risk group for future development of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The pathophysiological mechanism by which COVID-19 survivors are at an increased risk of HF has not yet been fully established. It is still unclear to what extent these complications are secondary to unique pathological processes, rather than direct consequences of acute infectious complications. Direct viral invasion of cardiomyocytes and subsequent cell death or infection of endothelial cells followed by complement-mediated dysfunction, coagulopathy, and microangiopathy may represent some of the possible triggers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>The risk of developing HF, particularly with preserved ejection fraction, may be related to prior presence of subclinical HF with preserved ejection fraction with consequent progression to a symptomatic stage, but it may also be the result of the myocardial inflammatory and microvascular ischemic process. This inflammatory process caused by SARS-CoV-2 may continue after recovery from viral infection, with persistent tissue infiltration of inflammatory cells and, in some cases, development of areas of fibrosis. Survivors of the COVID-19 pandemic may represent a population at risk for the future development of complications involving LV diastolic dysfunction, pulmonary hypertension, and RV dysfunction, especially those recovered from severe forms with severe hypoxemia and thrombotic complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Few studies have evaluated the immediate and long-term risk in patients with HF who developed COVID-19. Most registries limited participant inclusion to patients hospitalized with COVID-19, did not stratify associated clinical events, and developed a short follow-up period ending this phase before the end of the pandemic. There are reports of a substantial increase in mortality rates during the year following COVID-19 infection, with rates ranging from 1.3% to 12%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> These events are often attributed to sudden cardiovascular death due to likely arrhythmic or thrombotic mechanisms.</p>
<p>Bhatt et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> conducted a prospective, multicenter, double-blind study with participants from 20 countries, titled DELIVER. The study included individuals with HF who had preserved or mildly reduced ejection fraction to evaluate the safety and efficacy of daily use of dapagliflozin 10 mg versus placebo. Approximately 9.4% of participants developed COVID-19 during the study period, with almost half of them requiring hospitalization for a prolonged period and 20% having a fatal outcome. Participants diagnosed with COVID-19 were found to have higher all-cause mortality after infection. This increased mortality remained high even 3 to 6 months after diagnosis. The study excluded immediately fatal COVID-19 events and adjusted for covariates. Dapagliflozin demonstrated benefits in the treatment of HF, even during treatment for COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>In a retrospective cohort including more than 90,000 individuals, Greene et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> evaluated the impact of COVID-19 on patients with HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), in both hospital and outpatient settings. The main outcomes assessed were all-cause mortality at 30 and 90 days and the composite outcome of hospitalization and mortality. In these patients with HFrEF, a positive COVID-19 test was identified as an independent factor for increased risk of death and worsening HF in outpatients, when compared to patients with HFrEF and a negative COVID-19 test. In individuals with clinical criteria for HF stability at the time of the positive COVID-19 test, 33% had an unfavorable outcome (hospitalization or death) within 5 months of follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
<p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> summarizes the main studies that have evaluated the incidence of HF and cardiovascular complications after COVID-19 infection.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption><title>Effects of COVID-19 on the incidence of HF and on the outcomes of patients with chronic HF</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Author</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Number of participants</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Main results</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Son et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2,152</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Myocardial injury caused by COVID-19 has a more severe clinical course in patients with CAD and HF (worse prognosis).