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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20240041i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240041i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Hemochromatosis in Heart Failure: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Treatment</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Sguario</surname><given-names>Rodrigo Mantovani Roehrs</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Biselli</surname><given-names>Bruno</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7857-9863</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Seguro</surname><given-names>Luis Fernando Bernal da Costa</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address: Luis Fernando Bernal da Costa Seguro •</label> Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo - Av. Dr. Enéas Carvalho de Aguiar, 44. Postal Code <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>, Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP - Brazil E-mail: <email>luisseguro@yahoo.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potential conflict of interest</label><p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label><p>Luis Beck-da-Silva</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>18</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>4</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240041</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received"><day>11</day><month>07</month><year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd"><day>03</day><month>09</month><year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>06</day><month>09</month><year>2024</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Hemochromatosis</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="6"/>
<table-count count="8"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="27"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-03-e20240041-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Hemochromatosis is a disease characterized by excessive intestinal absorption of iron and its deposition in various organs, including the heart. There are 2 types of hemochromatosis: primary and secondary. Primary or hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) is a genetic disease, whereas secondary hemochromatosis is a consequence of systemic diseases, such as anemia, thalassemia, liver disease, or excessive blood transfusions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>It was first described in the nineteenth century by the French physician Armand Trousseau, who raised the hypothesis that some excess element in the blood was responsible for causing organ damage and skin pigmentation. In 1935, Joseph Sheldon identified that iron accumulation in tissues was responsible for toxicity and was the first to suggest that this metabolic defect had a genetic origin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> In the 1950s, a study of iron kinetics correlated increased intestinal iron absorption in patients with hemochromatosis. It was only in 1996 that the &quot;hemochromatosis gene,&quot; HFE (&quot;high Fe&quot;), which is responsible for most cases of the disease, was identified.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>In HH, the C282Y genetic variant in the HFE gene has been identified as the most prevalent. Currently, other mutations in different genes are also known to be related to the disease, including variants in the genes encoding a second transferrin receptor (TFR2), ferroportin (SLC40A1), hepcidin (HAMP), and hemojuvelin (HJV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Pathophysiology and classification</title>
<p>Hepcidin, a small hormone produced in the liver, is the main regulator of iron homeostasis. Through its interaction with ferroportin, it inhibits duodenal absorption of dietary iron. Molecular defects that cause hepcidin deficiency lead to uncontrolled intestinal absorption, with progressive accumulation of iron in tissues and organs, especially in the liver, pancreas, and heart.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>This is the pathophysiological basis of HH related to mutation of the HFE gene, since abnormally low levels of hepcidin are found in this condition.5 The iron deposited in the tissues promotes free radical generation, increased oxidative stress, and direct cell damage. The liver and heart are the most affected organs in hemochromatosis. The main causes of death in patients with hemochromatosis are cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Some authors consider that the term &quot;hemochromatosis&quot; should be reserved for the clinical entity caused by genetic alterations that primarily affect the hepcidin-ferroportin system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> However, other systemic conditions and excessive blood transfusion can lead to iron overload and consequent clinical manifestations secondary to overload with the same phenotype as HH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">2</xref> display the proposed classification for HH or primary hemochromatosis and the main clinical conditions associated with secondary hemochromatosis, respectively.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Classification of hereditary hemochromatosis</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Classification</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Gene involved</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Inheritance</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Clinical presentation</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Type 1</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">HFE gene</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Autosomal recessive</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Onset in adults, more severe in men, predominant liver and joint involvement</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Type 2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">HJV (subtype A) <break/>HAMP (subtype B)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Autosomal recessive</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Earlier onset, common cardiac and endocrine involvement</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Type 3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Gene TFR2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Autosomal recessive</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Rare, similar to type 1, but with early onset</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Type 4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Gene SCLC40A1</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Autosomal dominant</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Rare, similar to type 1, but with early onset and more severe</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><p>Adapted from Girelli et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption><title>Causes of secondary hemochromatosis</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="100%">
