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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20240027i</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240027i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>The Trajectory of Gliflozins: From Apple Tree Bark to Reduced Overall Mortality in Heart Failure</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2779-9807</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Marques</surname>
						<given-names>Fabiana</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>and Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-6644-7524</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Valicelli</surname>
						<given-names>Flávio Henrique</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>and Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5035-9172</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Tanaka</surname>
						<given-names>Denise Mayumi</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Simões</surname>
						<given-names>Marcus Vinícius</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>and Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto – Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address</label>: Marcus Vinicius Simões • Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto – Avenida dos Bandeirantes, 3900. Postal Code 14048-900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, SP – Brazil; E-mail: <email>msimoes@fmrp.usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Luis Beck-da-Silva</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>06</day>
				<month>09</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>09</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>4</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20240027</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>30</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>28</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>28</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>A small number of drugs have been responsible for major advances in medical practice throughout history, for instance, the discovery of penicillin, insulin, aspirin, and statins. Diabetes treatment began with parenteral insulin, discovered by Banting and Bet approximately a century ago; since then, several classes of oral medications that improve glycemic control have been developed and become available for widespread use. More recently, sodium-glucose cotransporter inhibitors have emerged, with a surprising impact and effect on the treatment of patients with diabetes, heart failure, and renal failure, and they are currently considered one of the greatest therapeutic advances in cardiovascular medicine in the twenty-first century. <sup>1</sup> Initially developed only for glycemic control, their effects on cardiovascular protection have been widely demonstrated in large clinical trials in patients with diabetes, showing a significant reduction in the risk of cardiovascular diseases, prevention of hospitalization due to heart failure by 25% to 35%, and reduction of renal outcomes, regardless of the presence or absence of diabetes and the therapies used to treat these conditions.<sup>2</sup> In this trajectory of discoveries, gliflozins culminated by demonstrating beneficial effects, including reduced cardiovascular mortality and overall mortality in patients with heart failure, regardless of the presence of diabetes mellitus, in all ranges of left ventricular ejection fraction.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Sodium-Glucose Transporter 2 Inhibitors</kwd>
				<kwd>Mortality</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="16"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="42"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: The Trajectory of Gliflozins: From Apple Tree Bark to Reduced Overall Mortality in Heart Failure</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Phlorizin was isolated from the root bark of apple trees in 1835, and it was initially considered for treatment of malaria due to its bitter taste similar to that of quinine. Phlorizin is a glycoside that is also present in the roots of other fruit trees such as plum, cherry, and pear, with the ability to competitively inhibit sodium-glucose cotransporters (SGLT) present in the kidney and intestine. In 1886, its glucosuric effect was discovered, with a consequent reduction in plasma glucose levels. Studies in insulin-resistant rats after partial pancreatectomy showed that subcutaneous application of phlorizin could normalize glycemic levels; however, due to pharmacological characteristics of low solubility, short half-life, low bioavailability, instability, and gastrointestinal side effects, phlorizin was not considered for pharmacological treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In the 1990s, researchers from the University of Kyoto developed a phlorizin analogue with oral absorption capacity, which was the first synthetic SGLT inhibitor with more adequate pharmacological characteristics and proven ability to reduce glycemia in animal models of diabetic rats.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Subsequently, multiple pharmaceutical companies developed a series of SGLT inhibitors for the treatment of DM.</p>
			<p>In 2008, the Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicine Agency expressed concern regarding the increased cardiovascular risk associated with the use of anti-diabetogenic drugs after questioning the cardiovascular safety of rosiglitazone. Accordingly, these regulatory agencies began to require large-scale clinical trials demonstrating safety for the approval of new hypoglycemic medications. Within this context, to comply with regulatory agencies’ new rules, SGLT inhibitors were evaluated in a series of large trials designed to demonstrate non-inferiority in relation to major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), encompassing a diabetic population with cardiovascular disease (CVD) or at high cardiovascular risk. To the great surprise of the scientific community, these studies evaluating cardiovascular safety obtained highly surprising results, observing not only safety, but robust cardiovascular benefit<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">central Illustration</xref>).</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action</title>
				<p>In healthy adults, the proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs all the glucose filtered daily, which corresponds to approximately 180 grams, with no glycosuria being observed. Reabsorption is an active process associated with sodium, which occurs through carrier proteins known as SGLT (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Two isoforms of cotransporters expressed in the luminal membrane have been described: SGLT1 and SGLT2. SGLT1 have a low capacity to transport glucose, attaching 2 Na<sup>+</sup> ions to each glucose molecule, and they and are responsible for 3% of glucose reabsorbed in the kidney. They are expressed in the most distal portion of the proximal renal tubule (segment 3) and, mainly, in the small intestine. SGLT1 are also found in other tissues, such as the heart and skeletal muscle. SGLT2 have a high glucose transport capacity, coupling 1 Na<sup>+</sup> ion to each glucose molecule. They are present almost exclusively in the initial portion (segment 1) of the proximal convoluted tubule and are responsible for the reabsorption of 97% of glucose and 65% of sodium through the kidneys. In individuals without diabetes, when blood glucose exceeds the renal threshold of 180 mg/dL, the transporters’ capacity is saturated, resulting in urinary glucose excretion (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> However, in the context of diabetes, maximum renal glucose transport is increased due to tubular hypertrophy and, mainly, to increased expression of SGLT1 and SGLT2, raising the glycosuria threshold to values close to 250 mg/dL. This is a maladaptive process that promotes the maintenance of hyperglycemia. The use of SGLT2 inhibitors reduces the renal glucose excretion threshold to values close to 80 to 90 mg/dL. Consequently, glycosuria begins at these values. The use of SGLT inhibitors reduces glucose reabsorption in the proximal tubule, generating glycosuria of around 70 grams per day, in addition to promoting natriuresis and osmotic diuresis. Due to glycosuria, a caloric deficit of approximately 200 kcal per day is established.