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>There was no significant difference in relation to complications in patients who used ACEI/ARB and developed COVID-19.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Yonas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21,640</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>There was an increase in the incidence of acute HF in patients without prior history.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Zuin et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21,463.173</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Individuals who recovered from COVID-19 had a 90% additional risk of developing HF during the first 9 months after acute infection. This risk was directly influenced by age and history of systemic arterial hypertension.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Babapoor-Farrokhran et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1,638</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>A retrospective cohort study was conducted comparing the number of hospital admissions due to HF, the mean length of stay, and the 30-day readmission rate before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. During the period evaluated, there was a reduction in the number of hospitalizations (774 versus 864; p &lt; 0.001), while the mean length of hospital stay (6.05 versus 5.25 days; p &lt; 0.001) and the readmission rate increased (20.6% versus 19.1%; p &lt; 0.001).</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Bhatt et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6,263</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Approximately 9.4% of participants developed COVID-19 during the study period, with almost half of them requiring prolonged hospitalization and 20% having a fatal outcome.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Participants diagnosed with COVID-19 had greater all-cause mortality after infection.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>This increase in mortality remained elevated even 3 to 6 months after diagnosis.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Greene et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">90,052</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>In patients with history of HFrEF, a positive test for COVID-19 was identified as an independent factor for increased risk of death and worsening HF in outpatients, when compared to patients with HFrEF and a negative COVID-19 test. In patients with clinical criteria for HF stability at the time of the positive COVID-19 test, 33% had an unfavorable outcome (hospitalization or death) within 5 months of follow-up.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2"><p>ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; CAD: coronary artery disease; COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019; HF: heart failure; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusions</title>
<p>HF is associated with increased mortality, length of hospital stay, and incidence of complications in patients who are affected by SARS-CoV-2. Individuals with chronic HF show a higher rate of exacerbation (acute HF) when they have COVID-19. There is likely an association between COVID-19 and HF through a shared pathophysiological mechanism centered on inflammation.</p>
<p>Even after recovery from acute COVID-19 infection, there is an increased incidence of complications such as arrhythmias, HF (especially HF with preserved ejection fraction), coronary ischemic events, arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and myocardial fibrosis. There are reports of a substantial increase in the mortality rate in the year following COVID-19 infection, often attributed to sudden cardiovascular death due to probable arrhythmic or thrombotic mechanisms.</p>
<p>Few studies have evaluated the effects of COVID-19 on patients with chronic HF after recovery from acute infection, and they are limited to short-term follow-ups and post-hoc studies. Further studies are needed to expand knowledge of the long-term cardiovascular impact caused by the pandemic.