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Hemoglobinopathies</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Thalassemia</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Sickle cell anemia</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Sideroblastic anemia</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Acquired anemias</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Myelodysplastic syndrome</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Myelofibrosis</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Aplastic anemia</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Leukemias</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Chronic kidney disease</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Other conditions</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Chronic kidney disease</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Friedreich&apos;s ataxia</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• High-iron diet</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2"><p>Adapted from Pereira et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Clinical presentation and complementary tests for hemochromatosis</title>
<p>In the early stages of the disease, the main symptoms are nonspecific, such as fatigue, arthralgia, and abdominal pain. Findings such as the development of diabetes, hypogonadism, signs or symptoms of heart failure, and changes in skin pigmentation are found in later stages. Therefore, a high level of clinical suspicion is necessary to make the diagnosis in the early stages, which is essential for disease prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The main clinical manifestations of the disease according to the systems involved are displayed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Table 3</label>
<caption><title>Clinical manifestations of hemochromatosis</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Affected system</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Signs and symptoms</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cutaneous</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Skin pigmentation</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Hepatic</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Persistent increase in transaminases, hepatomegaly, cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Osteoarticular</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Arthralgia, arthritis, chondrocalcinosis, reduced bone mineral density</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Endocrine</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Diabetes mellitus, hypopituitarism, hypoparathyroidism, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiovascular</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Cardiomyopathy, heart failure, arrhythmias</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3"><p>Adapted from Girelli et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>In cases of clinical suspicion, initial tests for disease screening should include serum iron levels, transferrin saturation, and ferritin. The identification of transferrin saturation greater than 55% with ferritin greater than 200 ng/ml for premenopausal women or greater than 300 ng/ml for men and postmenopausal women is indicative of iron overload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Nonetheless, ferritin values should be interpretation cautiously, as they may be above reference values in acute inflammatory processes. Furthermore, in situations such as infection, neoplasia, hemolysis, and liver diseases, these values may be altered regardless of the total amount of iron in the body.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Iron deposits in tissues, especially in the liver and heart, can be detected by means of non-invasive tests, especially magnetic resonance imaging. For this reason, liver and/or endomyocardial biopsies are currently rarely indicated for the diagnosis of hemochromatosis.</p>
<p>Whenever available, genetic testing should be performed, especially to detect the C282Y and H63D mutations in the HFE gene (responsible for most cases of primary hemochromatosis) (Central Illustration). In cases with clinical suspicion, it is recommended to consider performing hemoglobin electrophoresis to detect congenital hemoglobinopathies, such as thalassemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Hemochromatosis: cardiovascular involvement</title>
<p>The pathophysiology of cardiomyopathy associated with iron overload is multifactorial. It involves a combination of oxidative stress, iron-mediated toxicity, inflammation, and fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> It is a storage disease that progressively affects cardiac tissue, starting in the epicardial region and reaching the endomyocardial layer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>The increased free iron in circulation generates greater influx and iron deposition in cardiomyocytes, which leads to greater susceptibility to oxidative stress, inhibition of the Ca<sup>2+</sup>-ATPase pump in the endoplasmic reticulum, and dysfunction of the sodium-calcium cotransporter. As a consequence, there is an increase in the concentration of intracellular calcium with impaired contractile force and cardiac relaxation.1</p>