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Mechanism of action of SGLT2 inhibitors in the proximal tubule. From a study originally published in Kidney International (KI). Bakris GL, et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> GLUT: glucose transporter; SGLT: sodium-glucose cotransporter.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Renal physiology and SGLT inhibitors. Adapted from Wright EM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> SGLT: sodium-glucose cotransporter.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Glycemic control</title>
				<p>In terms of hypoglycemic potency, this is not a high potency class when compared to other classic anti-diabetogenic medications, such as metformin and sulfonylureas. SGLT2 inhibitors promote a reduction between 0.5% and 1% in glycated hemoglobin. There is a low risk of hypoglycemia, as the effect of SGLT inhibitors does not depend on insulin action. Furthermore, the glucosuric effect is reduced in the state of normoglycemia. In the presence of renal dysfunction with creatinine clearance below 45 ml/kg/min, the glucosuric effect and hypoglycemic potency are attenuated. The risk of hypoglycemia increases when combined with sulfonylureas or insulin. In this case, it is not necessary to suspend SGLT2 inhibitors, but rather to adjust the dose of other medications that pose a greater risk of promoting hypoglycemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors beyond glycemic control</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Body composition</title>
					<p>Data from randomized clinical trials have indicated that gliflozins promote 2 to 3 kg weight loss in the first weeks of use, reaching a plateau within 6 months. The weight reduction effect is attenuated in patients with renal dysfunction. Experimental data suggest that SGLT2 inhibitors trigger a fasting-like state, with increased fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis, promoting a reduction in adipose tissue and hepatic steatosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Bioimpedance studies have shown that weight reduction occurs mainly due to the reduction of visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue, as maintenance of lean mass and a transient reduction in extracellular fluid occur, with recovery within 6 months. SGLT2 inhibitors also decrease leptin production and reduce perivascular, perivisceral, and pericardial inflammation and adiposity. Epicardial adiposity is metabolically very active in patients with diabetes and is associated with coronary artery disease, atrial fibrillation, and cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Increased production of ketone bodies</title>
					<p>SGLT2 inhibitors reduce glucose oxidation under baseline conditions and, under insulin stimulation, increase fat oxidation. Furthermore, they modestly, yet significantly increase the production of ketone bodies, resulting in a metabolic condition that resembles prolonged fasting, thus increasing the metabolization of ketones and free fatty acids by the heart, which generates better energy efficiency. A shift toward ketone production and away from glucose oxidation has been proposed as a potential mechanism for the rapid cardiovascular benefit of SGLT2 inhibitor therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Natriuresis</title>
					<p>Due to the reabsorption of sodium and glucose in the proximal convoluted tubule, the use of SGLT2 inhibitors is associated with a mild negative balance, with an initial reduction in extravascular fluid and plasma volume. The acute natriuretic effect is due to an increase in urinary volume of around 300 ml per day in the first days using the medication, returning to baseline levels after a few weeks and reestablishing water and saline balance, showing a reduction of approximately 7% in plasma volume within 3 months of treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Blood pressure</title>
					<p>Studies have shown that the use of SGLT2 inhibitors is associated with a reduction in systolic blood pressure by 4 to 6 mmHg and a reduction in diastolic blood pressure by 1 to 2 mmHg. The reduction in extracellular volume observed at the beginning of treatment appears to be the main hypotensive mechanism. Over time, other mechanisms contribute to reducing blood pressure, such as weight reduction, reduced adipose tissue, modulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, reduced arterial stiffness, and reduced plasma uric acid levels. In patients with chronic kidney disease, there is a reduction in the hypoglycemic effect, but the impact on blood pressure levels remains unchanged. The reduction in blood pressure levels cannot completely explain the rapid reduction in cardiovascular and renal outcomes, since the impact of reduced blood pressure on these outcomes requires long exposure time.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Hematocrit</title>
					<p>The use of SGLT2 inhibitors is associated with an increase of approximately 2% in hematocrit, followed by stabilization. The increase in hematocrit and hemoglobin is secondary to hemoconcentration and to an increase in erythropoietin levels with a 7% increase in erythrocyte production. Greater erythropoietin activity may be related to changes in renal blood flow between the cortex and medulla, and it may be an indication of better renal prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Renal effects</title>
					<p>In patients with type 2 DM, the increased absorption of sodium and glucose in the proximal tubule due to greater expression of SGLT2 causes vasodilation of the afferent artery and, consequently, glomerular hyperfiltration, which is a fundamental factor in the genesis and progression of diabetic kidney disease. This process promotes glomerular inflammation, fibrosis, and the establishment of diabetic nephropathy. SGLT2 inhibitors, by reducing sodium absorption in the proximal tubule, generate an increase in sodium concentration in the macula densa located in the most distal portion of the nephron adjacent to the glomerulus, increasing glomerular tubular feedback, which, through a cascade of signals mediated by adenosine, causes vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole. The macula densa also inhibits the production of renin by the cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus, leading to vasodilation of the efferent arteriole. The combination of afferent vasoconstriction and efferent vasodilation reduces the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), glomerular hypertension, and albuminuria, leading to nephroprotection (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> SGLT2 inhibitors also reduce tubular work and oxygen consumption, resulting in reduced kidney injury and increased erythropoietin production.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Effects of SGLT2i on renal hemodynamics in patients with diabetes mellitus. Adapted from Verma S, et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> DM: diabetes mellitus; SGLT2i: sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf04.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria</title>