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Fontes de financiamento</label><p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>Vinculação acadêmica</label><p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label><p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240029</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Impacto da COVID-19 nos Desfechos Cardiovasculares em Pacientes com Insuficiência Cardíaca Crônica</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Magalhães</surname><given-names>Luiz Felipe da Silva</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Sant’Anna</surname><given-names>Guilherme Capetini</given-names></name>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Figueira</surname><given-names>João Carlos Amorelli Bohrer de Andrade</given-names></name>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1654-4531</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Villacorta</surname><given-names>Humberto</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Cardiovasculares, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência: Humberto Villacorta •</label> Faculdade de Medicina – Departamento de Medicina Clínica – Universidade Federal Fluminense – Rua Desembargador Athayde Parreiras, 100, Sala 601. CEP <postal-code>24070-090</postal-code>, Niterói, RJ – Brasil Email: <email>hvillacorta@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potencial conflito de interesse</label><p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>	
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label> <p>Lídia Zytynski Moura</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A infecção pelo SARS-CoV-2 afeta múltiplos órgãos e sistemas, incluindo o cardiovascular. As complicações cardiovasculares incluem miocardite, pericardite, síndrome coronariana aguda, insuficiência cardíaca (IC) aguda, hipertensão pulmonar, disfunção ventricular direita e arritmias. A inflamação é um mecanismo presente na COVID-19 e na IC. O mecanismo de agressão miocárdica pela COVID-19 inclui a lesão direta pelo patógeno, estresse hipoxêmico, disfunção endotelial com fenômenos tromboembólicos associados, e efeitos da síndrome inflamatória sistêmica. A reserva cardiopulmonar prejudicada torna os indivíduos com IC crônica mais suscetíveis à descompensação durante o curso da COVID-19. As alterações vasculares coronarianas e pulmonares impõem pior prognóstico diante de eventos isquêmicos e tromboembólicos. Estes pacientes apresentam maior tempo de internação hospitalar, aumento do risco de ventilação mecânica e maior mortalidade.</p>
<p>A COVID-19 aumenta a incidência de complicações cardiovasculares nos primeiros 12 meses após a infecção aguda, dentre as quais estão eventos cerebrovasculares, arrítmicos, tromboembólicos e isquêmicos, além de cardiopatias inflamatórias. Houve um aumento no risco de desenvolver IC com fração de ejeção preservada. Injúria miocárdica foi associada à persistência de sintomas no decorrer de 12 meses subsequentes à infecção aguda, além do aumento das taxas de readmissão hospitalar e mortalidade.</p>
<p>Portanto, a IC está relacionada ao aumento da mortalidade, do tempo de internação e da incidência de complicações em pacientes que adoecem pelo SARS-CoV-2 e indivíduos com IC crônica que apresentam COVID-19 têm maior taxa de eventos no seguimento pós-COVID.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
<kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
<kwd>Prognóstico</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
	<p><fig id="f3">
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-04-e20240029-pt-gf01.tif"/>
</fig></p>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A doença coronavírus 2019 (COVID-19), causada pelo vírus SARS-CoV-2, provocou o adoecimento de mais de 700 milhões de indivíduos, com cerca de 6,9 milhões de mortes em todo o mundo segundo a Organização Mundial da Saúde. O adoecimento pela infecção do SARS-CoV-2 afeta múltiplos órgãos e sistemas, incluindo o cardiovascular. As complicações cardiovasculares agudas da infecção por COVID-19 incluem miocardite, pericardite, síndrome coronariana aguda, insuficiência cardíaca (IC) aguda, hipertensão pulmonar, disfunção ventricular direita e arritmias.</p>
<p>O acompanhamento em médio prazo mostra que mesmo após a recuperação da infecção aguda, há um aumento da incidência de muitas destas complicações citadas (arritmias, IC, eventos isquêmicos coronarianos), além de hipertensão arterial, diabetes mellitus e fibrose miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>A IC figura entre as principais causas de mortalidade e morbidade no mundo, e está associada a um alto uso de recursos e despesas com saúde. Pelo envelhecimento da população e melhor assistência e tratamento, a prevalência de IC tem crescido rapidamente. Estima-se que 26 milhões de pessoas sofram por essa síndrome clínica. No Brasil, a prevalência de IC é de aproximadamente 2 milhões de pacientes, e sua incidência é de 240.000 novos casos por ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A IC está relacionada a aumento da mortalidade e da incidência de complicações em pacientes que adoecem pelo SARS-CoV-2. Contudo, poucos estudos avaliaram os efeitos de longo prazo da COVID-19 sobre a evolução de pacientes portadores de IC crônica.</p>
<p>Nesta revisão, vamos abordar o impacto da IC como uma comorbidade na evolução hospitalar de pacientes com COVID-19 e o impacto da COVID-19 na evolução pós-alta hospitalar de pacientes com IC crônica, assim como seu impacto na incidência de IC.</p>