<p>In the initial stages, symptoms result from diastolic dysfunction, with characteristics of restrictive cardiomyopathy. In the absence of treatment, it can progress to a dilated cardiomyopathy phenotype with systolic dysfunction and possible biventricular involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>The clinical manifestation consists of signs and symptoms of heart failure, such as dyspnea on exertion, orthopnea, peripheral edema, and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea. It is progressive in nature, and symptoms usually begin during the second and third decades of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Rhythm disorders are another cardiovascular manifestation present in hemochromatosis. Iron deposition in the cardiac conduction system causes direct cell damage due to iron toxicity and increased oxidative stress. Furthermore, replacement of the myocardium by fibrotic tissue leads to abnormalities in the generation and propagation of electrical stimuli, which ultimately promotes an arrhythmogenic substrate. Supraventricular arrhythmias are common, atrial fibrillation being the most commonly associated with the disease, conferring a greater thromboembolic risk due to the formation of thrombi in the left atrium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Involvement of the conduction system predisposes to the development of node disease and advanced atrioventricular blocks requiring pacemaker implantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Finally, ventricular arrhythmias are less common, with a higher incidence in later stages of the disease, associated with the presence of greater fibrotic burden and a dilated cardiomyopathy phenotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Other mechanisms may contribute to increased risk of cardiovascular events in hemochromatosis. Oxidative stress increases the oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and stimulates the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. Additionally, the inflammatory process leads to a prothrombotic state and endothelial dysfunction, contributing to increased risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>There is also the possibility of valve involvement due to the disease, with thickening of the leaflets and fibrosis of the valve tissue impairing its function, manifesting mainly as valve regurgitation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Complementary tests for assessment of cardiac involvement (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>)</title>
<p>Echocardiography is the initial tool for identifying structural and functional changes in the heart.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Left ventricular ejection fraction is normally preserved, with normal ventricular wall thickness in the early stages of iron overload cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> At this phase, the commonly present functional change is diastolic dysfunction, ranging from grade 1 to a restrictive physiology pattern with increased filling pressures in the left ventricle, with early identification of a reduction in the lateral and medial diastolic velocity of the mitral annulus on tissue Doppler imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> In the absence of adequate treatment, chamber dilation may occur associated with left ventricular systolic dysfunction, or even biventricular involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Diagnosis of cardiac hemochromatosis. Adapted from Kremastinos et al.15 HH: hereditary hemochromatosis; LVDD: left ventricular diastolic diameter; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; NMR: nuclear magnetic resonance; RV: right ventricle; TSI: transferrin saturation index.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-03-e20240041-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>The only test capable of noninvasively identifying and quantifying iron deposition in cardiomyocytes is cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, which is currently the gold standard for diagnosing cardiomyopathy secondary to hemochromatosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> The values found in the images obtained through quantification on T1, T2, and T2* maps are inversely correlated with the amount of iron in the tissue; in other words, the higher the iron concentration, the lower the signal intensity of the image. Analysis of the T2* map sequence has the highest sensitivity for detecting iron in cardiac tissue and is considered the best sequence for diagnosis. Preferably, analysis of the middle segment of the intraventricular septum should be performed, as it has a high representation of the global distribution of iron in the myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<p>Iron overload is diagnosed by T2* values &lt; 20 ms. Values &lt; 10 ms are indicative of severe overload, and they have a better ability to predict the risk of developing heart failure and arrhythmias, with a sensitivity of 97.5% and specificity of 83%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> A prospective study in patients with cardiomyopathy due to iron overload secondary to thalassemia demonstrated that 98% of patients who developed heart failure within the first year of follow-up had T2* &lt; 10 ms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>Another finding that may be present, especially in patients in more advanced stages of the disease, is the presence of late enhancement after gadolinium infusion, identifying areas of myocardial fibrosis.</p>
<p>Finally, magnetic resonance imaging is also used to assess response to treatment, which, if initiated in early stages, is expected to reduce the iron deposited in the tissue, with improved cardiac function and reduced risk of developing heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Treatment</title>