					<p>After starting therapy with SGLT2 inhibitors, an acute reduction of approximately 5 ml/kg/min in GFR occurs for several weeks. The mechanism responsible for the acute reduction in GFR is vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole due to increased glomerular tubular feedback. After an initial drop, levels return to baseline values and remain stable over time, differently than in patients with diabetes not using SGLT2 inhibitors, who tend to experience a progressive decline in GFR. This protective effect on GFR is independent of the history of DM, chronic kidney disease, or CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Clinical trials and extensive meta-analyses have reported a reduction in albuminuria, prevention of its development, and prevention of progression from microalbuminuria to macroalbuminuria. Furthermore, studies have shown a reduction in the progression of nephropathy and progression to end-stage renal disease. A meta-analysis of 4 large clinical trials (EMPA-REG OUTCOME, CANVAS, CREDENCE, and DECLARE), including more than 38,000 patients with diabetes using SGLT2 inhibitors, showed a 33% reduction in the risk of kidney outcomes consisting of transplantation, death due to kidney disease, or dialysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Reduced plasma uric acid levels</title>
					<p>The increase in glycosuria promoted by SGLT2 inhibitors leads to uric acid excretion in the proximal convoluted tubule in exchange for glucose reabsorption by the GLUT9 transporter, promoting a 10% to 15% reduction in plasma uric acid levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Mechanisms of cardiovascular benefit</title>
					<p>Cardiovascular benefits have been extensively studied, and there is apparently no single mechanism responsible; a series of factors are possibly involved, including hemodynamic, anti-inflammatory, and energy substrate factors (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4</xref>). The risk reduction of cardiovascular and renal events appears to be independent of the glycemic effect, since the benefits are established quickly after starting therapy with gliflozins, underscoring that glycemic control would require approximately 10 years to generate a measurable cardiovascular impact. Large clinical trials with SGLT2 inhibitors have shown that the cardiovascular and renal benefit is independent of baseline glycated hemoglobin levels or their rate of reduction. Other classes of medications with similar hypoglycemic effects, such as dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors, did not show a reduction in cardiovascular events in clinical safety studies. In studies with dapagliflozin and empagliflozin, in the context of heart failure (HF), the benefit was observed regardless of the presence of diabetes.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f05">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Cardiac and renal benefits of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor. Adapted from Braunwald.1 LV: left ventricle.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf05.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Regarding hemodynamic mechanisms, natriuresis and osmotic diuresis stand out. They reduce extracellular volume and preload, leading to decreased filling pressures, fiber stretching, and arrhythmogenicity. There is also a reduction in left ventricular afterload due to reduced blood pressure levels and improved arterial stiffness. At an energetic level, higher circulating ketone levels are associated with improved mitochondrial function and increased ATP production and contractile performance. In HF, studies in animal models suggest that SGLT2 inhibitors reduce the activity of the Na<sup>+</sup>/H<sup>+</sup> exchanger in the myocardium and increase calcium concentration in the mitochondria, which would represent an improvement in excitation-contraction coupling and mitochondrial antioxidant capacity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Side effects</title>
					<p>A series of adverse effects are recognized or suspected in the presence of glycosuria and natriuresis. Initially, small studies with SGLT2 inhibitors observed a modest increase in the incidence of urinary tract infections; however, in large-scale studies, no statistical difference was observed between the groups receiving placebo and SGLT2 inhibitors. The most common side effect is genital infection, mainly by Candida species, with a prevalence of 10% in women and 5% in men.</p>
					<p>Due to the osmotic diuresis and natriuresis promoted by SGLT2 inhibitors, there is a potential risk of volume depletion and hypotension. This adverse event is uncommon in large clinical trials, and it is more common in the elderly and those using loop diuretics. On the other hand, it is worth highlighting that natriuresis and volume reduction have a positive effect with protective action against the development of clinical symptoms of HF, which could partially explain the rapid reduction in the rate of hospitalization for HF in large clinical trials. The osmotic diuresis promoted by SGLT2 inhibitors is also considered to result in greater free water clearance from the interstitial space than from the intravascular space.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Elevation of ketones may occur during use of SGLT2 inhibitors, and this requires attention. Cases of euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis have been found in patients with type 1 DM in off-label use. Rarely, ketoacidosis has been associated with the use of SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with type 2 DM, and it is more commonly precipitated in insulin users with dose omission or reduction, in the presence of severe acute illness, dehydration, intense exercise, major surgeries, excessive alcohol consumption, or a low carbohydrate diet.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Clinical trials on cardiovascular safety with SGLT2 inhibitors</title>
					<p>The first large clinical trial to evaluate the cardiovascular safety of SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with type 2 diabetes was the EMPA-REG OUTCOME Trial, which evaluated 7,020 patients with CVD. The primary outcome was the rate of MACE comprising death from cardiovascular causes, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke. Empagliflozin was not only safe, but, surprisingly, it showed effective cardioprotection. There was a 16% reduction in MACE, a 38% reduction in cardiovascular death, a 35% reduction in hospitalizations due to HF, and a 32% reduction in all-cause mortality. The benefits in reducing HF outcomes were observed as early as 2 to 3 weeks after starting empagliflozin therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Subsequently, the CANVAS PROGRAM, consisting of 2 studies, CANVAS (Canagliflozin Cardiovascular Assessment Study) and CANVAS-R (CANVAS-renal), evaluated 10,142 patients with diabetes, and two thirds of the population assessed had a history of CVD. There was a 14% reduction in MACE and a 33% reduction in hospitalizations due to HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The DECLARE (Dapagliflozin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes) trial evaluated the effects of dapagliflozin in 17,160 patients with diabetes, including patients with established atherosclerotic CVD (59% of