<sec>
<title>Fisiopatologia da agressão miocárdica na COVID-19</title>
<p>O mecanismo de agressão miocárdica pela COVID-19 inclui a lesão direta pelo patógeno, estresse hipoxêmico relacionado a lesão pulmonar, disfunção endotelial com fenômenos trombóticos e embólicos associados, e efeitos da síndrome inflamatória sistêmica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref>). Estudos pós-morte demonstraram os principais padrões histológicos dos pulmões e do coração. No pulmão, incluíram o dano alveolar difuso com extensa membrana hialina, edema e microtrombos em pequenos vasos. No coração, foram infiltrações inflamatórias maciças com miocardite, pericardite, vasculite, além de focos de necrose e de fibrose vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Mecanismos de agressão miocárdica na COVID-19 e suas repercussões. Fonte: figura elaborada pelos autores.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-04-e20240029-pt-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A inflamação é um mecanismo presente na COVID-19 e também nos indivíduos com IC. Esse mecanismo fisiopatológico compartilhado pode explicar, em parte, o desenvolvimento de disfunção ventricular aguda na COVID-19 e a pior evolução de pacientes com IC crônica que apresentem COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Rey et al. publicaram um estudo com 3080 pacientes que procuraram o pronto-socorro com infecção por COVID-19. Destes pacientes, 2,5% apresentaram sintomas de IC aguda no momento da admissão, sendo 77,9% dos casos de IC aguda em pacientes que não possuíam histórico prévio de IC. Proporcionalmente, os pacientes com IC crônica apresentaram um percentual de agudização superior (11,2% versus 1,8%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Estes dados podem refletir o dano causado pelo SARS-CoV-2 ao miocárdio e ao endotélio vascular, com liberação de grande quantidade de quimiocinas pró-inflamatórias e promovendo um estado pró-trombótico. Outras infecções virais como pelo vírus da influenza, também podem causar dano miocárdico direto e por mecanismos inflamatórios. Nestes casos, foi documentado um aumento dos casos de descompensação de IC durante a infecção pela influenza, mas com uma mortalidade inferior à registrada na COVID-19 (1,8% em pacientes com IC e não vacinados para influenza e 1,4% nos vacinados).</p>
<p>As arritmias cardíacas, em especial as taquiarritmias atriais, possuem maior incidência durante a infecção viral. Pacientes com IC são ainda mais suscetíveis a essa complicação, se relacionando com aumento do tempo de internação e na mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Esse aumento na incidência dos distúrbios do ritmo cardíaco por perturbações na homeostase da membrana celular dos miócitos se deve tanto aos mecanismos fisiopatológicos da infecção (inflamação e hipoxia), quanto aos distúrbios eletrolíticos relacionados à disfunção renal e à lesão muscular. Por se tratar de um estado pró trombótico, os episódios de fibrilação atrial/<italic>flutter</italic> estão associados ao aumento da ocorrência de eventos como acidente vascular encefálico.</p>
<p>Injúria miocárdica é um marcador de mau prognóstico por se relacionar com maior mortalidade. Foi identificada em 12% dos pacientes com COVID-19, em 41% dos pacientes com formas graves e em 76% dos pacientes que evoluem ao óbito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> O aumento de células endoteliais na circulação sanguínea também marcou associação com pior prognóstico durante a infecção por COVID-19. Pacientes com necessidade de unidade de terapia intensiva apresentam uma quantidade elevada de células endoteliais circulando no sangue. Estas células têm origem na descamação do endotélio vascular estressado pela injúria inflamatória, e marcam a correlação da agressão endotelial e as disfunções orgânicas da forma grave da COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>A infiltração inflamatória do miocárdio acompanhada por vasculite e seguida por necrose e fibrose vascular, culminam em redução da oferta tecidual de oxigênio e, por consequência, em déficit de relaxamento miocárdico. Szekely et al. analisaram as imagens ecocardiográficas de 100 pacientes internados por COVID-19 e identificaram que a função sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo (VE) é preservada na maioria dos pacientes, mas a função diastólica do VE e a função do ventrículo direito (VD) são prejudicadas. A injúria miocárdica e a deterioração clínica, durante o acompanhamento dos pacientes, estão associadas à disfunção aguda do VD, independente da presença de trombose venosa profunda. Durante o seguimento, 20% dos pacientes desenvolveram disfunção sistólica aguda do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Achados semelhantes foram observados em um estudo retrospectivo da cidade de Nova York com 105 pacientes com COVID-19 e com distribuição de idades semelhantes. Hipocinesia do VD e regurgitação tricúspide moderada a grave foram as alterações mais prevalentes nos pacientes internados com COVID-19 e com alargamento do VD. A mortalidade foi maior nos pacientes com disfunção do VD quando comparado aos que não apresentavam estas alterações ecocardiográficas (41% versus 11%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Efeitos da IC como comorbidade na evolução dos pacientes com COVID-19</title>