<p>After the diagnosis of hemachromatosis, whether primary or secondary, treatment should be proposed early, as it is possible to prevent the development of organ dysfunctions secondary to excess iron in tissues, particularly hepatic and heart failure,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> in the initial phases of the disease. Generally, appropriate therapy is associated with increased survival.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> To date, phlebotomy and iron chelators are the two main therapies linked to better outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2</xref> outlines an accepted strategy for managing phlebotomy and iron chelators.</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>Management of iron chelation in cardiac hemochromatosis. Adapted from Kremastinos DT, et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> HF: heart failure; TSI: transferrin saturation index.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-03-e20240041-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>From a cardiovascular perspective, the treatment of iron overload can improve cardiac function, resulting in an increased ejection fraction, reduced systolic and diastolic diameters of the left ventricle, decreased diameter of the left atrium, and reduced left ventricular mass, as well as a decrease in long-term mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>Phlebotomy remains one of the primary and most effective therapeutic options for removing excess iron deposited in tissues in hemachromatosis. Its goal is to promote the depletion of this ion, which leads to the utilization of iron stored in tissues.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Initially, the procedure involves the removal of 400 to 500 ml of blood during each phlebotomy session, facilitating the removal of 200 to 250 mg of iron. It should be performed weekly until ferritin levels are &lt; 50 mg/ml and transferrin saturation is &lt; 30%. After this initial phase, maintenance phlebotomies should be conducted with the necessary frequency to keep ferritin levels &lt; 100 mg/ml and transferrin saturation &lt; 50%, while maintaining hemoglobin levels above 11 g/dl (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Some clinical situations impede phlebotomy. In hemochromatosis secondary to hemolytic anemia or hemoglobinopathies, with iron overload resulting from repeated blood transfusions, iron chelators are safe and effective alternatives for treatment. The currently available options are oral deferasirox, oral deferiprone, and parenteral deferoxamine mesylate (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Table 4</label>
<caption><title>Iron chelator options</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle" />
<th align="center" valign="middle">Deferoxamine mesylate</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Deferiprone</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Deferasirox</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Routine dose</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20 to 60 mg/kg/day</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">75 mg/kg/day</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20 to 30 mg/kg/day</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Administration route</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Intravenous (in 4 to 6 hours); subcutaneous (in 8 to 12 hours) or intramuscular</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Oral</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Oral</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Frequency</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Once daily <break/>5 to 7 days a week</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">3 times a day</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Once daily</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Adjustment for renal insufficiency (creatinine clearance)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">10 to 50 ml/min/1.73: 20% to 25% of the dose &lt; 10 ml/min/1.73: avoid use</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">No specific recommendations</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 40 ml/kg/1.73: contraindicated</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4"><p>Adapted from Cançado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>These drugs have a high affinity for iron, binding to the free ion in the bloodstream and tissues, promoting excretion through urine or bile.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Like phlebotomy, chelation therapy has shown benefits in prognosis and increased survival, with the potential to prevent the development of heart failure or other cardiovascular complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Previous studies means using serial cardiac resonance imaging have shown the efficacy of these medications in reducing iron deposited in cardiac tissue, in addition to demonstrating an ability to improve diastolic and systolic function and prevent arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>Heart transplantation is an option for patients who develop cardiomyopathy with advanced heart failure criteria and who are refractory to optimized treatment, regardless of the phenotype presented. Nevertheless, patients with the restrictive cardiomyopathy phenotype, regardless of the etiology, have higher mortality while awaiting transplantation when compared to other phenotypes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>Data from patients with hemochromatosis undergoing heart transplantation, although limited, suggest that, after transplantation, the outcomes are similar to those of patients transplanted for other etiologies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Finally, these patients, after transplantation, should continue phlebotomy and/or iron-chelating therapies in order to prevent the development of cardiomyopathy secondary to iron overload in the cardiac graft.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>Sources of funding</label><p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>Study association</label><p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label><p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240041</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Hemocromatose na Insuficiência Cardíaca: Apresentação Clínica, Diagnóstico e Tratamento</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Sguario</surname><given-names>Rodrigo Mantovani Roehrs</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Biselli</surname><given-names>Bruno</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7857-9863</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Seguro</surname><given-names>Luis Fernando Bernal da Costa</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência: Luis Fernando Bernal da Costa Seguro •</label> Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo - Av. Dr. Enéas Carvalho de Aguiar, 44. CEP <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>, Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP - Brasil E-mail: <email>luisseguro@yahoo.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potencial conflito de interesse</label>