the sample) and patients without CVD but with multiple risk factors (41% of the sample). In this population with less severity, there was no reduction in MACE, cardiovascular mortality, or all-cause mortality, but the lower rate of hospitalization for HF remained effective, around 27%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Subanalysis of the DECLARE study identified a reduction in cardiovascular death in the group of patients with a history of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) or infarction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> The VERTIS study evaluated ertugliflozin in 8,246 patients with type 2 DM and atherosclerotic CVD; the study did not find a reduction in cardiovascular death, but there was a significant reduction in first hospitalization for HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> More recently, the SCORED Trial, a cardiovascular safety study with sotagliflozin in patients with diabetes and renal dysfunction, showed a reduction in the primary outcome consisting of cardiovascular death, hospitalizations for HF, and emergency room visits for HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>These 6 large trials evaluated individuals with different spectrums of severity, from patients with CVD to those with multiple risk factors. Together, these trials show a consistent reduction in hospitalization for HF in the population with type 2 DM, even in individuals without prior diagnosis of atherosclerotic CVD or HF, highlighting that the rate of HF diagnosis prior to randomization was 10% to 14% in these clinical trials. The cardiovascular benefits do not appear to be secondary to better glycemic control, highlighting that the difference in glycated hemoglobin between the groups was slight. Meta-analysis of these studies revealed strong evidence of reduced cardiovascular death in patients with CVD and a possible trend towards reduced cardiovascular death in individuals with high CVD risk. Mainly, a robust reduction in the risk of hospitalization for HF was observed in all groups, regardless of history of atherosclerotic CVD or renal function (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f06">
							<label>Figure 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Impact on cardiovascular death and hospitalization for heart failure according to 6 large treatment trials on diabetes mellitus with SGLT2 inhibitors. Adapted from Braunwald.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
								</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf06.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Clinical benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors in the treatment of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction</title>
					<p>Patients with HFrEF present a very high risk of unfavorable events, such as death and hospitalization due to HF, even when medicated with maximum tolerated doses of neurohormonal blockers; this emphasizes the need to search for new therapies for this condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> In this sense, considering the benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors verified in DM treatment trials addressing safety and monitoring cardiovascular outcomes, investigation began with clinical applicability in the treatment of patients with HF, regardless of the presence of DM.</p>
					<p>In 2019, the DAPA-HF (Dapagliflozin in Patients with Heart Failure and Reduced Ejection Fraction) study was published, including 4,744 patients with symptomatic HFrEF receiving standard therapy, who were randomized to receive dapagliflozin 10 mg once daily or placebo; only 41.8% of this population had diabetes. After a median follow-up of 18.2 months, the trial showed a 26% reduction in the primary composite endpoint of cardiovascular death or worsening HF (hospitalization or an urgent visit resulting in intravenous therapy for HF). When these outcomes were analyzed alone, there was an 18% reduction in cardiovascular death and a 30% reduction in worsening of HF, regardless of the presence of diabetes. It is important to highlight that there was also a 17% reduction in death from any cause, with a good safety profile, with no significant adverse events (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figure 6</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f07">
							<label>Figure 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Cumulative curves of events observed in the DAPA-HF study. A – Primary outcome (cardiovascular death or heart failure event), with a relative risk reduction of 26%; B – death from any cause, with a relative risk reduction of 17%. From a study originally published in the The New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM). McMurray, et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref>
								</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf07.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>The following year, the results of the EMPEROR-Reduced (Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes with Empagliflozin in Heart Failure) Trial were published, evaluating the benefit of empagliflozin 10 mg once daily against placebo in 3,730 patients with symptomatic HFrEF and treated with standard therapy. In this study, patients with diabetes accounted for 50.2% of the population. Regarding the primary outcome of cardiovascular death or hospitalization due to worsening HF, a 35% reduction was observed, favoring the empagliflozin group. When analyzed alone, there was a 31% reduction in hospitalization for HF, regardless of the presence of diabetes; however, no benefit was observed in the isolated reduction of cardiovascular death or death from any cause. As with DAPA-HF, there were no relevant adverse events, with a good safety profile.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>An analysis of pooled data involving both studies, totaling a population of 8,474 patients, showed a 13% reduction in overall mortality, a 14% reduction in cardiovascular mortality, and a 31% reduction in the risk of hospitalization for HF, establishing a new and important therapeutic pillar for the treatment of HFrEF, which has been approved and recommended by national and international guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Clinical benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors in the treatment of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction</title>
					<p>In recent years, different clinical trials testing the effect of neurohormonal blockers have failed to demonstrate a reduction in cardiovascular events in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). The publication of cardiovascular safety studies using SGLT2 inhibitors revealed a “light at the end of the tunnel,” with the possibility of a treatment that could achieve this objective in this large population of patients.</p>