<p>Pacientes hospitalizados por IC no Brasil apresentam uma mortalidade de 12,6% segundo dados do estudo BREATHE. Esse elevado valor pode escalar quando há associação da COVID-19 como causa da descompensação da IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref> resume os principais estudos que avaliaram os efeitos da IC crônica na evolução da COVID-19. A reserva cardiopulmonar prejudicada torna os indivíduos com IC crônica mais suscetíveis à descompensação da IC durante o curso da COVID-19. As alterações vasculares da circulação coronariana e pulmonar impõem pior prognóstico diante de eventos isquêmicos e tromboembólicos. Garcia et al. estudaram uma coorte retrospectiva com 6439 pacientes admitidos com COVID-19. As análises permitiram concluir que pacientes com IC crônica e COVID-19 apresentam maior tempo de internação hospitalar (8 dias versus 6 dias; p &lt; 0,001), aumento do risco de ventilação mecânica (22,8% versus 11,9%; <italic>odds ratio</italic> ajustado: 3,64; 95% intervalo de confiança: 2,56 a 5,16; p &lt; 0,001) e maior mortalidade (40,0% versus 24,9%; <italic>odds ratio</italic> ajustado: 1,88; 95% intervalo de confiança: 1,27 a 2,78; p = 0,002).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Yonas et al. encontraram dados semelhantes em uma metanálise com 18 estudos publicados, totalizando 21.640 pacientes. A IC foi associada à hospitalização na COVID-19 (<italic>hazard ratio</italic>: 2,37 [1,48; 3,79; p &lt; 0,001], com alta heterogeneidade [I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> 82%; p &lt; 0,001]), piores desfechos (<italic>odds ratio</italic>: 2,86 [2,07; 3,95; p &lt; 0,001], com alta heterogeneidade [I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> 80%; p &lt; 0,001]), e maior mortalidade em pacientes com IC preexistente (<italic>odds ratio</italic>: 3,46 [2,52; 4,75; p &lt; 0,001], com heterogeneidade moderadamente alta [I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> 77%; p &lt; 0,001]).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Efeitos da IC crônica como comorbidade na evolução da COVID-19</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Autor</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Nº de participantes</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Principais resultados</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Alvarez-Garcia et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6.439</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Pacientes com IC crônica e COVID-19 apresentam maior tempo de internação hospitalar, aumento do risco de VM e maior mortalidade.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Independente da FEVE ou do uso de IECA/BRA, não houve diferença destes desfechos.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Rey et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">3.080</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Maior incidência de IC aguda durante a infecção pela COVID-19 nos pacientes com histórico prévio de IC (11,2% versus 2,1%; p &lt; 0,001). Este aumento de incidência de IC aguda está acompanhado de maiores níveis de NT-PróBNP e maiores taxas de mortalidade (48,7% versus 19,0%; p &lt; 0,001).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Os pacientes sem histórico prévio de IC que desenvolveram a forma aguda também apresentam maior mortalidade em comparação aos pacientes que não desenvolveram esta complicação (46,8% versus 19,7%; p &lt; 0,001).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>A retirada de IECA/BRA, betabloqueadores e antagonistas da aldosterona foi associada a um aumento significativo na mortalidade intra-hospitalar.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Yonas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21.640</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>IC foi associada com aumento da taxa de internação hospitalar e em UTI, necessidade de VM e desfechos desfavoráveis (formas graves de COVID-19 e morte).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Histórico prévio de IC foi associado a maior mortalidade.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Pimentel et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">241</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>As taquiarritmias atriais foram as mais frequentes.