<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label> <p>Luis Beck-da-Silva</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Hemocromatose</kwd>
<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
<kwd>Miocardiopatia</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f4">
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-03-e20240041-pt-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A hemocromatose é uma doença caracterizada pelo excesso de absorção intestinal de ferro e sua deposição em vários órgãos, incluindo o coração. Existem 2 tipos de hemocromatose: primária e secundária. A hemocromatose primária ou hemocromatose hereditária (HH) é uma doença genética, enquanto a hemocromatose secundária é uma consequência de doenças sistêmicas como anemia, talassemia, doença hepática; ou do excesso de transfusões de sangue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Foi descrita pela primeira vez no século 19 pelo médico francês Armand Trousseau, que aventou a hipótese de algum elemento em excesso no sangue ser responsável por causar lesão orgânica e pigmentação cutânea. Em 1935, Joseph Sheldon identificou que o acúmulo de ferro nos tecidos era responsável pela toxicidade e foi o primeiro a sugerir que tal defeito metabólico tinha origem genética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Na década de 1950, um estudo da cinética do ferro correlacionou a absorção intestinal de ferro aumentada em pacientes com hemocromatose e, somente em 1996, o &quot;gene da hemocromatose&quot; HFE (&quot;high Fe&quot;), responsável pela maioria dos casos da doença, foi identificado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na HH, a variante genética C282Y no gene HFE foi identificada como a mais prevalente. Hoje são conhecidas outras mutações em diferentes genes também relacionadas à doença, incluindo variantes nos genes que codificam um segundo receptor da transferrina (TFR2), ferroportina (SLC40A1), hepcidina (HAMP) e hemojuvelina (HJV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Fisiopatologia e classificação</title>
<p>A hepcidina, um pequeno hormônio produzido no fígado, é o maior regulador da homeostase de ferro. Através de sua interação com a ferroportina, inibe a absorção duodenal do ferro ingerido na dieta. Defeitos moleculares que causam deficiência de hepcidina levam a uma absorção intestinal descontrolada, com acúmulo progressivo de ferro em tecidos e órgãos, principalmente em fígado, pâncreas e coração.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Essa é a base fisiopatológica da HH relacionada à mutação do gene HFE, uma vez que nessa condição são encontrados níveis anormalmente baixos de hepcidina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O ferro depositado nos tecidos promove geração de radicais livres, aumento de estresse oxidativo e lesão celular direta, sendo o fígado e o coração os órgãos mais acometidos na hemocromatose. As principais causas de morte em indivíduos com hemocromatose são cirrose, carcinoma hepatocelular e insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Alguns autores consideram que o termo &quot;hemocromatose&quot; deveria ser reservado para a entidade clínica causada por alterações genéticas que afetam primariamente o sistema hepcidina-ferroportina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> No entanto, outras condições sistêmicas e excesso de transfusão sanguínea podem levar a sobrecarga de ferro e consequentes manifestações clínicas secundárias à sobrecarga com o mesmo fenótipo da HH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>A classificação proposta para HH ou primária, assim como as principais condições clínicas associadas à hemocromatose secundária são apresentadas nas <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabelas 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">2</xref>, respectivamente.</p>
<table-wrap id="t5">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Classificação de hemocromatose hereditária</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Classificação</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Gene envolvido</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Herança</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Apresentação clínica</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tipo 1</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Gene HFE</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Autossômica recessiva</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Início no adulto, mais grave em homens, predomínio de comprometimento hepático e articular</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tipo 2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">HJV (subtipo A) <break/>HAMP (subtipo B)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Autossômica recessiva</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Início mais precoce, comum comprometimento cardíaco e endócrino</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tipo 3</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Gene TFR2</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Autossômica recessiva</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Rara, semelhante ao tipo 1, mas com início precoce</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tipo 4</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Gene SCLC40A1</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Autossômica dominante</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Rara, semelhante ao tipo 1, mas com início precoce e mais grave</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN5"><p>Adaptado de Girelli et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="t6">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption><title>Causas de hemocromatose secundária</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="00%">