					<p>In 2021, the results of EMPEROR-Preserved (Empagliflozin in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction) were published, including 5,988 patients with HF and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) greater than 40%, in New York Heart Association functional class II to IV, who were randomized to empagliflozin 10 mg once daily or placebo. After a median follow-up of 26.2 months, there was a 21% reduction in the primary outcome of cardiovascular death or hospitalization for HF, favoring the use of empagliflozin. Hospitalizations due to HF were reduced by 29%, but without a reduction in the isolated outcome of cardiovascular death and without evidence of benefit in the outcome of reducing death from any cause. The results were consistent in both patients with diabetes and patients without diabetes, and no significant serious adverse events were reported.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The following year, the DELIVER (Dapagliflozin in Heart Failure with Mildly Reduced or Preserved Ejection Fraction) trial’s results were very similar to those of EMPEROR-Preserved, including 6,263 patients with HF and LVEF greater than 40%, randomized to dapagliflozin 10 mg once daily or placebo. After a median follow-up of 2.3 years, there was an 18% reduction in the primary outcome of worsening HF (consisting of unplanned hospitalization or urgent emergency room visit for HF) or cardiovascular death. However, there was no reduction in cardiovascular death or death from any cause, showing a 23% reduction in hospitalizations due to HF. The results were similar between the different subgroups, including patients with LVEF greater than or equal to 60% and less than 60%, and patients with and without diabetes. Adverse events were similar in both groups, with no significant serious events. It is relevant that 18.4% of participating patients had HF with improved ejection fraction, a population that is generally not included in HF trials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>When evaluating these two clinical trials in association, totaling 12,251 patients, the use of SGLT2 inhibitors showed a 20% reduction in cardiovascular death or first hospitalization due to HF. These results were consistent in both components of this outcome, with a 12% reduction in cardiovascular death and a 26% reduction in the first hospitalization for HF, but without an impact on death from any cause.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
					<p>hus, empagliflozin and dapagliflozin show significant benefits in the treatment of chronic outpatients across the entire LVEF spectrum, being applicable for patients with HFrEF, HFpEF and HF with mildly reduced ejection fraction, including patients with improved LVEF. This is the first class of drugs to demonstrate such a breadth of clinical benefit.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Clinical benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors in the treatment of acute heart failure</title>
			<p>Acute HF refers to the rapid or gradual onset of HF signs and symptoms that are severe enough for the patient to seek emergency medical care, leading to unplanned hospitalization or emergency department visit. Acute HF may be the first clinical manifestation of HF, or it may be secondary to acute decompensated chronic HF. This is a crucial time to initiate and/or intensify HF treatment with medications that have an impact on these patients’ survival.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Accordingly, EMPA-RESPONSE-AHF (Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter pilot study on the effects of empagliflozin on clinical outcomes in patients with acute decompensated heart failure) randomized 80 patients with acute HF, with or without diabetes, to receive dapagliflozin 10 mg once daily or placebo, with the objective of evaluating variation in dyspnea score by means of a visual scale, response to the diuretic (defined as weight loss for each 40 mg of furosemide), change in NT-proBNP, and length of hospital stay. First decompensation due to HF (<italic>de novo</italic> HF) was present in 47% of these patients. Empagliflozin significantly reduced the combined outcome of worsening in-hospital HF, rehospitalization for HF, or death within 60 days, but there was no impact on the other outcomes evaluated. Urine output up to the fourth day was substantially higher in the empagliflozin group. It was well tolerated, safe, and had no effects on blood pressure or kidney function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Subsequently, the EMPULSE (Impact of empagliflozin on decongestion in acute heart failure) trial evaluated the effect of empagliflozin 10 mg once daily against placebo on outcomes related to decongestion in 530 patients hospitalized for acute HF. The outcomes evaluated were weight loss, weight loss adjusted for mean daily loop diuretic dose, serum NT-proBNP levels, hemoconcentration, and clinical congestion score 15, 30, and 90 days after the start of treatment. Patients who received empagliflozin demonstrated a significant reduction in decongestion markers at all of time-points assessed. Efficacy was independent of ejection fraction and the presence of diabetes, with a similar rate of adverse events between both groups.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The DICTATE-AHF (Efficacy and Safety of Dapagliflozin in Acute Heart Failure) clinical trial is evaluating the efficacy and safety of initiating dapagliflozin 10 mg once daily within the first 24 hours of hospitalization in patients with type 2 DM with hypervolemic acute HF and estimated GFR of at least 30 mL/min/1.73 m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>. The primary outcome was diuretic response expressed in cumulative weight loss per cumulative dose of loop diuretic equivalent to 40 mg of intravenous furosemide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The SOLOIST-WHF (Sotagliflozin in Patients with Diabetes and Recent Worsening Heart Failure) trial with sotagliflozin, an SGLT1 and SGLT2 receptor inhibitor, showed a reduction in events among 1,222 individuals with type 2 DM hospitalized for HF who received this medication during hospitalization or immediately after hospital discharge. Sotagliflozin was associated with a 29% reduction in cardiovascular death or worsening of HF over a mean follow-up of 18 months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Recommendations for use of SGLT2 inhibitors in clinical practice</title>
			<p>In view of this evidence, an analysis of the impact of the association of SGLT2 inhibitors with the treatment of HFrEF using beta-blockers, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, and angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors showed a 62% reduction in cardiovascular death or hospitalization for HF, with a 50% reduction in cardiovascular death, 68% reduction in hospitalization for HF, and 47% reduction in death from any cause, when compared to treatment with beta-blocker and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin II receptor blocker. Furthermore, these 4 medication classes promoted 2.7 years and 8.3 years free from cardiovascular death or hospitalization for HF and increased survival by 1.4 years and 6.3 years, respectively, for patients aged 80 years and 55 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
			<p>These results have firmly established SGLT2 inhibitors as a new pillar in the treatment of HF, receiving class of recommendation I and level of evidence A for the treatment of HFrEF in the latest updates of European and American guidelines for the treatment of chronic HFrEF, alongside the beta-blocker sacubitril/valsartan and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figure 7</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f08">