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>O tempo de internação foi maior naqueles que apresentaram arritmias cardíacas.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>A ocorrência de arritmias cardíacas foi mais frequente em homens, pacientes em VM e com história de IC.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3"><p>BRA: bloqueador do receptor da angiotensina; COVID-19: doença coronavírus 2019; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora da angiotensina; NT-ProBNP: fragmento N-terminal do peptídeo natriurético tipo B; UTI: unidade de terapia intensiva; VM: ventilação mecânica.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>O SARS-CoV-2 usa como receptor de entrada na célula a enzima conversora de angiotensina tipo 2 (ECA-2), uma molécula expressa em abundância na superfície das células do endotélio, rins, pulmões, coração e de outros órgãos. O uso de medicamentos como inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA) e bloqueadores do receptor de angiotensina 2 (BRA) aumenta a expressão dos receptores da ECA-2 em diferentes tecidos, incluindo o pulmão e coração. Apesar do hipotético risco de o uso destas medicações facilitar a infecção pelo SARS-CoV-2, há evidências de que os pacientes com IC devem manter o uso destas medicações, pois a retirada de IECA/BRA, betabloqueadores ou de antagonistas da aldosterona foi associada a um aumento significativo na mortalidade intra-hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Durante a pandemia de COVID-19, houve uma redução significativa na busca de assistência de saúde para doenças crônicas, dentre as quais estão alguns dos mais importantes fatores de risco cardiovascular: hipertensão, diabetes e dislipidemia. Dale et al. analisaram dados do Reino Unido durante um período de 3 meses da pandemia e identificou uma redução significativa na dispensação de medicações para essas comorbidades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> É difícil estimar o impacto direto da redução dos cuidados com essas doenças e o aumento na incidência de complicações cardiovasculares, mas certamente potencializaram os efeitos da ação direta da infecção pelo SARS-CoV-2.</p>
<p>Uma coorte retrospectiva comparou o número de admissões hospitalares por IC, o tempo médio de internação e a taxa de readmissão em 30 dias antes e durante a pandemia de COVID-19. No período avaliado houve uma redução no número de internações (774 versus 864; p &lt; 0,001), enquanto o tempo médio de internação (6,05 versus 5,25 dias; p &lt; 0,001) e a taxa de readmissão aumentaram (20,6% versus 19,1%; p &lt; 0,001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Efeitos da COVID-19 como exacerbador de doenças pré-existentes correlacionadas à IC crônica</title>
<p>Os sintomas de COVID-19 podem mimetizar a descompensação de IC. A Diretriz Brasileira de Insuficiência Cardíaca recomenda em sua atualização de 2021 a testagem para SARS-CoV-2 com RT-PCR tanto no cenário de pacientes atendidos em sala de emergência como em casos ambulatoriais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Alguns sintomas resultantes da COVID-19 podem persistir por muito tempo após a recuperação da infecção aguda, quadro conhecido como COVID longa. Huang et al. acompanharam por 3 meses pacientes que receberam alta após internação por COVID-19. A equipe identificou que cerca de 76% dos casos persistiram com ao menos um dos sintomas de fadiga, cansaço, mialgia, artralgia e insônia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Salah et al. encontraram um percentual ainda maior, com 87% dos pacientes persistindo com queixas de dispneia e fadiga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>Há evidências de que a COVID-19 aumenta a incidência de complicações cardiovasculares nos primeiros 12 meses após a infecção aguda. Um estudo prospectivo demonstrou que a presença de injúria miocárdica foi associada à persistência de sintomas no decorrer de 12 meses subsequentes a infecção aguda, bem como ao aumento das taxas de readmissão hospitalar e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Wang et al. identificaram um aumento significativo em eventos cerebrovasculares, arrítmicos, tromboembólicos e isquêmicos, além de cardiopatias inflamatórias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Indivíduos recuperados de COVID-19 têm um risco adicional de 90% em desenvolver IC nos primeiros 9 meses após a infecção aguda. Este risco é diretamente influenciado pela idade e pelo histórico de hipertensão arterial sistêmica, sendo maior no período inicial da recuperação da fase aguda da infecção. Contudo, este risco não se restringe apenas a essa fase inicial, sendo necessário considerar estes indivíduos