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Hemoglobinopatias</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Talassemia</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Anemia falciforme</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Anemia sideroblástica</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Anemias adquiridas</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Síndrome mielodisplásica</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Mielofibrose</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Anemia aplásica</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Leucemias</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Doença renal crônica</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Outras condições</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Doença hepática crônica</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Ataxia de Friedreich</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">• Dieta com alta quantidade de ferro</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN6"><p>Adaptado de Pereira et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Quadro clínico e exames complementares da hemocromatose</title>
<p>Em estágios iniciais da doença os principais sintomas são inespecíficos, como fadiga, artralgia e dor abdominal. Achados como desenvolvimento de diabetes, hipogonadismo, sinais e sintomas de insuficiência cardíaca e alteração de pigmentação cutânea são encontrados em fases mais tardias. Desta forma, é necessária uma alta suspeição clínica para a realização do diagnóstico na fase precoce, o que é essencial para o prognóstico da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> As principais manifestações clínicas da doença de acordo com sistemas cometidos estão apresentadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 3</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t7">
<label>Tabela 3</label>
<caption><title>Manifestações clínicas da hemocromatose</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Sistema acometido</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Sinais e sintomas</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cutâneo</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Pigmentação de pele</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Hepático</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Aumento persistente de transaminases, hepatomegalia, cirrose, carcinoma hepatocelular</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Osteoarticular</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Artralgia, artrite, condrocalcinose, redução de densidade mineral óssea</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Endócrino</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Diabetes mellitus, hipopituitarismo, hipoparatireoidismo, hipogonadismo hipogonadotrópico</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiovascular</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Miocardiopatia, insuficiência cardíaca, arritmias</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN7"><p>Adaptado de Girelli et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Em caso de suspeita clínica, os testes iniciais para rastreio de doença devem incluir dosagem de ferro sérico, saturação de transferrina e ferritina. A identificação de saturação de transferrina maior que 55% com ferritina maior que200 ng/ml para mulheres pré-menopausa ou maior que 300 ng/ml para homens e mulheres pós-menopausa é indicativo da sobrecarga de ferro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Contudo, a interpretação dos valores de ferritina deve ser realizada de forma cautelosa, podendo estar acima de valores da referência em processos inflamatórios agudos. Além disso, em situações como infecção, neoplasias, hemólise e doenças hepáticas, seus valores podem estar alterados independentemente da quantidade total de ferro corporal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>O depósito de ferro em tecidos, especialmente no fígado e coração, pode ser detectado através de exames não invasivos, sobretudo pela ressonância magnética. De modo que, atualmente, biópsias hepática e/ou endomiocárdica são raramente indicadas para o diagnóstico de hemocromatose.</p>
<p>Sempre que disponível, o teste genético deve ser realizado, especialmente para pesquisa de mutação C282Y e H63D no gene HFE (responsável pela maior parte dos casos de hemocromatose primária) (Figura Central). Se houver suspeita, recomenda-se considerar a realização de eletroforese de hemoglobinas para pesquisa de hemoglobinopatias congênitas, como as talassemias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Hemocromatose: envolvimento cardiovascular</title>
<p>A fisiopatologia da miocardiopatia associada à sobrecarga de ferro é multifatorial. Envolve a combinação de estresse oxidativo, toxicidade mediada pelo ferro, inflamação e fibrose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> É uma doença de depósito que acomete o tecido cardíaco de maneira progressiva, iniciando na região epicárdica até atingir camada endomiocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>O aumento de ferro livre na circulação gera maior influxo e deposição de ferro nos cardiomiócitos, o que leva a maior susceptibilidade ao estresse oxidativo, inibição do funcionamento da bomba Ca<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>+-ATPase no retículo endoplasmático e disfunção do cotransportador sódio-cálcio. Como consequência, ocorre o aumento da concentração de cálcio intracelular com prejuízo na força contrátil e relaxamento cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nos estágios iniciais, os sintomas decorrem de disfunção diastólica, com características de miocardiopatia restritiva. Na ausência de tratamento, pode progredir para fenótipo de miocardiopatia dilatada com disfunção sistólica e