					<label>Figure 7</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Current scenario for the treatment of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, highlighting the 4 essential drugs aimed at reducing mortality. From a study originally published in the European Heart Journal. Bauersachs J.42 ACE-I: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; Afib: atrial fibrillation; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; ARNI: angiotensin receptor/neprilysin inhibitor; CRT: cardiac resynchronization therapy; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; HTX: heart transplantation; LBBB: left bundle branch block; LVAD: left ventricular assist device; MR: mitral regurgitation; MRA: mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist; PVI: pulmonary vein isolation; SGLT2: sodium–glucose co-transporter 2; SR: sinus rhythm; TSAT: transferrin saturation.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf08.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>For the treatment of HFpEF and HF with mildly reduced ejection fraction, the most recent European guidelines recommend the use of dapagliflozin or empagliflozin, also with class of recommendation I and level of evidence A, to reduce the risk of hospitalization for HF or cardiovascular death. Furthermore, the use of these medications also presents the same level of recommendation for prevention of HF in patients with diabetes and chronic kidney disease to reduce the risks of hospitalization for HF or cardiovascular death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusions</title>
			<p>The success story of SGLT2 inhibitors extends from preventing the development of HF in patients with diabetes to reducing overall mortality in patients with HF. This is the first class of drugs to demonstrate a tangible benefit in all ranges of LVEF, in the setting of both chronic outpatient HF and acute HF in hospitalized patients. This trajectory of success has led gliflozins to be recommended medications, with a high level of scientific evidence in international guidelines for the treatment of HF.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Study association</label>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<label>Sources of funding:</label>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240027</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>A Trajetória das Gliflozinas: Da Casca da Macieira à Redução de Mortalidade Total na Insuficiência Cardíaca</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2779-9807</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Marques</surname>
						<given-names>Fabiana</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>e Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-6644-7524</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Valicelli</surname>
						<given-names>Flávio Henrique</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>e Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5035-9172</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Tanaka</surname>
						<given-names>Denise Mayumi</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Simões</surname>
						<given-names>Marcus Vinícius</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>e Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto – Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência</label>: Marcus Vinicius Simões • Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto – Avenida dos Bandeirantes, 3900. CEP 14048-900, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, SP – Brasil ; E-mail: msimoes@fmrp.usp.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<label>Editor responsável pela revisão:</label>
					<p>Luis Beck-da-Silva</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>Um número pequeno de drogas foi responsável por grandes avanços na prática médica ao longo da história, como a descoberta da penicilina, insulina, aspirina e estatinas. O tratamento da diabetes iniciou-se com insulina parenteral descoberta por Banting e Bet aproximadamente um século atrás; desde então várias classes de medicações orais que melhoram o controle glicêmico foram desenvolvidas e tornaram-se disponíveis para amplo uso. Mais recentemente surgiram os inibidores do co-transportador de sódio e glicose com surpreendente e impactante efeito no tratamento de portadores de diabetes, insuficiência cardíaca (IC) e insuficiência renal, sendo atualmente considerados um dos maiores avanços terapêuticos na medicina cardiovascular do século XXI. Inicialmente desenvolvidos apenas para controle glicêmico, foram largamente demonstrados, em grandes estudos clínicos em pacientes diabéticos os seus efeitos na proteção cardiovascular com significativa redução de risco de doenças cardiovasculares, prevenção de hospitalização por IC de 25% a 35% e redução de desfechos renais independente da presença ou ausência de diabetes e das terapias utilizadas para tratamento destas condições. Nessa trajetória de descobertas, as gliflozinas culminaram em demonstrar efeitos benéficos, incluindo a redução da mortalidade cardiovascular e mortalidade geral em pacientes com IC, independentemente da presença de diabetes mellitus, em todas as faixas de fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Inibidores do Transportador 2 de Sódio-Glicose</kwd>
				<kwd>Mortalidade</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: A Trajetória das Gliflozinas: Da Casca da Macieira à Redução de Mortalidade Total na Insuficiência Cardíaca</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>Florizina foi isolada em 1835 a partir da casca da raiz da macieira sendo inicialmente considerada para tratamento de malária devido ao sabor amargo similar ao quinino. Florizina é um glicosídeo também presente na raiz de outras árvores frutíferas como ameixeiras, cerejeiras e pereiras com capacidade de inibir competitivamente os co-transportadores de sódio e glicose (SGLT) presentes no rim e no intestino. Em 1886 foi descoberto seu efeito glicosúrico com consequente redução dos níveis plasmáticos de glicose. Estudos em ratos insulino-resistentes após pancreatectomia parcial mostraram que a aplicação subcutânea de florizina poderia normalizar os níveis glicêmicos, mas devido a características farmacológicas de baixa solubilidade, meia vida curta, baixa biodisponibilidade, instabilidade e efeitos colaterais gastrointestinais, a florizina não foi considerada para tratamento farmacológico de diabetes mellitus (DM).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Na década de 90, pesquisadores da Universidade de Kioto desenvolveram um análogo da florizina com capacidade de absorção via oral, sendo o primeiro inibidor de co-transportador de sódio e glicose (iSGLT) sintético com características farmacológicas mais adequadas e com capacidade comprovada de reduzir glicemia em modelos animais de ratos diabéticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Posteriormente, várias companhias farmacêuticas desenvolveram uma série de iSGLT para o tratamento de DM.</p>
				<p>Em 2008, a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) e a European Medicine Agency (EMA) expressaram preocupação em relação ao aumento do risco cardiovascular associado ao uso dos anti-diabetogênicos após questionamentos da segurança cardiovascular da rosiglitazona. Deste modo, estas agências reguladoras passaram a requerer ensaios clínicos de larga casuística com demonstração de segurança para aprovação das novas medicações hipoglicemiantes. Dentro deste contexto, para atender às novas regras das agências regulatórias, os iSGLT foram avaliados em uma série de grandes ensaios projetados para demonstrar não inferioridade para eventos cardiovasculares maiores (MACE, sigla em inglês) englobando uma população diabética com doença cardiovascular (DCV) ou com alto risco cardiovascular. Para grande surpresa da comunidade científica, estes estudos de avaliação de segurança cardiovascular obtiveram resultados absolutamente surpreendentes, sendo observado não apenas segurança, mas robusto benefício cardiovascular,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> como ilustrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">figura central</xref>.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação</title>