recuperados da infecção como grupo de risco para o desenvolvimento futuro de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> O mecanismo fisiopatológico pelo qual sobreviventes de COVID-19 apresentam maior risco de IC ainda não foi completamente estabelecido. Ainda não está claro até que ponto estas complicações são secundárias a processos patológicos únicos, em vez de consequências diretas de complicações infecciosas agudas. A invasão viral direta de cardiomiócitos e subsequente morte celular ou infecção de células endoteliais seguidas de disfunção, coagulopatia e microangiopatia mediadas pelo complemento podem representar alguns dos possíveis gatilhos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>O risco de desenvolvimento de IC, particularmente com fração de ejeção preservada, pode estar relacionado à presença prévia de IC com fração de ejeção preservada subclínica com consequente progressão a um estágio sintomático, mas também pode ser resultado do processo inflamatório miocárdico e isquêmico microvascular. Este processo inflamatório causado pelo SARS-CoV-2 pode continuar após a recuperação da infecção viral, persistindo a infiltração tecidual de células inflamatórias e, em alguns casos, evoluindo com áreas de fibrose. Os sobreviventes da pandemia de COVID-19 podem representar uma população de risco para um futuro desenvolvimento de complicações envolvendo a disfunção diastólica do VE, hipertensão pulmonar e disfunção do VD, principalmente aqueles recuperados das formas graves com severa hipoxemia e complicações trombóticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>Poucos estudos avaliaram o risco imediato e a longo prazo em indivíduos com IC que desenvolveram COVID-19. A maioria dos registros limitou as inclusões dos participantes aos hospitalizados com COVID-19, não estratificou os eventos clínicos associados, e desenvolveu um curto período de acompanhamento encerrando esta fase antes do fim da pandemia. Há relatos de aumento substancial na taxa de mortalidade no ano seguinte à infecção por COVID-19, com taxas variando de 1,3% a 12%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Esses eventos são frequentemente atribuídos à morte súbita cardiovascular por prováveis mecanismos arrítmicos ou trombóticos.</p>
<p>Bhatt et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> realizaram um estudo prospectivo, multicêntrico e duplo cego, com participantes de 20 países, chamado DELIVER. Este estudo incluiu indivíduos com IC que apresentam fração de ejeção preservada ou levemente reduzida para avaliar a segurança e a eficácia do uso diário de 10 mg de dapaglifozina versus placebo. Cerca de 9,4% dos participantes desenvolveram COVID-19 durante o período do estudo, sendo que quase metade destes precisaram de internação por um período prolongado e 20% tiveram um desfecho fatal. Foi identificado que os participantes diagnosticados com COVID-19 tiveram maior mortalidade por todas as causas após a infecção. Este aumento de mortalidade permaneceu elevado mesmo 3 a 6 meses após o diagnóstico. Foram excluídos eventos imediatamente fatais de COVID-19 e ajustado segundo covariáveis. A dapaglifozina demonstrou benefícios no tratamento da IC mesmo durante o tratamento da COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>Greene et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> avaliaram em uma coorte retrospectiva com mais de 90 mil indivíduos, o impacto da COVID-19 em pacientes com IC e fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFER), tanto em regime hospitalar quanto ambulatorial. Os principais desfechos avaliados foram mortalidade por todas as causas em 30 e 90 dias e o desfecho composto por hospitalização e mortalidade. Nesses pacientes com ICFER, um teste positivo para COVID-19 foi identificado como fator independente para aumento de risco de morte e agravos da IC em pacientes ambulatoriais, quando comparado aos pacientes com ICFER com teste de COVID-19 negativo. Em indivíduos com critérios clínicos de estabilidade da IC no momento do teste positivo para COVID-19, 33% tiveram uma evolução desfavorável (internação ou morte) em 5 meses de seguimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref> resume os principais estudos que avaliaram a incidência de IC e complicações cardiovasculares após infecção por COVID-19.</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption><title>Efeitos da COVID-19 na incidência de IC e na evolução de pacientes com IC crônica</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Autor</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Nº de participantes</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Principais resultados</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Son et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">2.152</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>A injúria miocárdica causada pela COVID-19 tem um curso clínico mais severo em paciente com DAC e IC (pior prognóstico).