possível acometimento biventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>A manifestação clínica é de sinais e sintomas de insuficiência cardíaca, como dispneia ao esforço, ortopneia, edema periférico e dispneia paroxística noturna. É de caráter progressivo, geralmente com início de sintomas durante a segunda e terceira década de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os distúrbios de ritmo são outras manifestações cardiovasculares presentes na hemocromatose. O depósito de ferro no sistema de condução cardíaco causa lesão direta das células por toxicidade ao ferro e aumento de estresse oxidativo. Além disso, a substituição de miocárdio por tecido fibrótico leva a anormalidades na geração e propagação do estímulo elétrico, o que, por fim, promove um substrato arritmogênico. Arritmias supraventriculares são frequentes, sendo a fibrilação atrial a mais comumente associada à doença, conferindo um maior risco tromboembólico por formação de trombos em átrio esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> O acometimento do sistema de condução predispõe ao desenvolvimento de doença do nó e bloqueios atrioventriculares avançados com necessidade de implante de marca-passo. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Por fim, as arritmias ventriculares são menos frequentes, tendo maior incidência em estágios mais tardios da doença, associadas à presença de maior carga fibrótica e fenótipo de miocardiopatia dilatada. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Outros mecanismos podem contribuir para o aumento do risco de evento cardiovascular na hemocromatose. O estresse oxidativo aumenta a oxidação de lipoproteínas de baixa densidade e estimula a formação de placas ateroscleróticas.</p>
<p>Adicionalmente, o processo inflamatório leva a um estado pró-trombótico e disfunção endotelial, contribuindo para o aumento de risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Existe ainda a possibilidade de comprometimento valvar pela doença, com espessamento dos folhetos e fibrose de tecido valvar prejudicando sua função, manifestando-se principalmente como regurgitação valvar. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Exames complementares para avaliação do comprometimento cardíaco (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>)</title>
<p>O ecocardiograma é a ferramenta inicial para identificação de alterações estruturais e funcionais no coração. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> A fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo normalmente encontra-se preservada e com espessura de parede ventricular normal, nos estágios iniciais da miocardiopatia por sobrecarga de ferro.7 Nesta fase, a alteração funcional comumente presente é a disfunção diastólica, variando entre grau 1 até padrão de fisiologia restritiva com elevação das pressões de enchimento no ventrículo esquerdo, com identificação precoce da redução na velocidade diastólica lateral e medial do ânulo da mitral através de imagem de doppler tecidual. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Na ausência de tratamento adequado, pode haver dilatação de câmaras associada à disfunção sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo, ou até mesmo acometimento biventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Diagnóstico de hemocromatose cardíaca. Adaptado de Kremastinos et al.15 DDVE: diâmetro diastólico de ventrículo esquerdo; FEVE: fração de ejeção de ventrículo esquerdo; HH: hemocromatose hereditária; IST: índice de saturação de transferrina; RNM: ressonância nuclear magnética; VD: ventrículo direito.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-03-e20240041-pt-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>O único exame capaz de identificar e quantificar, de forma não invasiva, a deposição de ferro nos cardiomiócitos é a ressonância magnética cardíaca, sendo hoje o padrão-ouro para o diagnóstico da miocardiopatia secundária à hemocromatose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Os valores encontrados nas imagens obtidas através da quantificação em mapa T1, T2 e T2* correlacionam-se de maneira inversa à quantidade de ferro no tecido, ou seja, quanto maior a concentração de ferro, menor será a intensidade do sinal da imagem. A análise da sequência em mapa T2* tem a maior sensibilidade para a detecção do ferro no tecido cardíaco e é considerada a melhor sequência para o diagnóstico. Preferencialmente deve ser realizada análise do segmento médio do septo intraventricular, o qual tem uma alta representatividade da distribuição global de ferro no miocárdio. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<p>O diagnóstico de sobrecarga de ferro é feito com valores de T2* &lt; 20 ms. Valores &lt; 10 ms são indicativos de sobrecarga severa, com melhor capacidade de predizer o risco para o desenvolvimento de insuficiência cardíaca e arritmias, com sensibilidade de 97,5% e especificidade de 83%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Estudo prospectivo em pacientes com miocardiopatia por sobrecarga de ferro secundária à talassemia demonstrou que 98% dos pacientes que desenvolveram insuficiência cardíaca dentro do primeiro ano de seguimento tinham T2* &lt; 10 ms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>Outro achado que pode estar presente, especialmente nos pacientes em fases mais avançadas da doença, é a presença de realce tardio após infusão de gadolínio, identificando áreas de fibrose miocárdica.</p>
<p>Por fim, a ressonância magnética também é utilizada para avaliação de resposta ao tratamento, que, se iniciado em estágios precoces, espera-se uma redução do ferro depositado no tecido, com melhora de função cardíaca e redução do risco de desenvolvimento de insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Tratamento</title>