					<p>Em adultos saudáveis o túbulo contornado proximal reabsorve toda a glicose filtrada diariamente, o que corresponde a aproximadamente 180 gramas, não sendo observada glicosúria. A reabsorção é um processo ativo associado ao sódio e ocorre através de proteínas carreadoras denominadas SGLT (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> São descritas duas isoformas de co-transportadores: SGLT1 e SGLT2, expressos na membrana luminal. Os SGLT1 apresentam baixa capacidade para transportar glicose, acoplando 2 íons Na<sup>+</sup> para cada molécula de glicose e são responsáveis por 3% da glicose reabsorvida no rim. Estão expressos na porção mais distal do túbulo renal proximal (segmento 3) e, principalmente, no intestino delgado. SGLT1 são também encontrados em outros tecidos, como coração e músculo esquelético. Os SGLT2 apresentam alta capacidade de transporte de glicose acoplando 1 íon de Na<sup>+</sup> para cada molécula de glicose. Estão presentes quase exclusivamente na porção inicial (segmento 1) do túbulo contornado proximal e são responsáveis pela reabsorção de 97% da glicose e 65% do sódio pelos rins. Em indivíduos sem diabetes, quando a glicemia excede o limiar renal de 180 mg/dL, a capacidade dos transportadores é saturada resultando em excreção urinária de glicose (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> No entanto, em contexto de diabetes, o transporte máximo renal de glicose está aumentado devido à hipertrofia tubular e, principalmente, ao aumento da expressão dos co-transportadores SGLT1 e SGLT2, elevando o limiar de glicosúria para valores próximos de 250 mg/dL. Trata-se de um processo mal adaptativo que promove manutenção de hiperglicemia. O uso dos inibidores de SGLT2 reduz o limiar de excreção renal de glicose para valores próximos a 80 a 90 mg/dL. Consequentemente, a glicosúria instala-se a partir destes valores. A utilização de iSGLT reduz a reabsorção de glicose no túbulo proximal gerando glicosúria ao redor de 70 gramas por dia, além de promover natriurese e diurese osmótica. Devido à glicosúria, estabelece-se déficit calórico aproximado de 200 kcal por dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Mecanismo de ação do inibidor de SGLT2 no túbulo proximal. Essa pesquisa foi originalmente publicada no Kidney International (KI). Bakris et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> GLUT: transportador de glicose; SGLT: co-transportador de sódio e glicose.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Fisiologia renal e inibidor de SGLT. Adaptado de Wright EM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> SGLT: co-transportador de sódio e glicose.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Controle glicêmico</title>
					<p>Em termos de potência hipoglicemiante, não se trata de classe de alta potência quando comparada às outras medicações anti-diabetogênicas clássicas, como metformina e sulfonilureias. Os iSGLT2 promovem redução da hemoglobina glicada entre 0,5% e 1%. Existe baixo risco de hipoglicemia, pois o efeito dos iSGLT é independente da ação da insulina. Além disso, o efeito glicosúrico é reduzido em estado de normoglicemia. Na presença de disfunção renal com clearance de creatinina inferior a 45 ml/kg/min, ocorre atenuação do efeito glicosúrico e da potência hipoglicemiante. O risco de hipoglicemia aumenta quando há utilização associada à sulfonilureias ou insulina. Neste caso não é necessário suspensão de iSGLT2, mas ajuste de dose das demais medicações com maior risco de promover hipoglicemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Benefícios dos iSGLT2 além do controle glicêmico</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Composição corporal</title>
						<p>Dados dos ensaios clínicos randomizados indicam que gliflozinas promovem perda ponderal de 2 a 3 kg nas primeiras semanas de uso atingindo um platô em 6 meses. O efeito de redução ponderal encontra-se atenuado em portadores de disfunção renal. Dados experimentais sugerem que o iSGLT2 desencadeia um estado semelhante ao jejum, com aumento da oxidação de ácidos graxos e cetogênese, promovendo redução do tecido adiposo e da esteatose hepática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Estudos com bioimpedância mostram que a redução ponderal ocorre principalmente pela diminuição de tecido adiposo visceral e subcutâneo, pois existe manutenção de massa magra e redução transitória do fluido extracelular com recuperação em 6 meses. Os iSGLT2 também diminuem a produção de leptina, reduzem inflamação e adiposidade perivascular, perivisceral e pericárdica. Adiposidade epicárdica é metabolicamente muito ativa em diabéticos e está associada a doença arterial coronariana, fibrilação atrial e cardiomiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Aumento da produção de corpos cetônicos</title>
						<p>Os iSGLT2 reduzem a oxidação de glicose em condições basais e, sob estímulo de insulina, aumentam a oxidação de gorduras. Além disso, aumentam, de modo modesto, mas significativo, a produção de corpos cetônicos, resultando em uma condição metabólica que se assemelha ao jejum prolongado, portanto aumentando a metabolização de cetonas e ácidos graxos livres pelo coração, o que gera melhor eficiência energética. Uma mudança em direção à produção de cetonas e um distanciamento da oxidação de glicose foi proposto como um potencial mecanismo para um rápido benefício cardiovascular da terapia com iSGLT2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Natriurese</title>
						<p>Devido à reabsorção de sódio e glicose no túbulo contornado proximal, o uso de iSGLT2 está associado ao discreto balanço negativo com redução inicial de fluido extravascular e volume plasmático. O efeito natriurético agudo é devido ao aumento do volume urinário ao redor de 300 ml por dia nos primeiros dias de uso da medicação, retornando aos níveis basais após algumas semanas, com reestabelecimento do balanço hídrico e salino e redução do volume plasmático em aproximadamente 7% com 3 meses de tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Pressão arterial</title>
						<p>Estudos mostram que o uso de iSGLT2 associa-se à redução da pressão arterial sistólica de 4 a 6 mmHg e à redução da pressão diastólica de 1 a 2 mmHg. A redução do volume extracelular observado no início do tratamento parece ser o principal mecanismo hipotensor. Ao longo do tempo, outros mecanismos contribuem para redução da pressão arterial, como redução de peso, redução de tecido adiposo, modulação do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, redução da rigidez arterial e redução dos níveis plasmáticos de ácido úrico. Em indivíduos portadores de doença renal crônica existe redução do efeito hipoglicêmico, mas o impacto nos níveis pressóricos permanece inalterado. A redução dos níveis pressóricos não consegue explicar completamente a rápida redução de desfechos cardiovasculares e renais, uma vez que o impacto da redução pressórica nestes desfechos demanda tempo longo de exposição.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Hematócrito</title>
						<p>A utilização de iSGLT2 está associada ao aumento de aproximadamente 2% do hematócrito, seguindo-se de estabilização. A elevação de hematócrito e hemoglobina é secundária à hemoconcentração e ao aumento dos níveis de eritropoietina com incremento de 7% na produção de eritrócitos. A maior atividade de eritropoietina pode estar relacionada a mudanças no fluxo sanguíneo renal entre o córtex e a medula e pode ser uma indicação de melhor prognóstico renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Efeitos renais</title>