</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Não houve diferença significativa em relação a complicações nos pacientes que usavam IECA/BRA e desenvolveram COVID-19.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Yonas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21.640</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Houve um aumento na incidência de IC aguda em pacientes sem histórico prévio.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Zuin et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">21.463.173</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Indivíduos recuperados de COVID-19 tem um risco adicional de 90% em desenvolver IC nos primeiros 9 meses após a infecção aguda. Este risco é diretamente influenciado pela idade e pelo histórico de hipertensão arterial sistêmica.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Babapoor-Farrokhran et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1.638</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Realizou uma coorte retrospectiva comparando o número de admissões hospitalar por IC, o tempo médio de internação e a taxa de readmissão em 30 dias antes e durante a pandemia de COVID-19. No período avaliado houve uma redução no número de internações (774 versus 864; p &lt; 0,001), enquanto o tempo médio de internação (6,05 versus 5,25 dias; p &lt; 0,001) e a taxa de readmissão aumentaram (20,6% versus 19,1%; p &lt; 0,001).</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Bhatt et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">6.263</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Cerca de 9,4% dos participantes desenvolveram COVID-19 durante o período do estudo, sendo que quase metade destes precisaram de internação por um período prolongado e 20% tiveram um desfecho fatal.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Foi identificado que os participantes diagnosticados com COVID-19 tiveram maior mortalidade por todas as causas após a infecção.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Este aumento de mortalidade permaneceu elevado mesmo 3 a 6 meses após o diagnóstico.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Greene et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">90.052</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Em pacientes com histórico de ICFER um teste positivo para COVID-19 foi identificado como fator independente para aumento de risco de morte e agravos da IC em pacientes ambulatoriais, quando comparado aos pacientes com ICFER com teste de COVID-19 negativo. Em indivíduos com critérios clínicos de estabilidade da IC no momento do teste positivo para COVID-19, 33% tiveram uma evolução desfavorável (internação ou morte) em 5 meses de seguimento.</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4"><p>BRA: bloqueador do receptor da angiotensina; COVID-19: doença coronavírus 2019; DAC: doença arterial coronariana; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; ICFER: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora da angiotensina.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusões</title>
<p>A IC está relacionada ao aumento da mortalidade, do tempo de internação e da incidência de complicações em pacientes que adoecem pelo SARS-CoV-2. Indivíduos com IC crônica apresentam maior percentual de agudização (IC aguda), quando apresentam COVID-19. É provável que haja uma associação entre a COVID-19 e a IC através de um mecanismo fisiopatológico compartilhado e centrado na inflamação.</p>
<p>Mesmo após a recuperação da infecção aguda de COVID-19, há um aumento da incidência de complicações como arritmias, IC (em especial a IC com fração de ejeção preservada), eventos isquêmicos coronarianos, além de hipertensão arterial, diabetes mellitus e fibrose miocárdica. Há relatos de aumento substancial na taxa de mortalidade no ano seguinte à infecção por COVID-19, frequentemente atribuídos à morte súbita cardiovascular por prováveis mecanismos arrítmicos ou trombóticos.</p>
<p>Poucos estudos avaliaram os efeitos da COVID-19 sobre os pacientes com a forma crônica da IC após a recuperação da infecção aguda, limitando-se a seguimentos de curto prazo e estudos post-hoc. Novos estudos são necessários para ampliar o conhecimento do impacto cardiovascular a longo prazo causado pela pandemia.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><label>Sources of funding</label><p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><label>Study association</label><p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</label><p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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