<p>Após o diagnóstico da hemocromatose, primária ou secundária, o tratamento deve ser proposto de maneira precoce, uma vez que, em fases iniciais da doença é possível prevenir o desenvolvimento de disfunções orgânicas secundárias ao excesso de ferro nos tecidos, especialmente insuficiência hepática e insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> De maneira geral, a terapia adequada está relacionada a maior sobrevida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Até o momento, a flebotomia e os quelantes de ferro são as duas principais terapias associadas a melhores desfechos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref> descreve uma estratégia aceita no manejo de flebotomia e quelantes de ferro.</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>Manejo de quelação de ferro na hemocromatose cardíaca Adaptado de Kremastinos et al.15 IC: insuficiência cardíaca; IST: índice de saturação de transferrina.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-03-e20240041-pt-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Do ponto de vista cardiovascular, o tratamento da sobrecarga de ferro é capaz de promover melhora da função cardíaca, com aumento de fração de ejeção, redução de diâmetros sistólicos e diastólicos do ventrículo esquerdo, redução de diâmetro do átrio esquerdo e redução da massa do ventrículo esquerdo, assim como redução de mortalidade a longo prazo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>A flebotomia ainda é uma das principais e mais efetivas opções terapêuticas para remoção do excesso de ferro depositado nos tecidos na hemocromatose. Tem o objetivo de promover a depleção deste íon, o que leva à utilização do ferro depositado em tecidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Inicialmente, o procedimento consiste na retirada de 400 a 500 ml de sangue a cada sessão de flebotomia, promovendo a remoção de 200 a 250 mg de ferro. Deve manter periodicidade semanal até que sejam alcançados valores de ferritina &lt; 50 mg/ml e saturação de transferrina &lt; 30%. Após essa fase inicial, deverão ser realizadas flebotomias de manutenção, com a frequência necessária para manter os níveis de ferritina &lt; 100 mg/ml e saturação de transferrina &lt; 50%, contudo, mantendo valores de hemoglobina maiores que 11 g/dl (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Algumas situações clínicas são impeditivas para realização de flebotomia. Na hemocromatose secundária à anemia hemolítica ou hemoglobinopatias, com sobrecarga de ferro decorrente de transfusões sanguíneas de repetição, os quelantes de ferro são alternativas seguras e eficazes para o tratamento. Atualmente as opções disponíveis são deferasirox e deferiprona, por via oral, e mesilato de desferroxamina por via parenteral (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 4</xref>). Essas drogas possuem alta afinidade pelo ferro, ligando-se ao íon livre na corrente sanguínea e nos tecidos, promovendo sua excreção através da urina ou bile.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Da mesma forma que a flebotomia, a terapia com quelante mostrou benefício em prognóstico e aumento de sobrevida, com potencial de prevenir o desenvolvimento de insuficiência cardíaca ou outras complicações cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Estudos prévios, através de imagens seriadas de ressonância cardíaca, mostraram a eficácia desses medicamentos na redução do ferro depositado no tecido cardíaco, além de evidenciar uma capacidade de melhorar a função diastólica e sistólica e prevenir arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t8">
<label>Tabela 4</label>
<caption><title>Opções de quelantes de ferro</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Mesilato de desferroxamina</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Deferiprona</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Deferasirox</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dose habitual</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20 a 60 mg/kg/dia</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">75 mg/kg/dia</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">20 a 30 mg/kg/dia</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Via de administração</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Intravenosa (em 4 a 6 horas), subcutânea (em 8 a 12 horas) ou intramuscular</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Oral</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Oral</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Frequência</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1 vez ao dia <break/>5 a 7 dias na semana</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">3 vezes ao dia</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1 vez ao dia</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ajuste para insuficiência renal (ClCr)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">10 a 50 ml/min/1,73: 20% a 25% da dose &lt; 10 ml/min/1,73: evitar uso</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Sem recomendações específicas</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 40 ml/kg/1,73: contraindicado</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN8"><p>Adaptado de Cançado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>O transplante cardíaco é uma opção para pacientes que evoluem com miocardiopatia com critérios de insuficiência cardíaca avançada, refratárias ao tratamento otimizado, independente do fenótipo apresentado. Contudo, pacientes com fenótipo de miocardiopatia restritiva, independente da etiologia, apresentam maior mortalidade enquanto aguardam o transplante quando comparado aos outros fenótipos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os dados de pacientes com hemocromatose submetidos a transplante cardíaco, embora limitados, sugerem que após a realização do transplante os desfechos são similares aos pacientes transplantados por outras etiologias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Por fim, esses pacientes, após o transplante, devem manter flebotomias e/ou terapias com quelante de ferro a fim de prevenir o desenvolvimento de miocardiopatia secundária à sobrecarga de ferro no enxerto cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
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<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><label>Fontes de financiamento</label><p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><label>Vinculação acadêmica</label><p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</label><p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
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