						<p>Em pacientes com DM tipo 2, o aumento de absorção de sódio e glicose no túbulo proximal por maior expressão de SGLT2 causa vasodilatação da artéria aferente e, consequentemente, hiperfiltração glomerular, fator fundamental na gênese e progressão da doença renal diabética. Este processo promove inflamação glomerular, fibrose e estabelecimento de nefropatia diabética. Os iSGLT2 ao reduzirem a absorção de sódio no túbulo proximal geram aumento da concentração de sódio na mácula densa localizada em porção mais distal do néfron adjacente ao glomérulo, aumentando o feedback túbulo glomerular que, através de uma cascata de sinais mediada pela adenosina, gera vasoconstrição da arteríola aferente. A mácula densa também inibe a produção de renina pelas células do aparelho justaglomerular, levando a vasodilatação da arteríola eferente. A combinação da vasoconstrição da aferente e a vasodilatação eferente reduz a taxa de filtração glomerular (TFG), hipertensão glomerular e albuminúria levando à nefroproteção (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Os iSGLT2 também reduzem o trabalho tubular e o consumo de oxigênio, resultando em redução de injúria renal e aumento da produção de eritropoietina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f04002">
								<label>Figura 3</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Efeitos dos iSGLT2 na hemodinâmica renal de portadores de diabetes mellitus. Adaptado de Verma et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> DM: diabetes mellitus; iSGLT2: inibidor de co-transportador de sódio e glicose 2.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf04-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Taxa de filtração glomerular e albuminúria</title>
						<p>Após início da terapia com iSGLT2 ocorre redução aguda de aproximadamente 5 ml/kg/min na TFG por várias semanas. O mecanismo responsável pela redução aguda na TFG é a vasoconstrição da arteríola aferente devido ao aumento do feedback túbulo glomerular. Após queda inicial os níveis retornam aos valores basais e permanecem estáveis ao longo do tempo, ao contrário dos indivíduos diabéticos sem uso de iSGLT2, que tendem a apresentar decaimento progressivo da TFG. Este efeito protetor na TFG é independente do histórico de DM, doença renal crônica ou DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Ensaios clínicos e extensas metanálises reportam redução de albuminúria, prevenção de desenvolvimento e prevenção de progressão de microalbuminúria para macroalbuminúria. Além disso, estudos mostram redução da progressão da nefropatia e evolução para doença renal terminal. Metanálise de 4 grandes ensaios clínicos (EMPA-REG OUTCOME, CANVAS, CREDENCE e DECLARE) envolvendo mais de 38.000 pacientes diabéticos em uso de iSGLT2 mostrou redução de 33% no risco de desfecho renal composto por transplante, morte por doença renal ou diálise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Redução dos níveis plasmáticos de ácido úrico</title>
						<p>O aumento deglicosúria promovida pelos iSGLT2 leva à excreção ácido úrico no túbulo contornado proximal em troca de reabsorção de glicose pelo transportador GLUT9, promovendo redução de 10% a 15% dos níveis plasmáticos de ácido úrico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Mecanismos do benefício cardiovascular</title>
						<p>Os benefícios cardiovasculares foram extensivamente estudados e aparentemente não existe um único mecanismo responsável, mas, possivelmente, uma série de fatores estão envolvidos, entre eles: hemodinâmicos, anti-inflamatórios e de substrato energético (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4</xref>). A redução de risco de eventos cardiovasculares e renais parece ser independente do efeito glicêmico, uma vez que os benefícios se estabelecem rapidamente, após início da terapia com gliflozinas, destacando-se que o controle glicêmico necessitaria de aproximadamente 10 anos para gerar um impacto cardiovascular mensurável. Os grandes ensaios clínicos com iSGLT2 mostraram que o benefício cardiovascular e renal é independente dos níveis basais de hemoglobina glicada ou de sua taxa de redução. Outras classes de medicações com efeito hipoglicemiante similar como os IDPP4 não apresentaram redução de eventos cardiovasculares nos estudos clínicos de segurança. Nos estudos com dapagliflozina e empagliflozina, no contexto de insuficiência cardíaca (IC), o benefício estava presente independente da presença de diabetes.</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f05002">
								<label>Figura 4</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Benefícios cardíaco e renal dos iSGLT2. Adaptado de Braunwald.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf05-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>Dentro dos mecanismos hemodinâmicos destacam-se a natriurese e a diurese osmótica, que reduzem o volume extracelular e a pré-carga, levando à diminuição das pressões de enchimento, do estiramento de fibras e da arritmogenicidade. Ocorre também redução da pós-carga do ventrículo esquerdo pela redução dos níveis pressóricos e pela melhora da rigidez arterial. A nível energético, os níveis mais elevados de cetona circulante estão associados à melhora da função mitocondrial e ao aumento da produção de ATP e do desempenho contrátil. No cenário da IC, estudos em modelos animais sugerem que iSGLT2 reduzem a atividade do trocador de Na<sup>+</sup>/H<sup>+</sup> no miocárdio e aumentam a concentração de cálcio na mitocôndria o que representaria a melhora do acoplamento excitação contração e da capacidade antioxidante mitocondrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Efeitos colaterais</title>
						<p>Uma série de efeitos adversos são reconhecidos ou suspeitos na presença de glicosúria e natriurese. Inicialmente em pequenos estudos com iSGLT2 observou-se aumento modesto na incidência de infecções do trato urinário, no entanto, nos estudos de larga casuística não foi observada diferença estatística entre os grupos placebo e iSGLT2. O efeito colateral mais comum é infecção genital, principalmente por espécies de Candida, com prevalência de 10% de mulheres e 5% nos homens.</p>
						<p>Devido à diurese osmótica e à natriurese promovida pelos iSGLT2, existe risco potencial de depleção de volume e hipotensão. Este evento adverso é incomum nos grandes ensaios clínicos, sendo mais presente em idosos e em uso associado de diurético de alça. Por outro lado, destaca-se que a natriurese e a redução de volume apresentam efeito positivo com ação protetiva no desenvolvimento de sintomas clínicos de IC, o que poderia explicar parcialmente a rápida redução de taxa de hospitalização por IC nos grandes ensaios clínicos. Considera-se também que a diurese osmótica promovida pelos iSGLT2 resulta em um maior clearance de água livre do espaço intersticial do que do espaço intravascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A elevação de cetonas pode ocorrer durante uso de iSGLT2 e requer atenção. Casos de cetoacidose diabética euglicêmica foram encontrados em portadores de DM tipo 1 em uso <italic>off label</italic>. Raramente, a cetoacidose está associada ao uso de iSGLT2 em portadores de DM tipo 2, sendo mais comumente precipitada em usuários de insulina com omissão de dose ou redução de dose, em presença de doença aguda severa, desidratação, exercício intenso, cirurgias de grande porte, uso excessivo de álcool ou dieta com baixa taxa de carboidratos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ensaios clínicos de segurança cardiovascular com iSGLT2</title>
				<p>O primeiro grande ensaio clínico que avaliou segurança cardiovascular de iSGLT2 em pacientes com diabetes tipo 2 foi o EMPA-REG OUTCOME Trial. Neste estudo foram avaliados 7.020 pacientes portadores de DCV. O desfecho primário foi taxa de MACE compreendendo morte de causa cardiovascular, infarto não fatal ou acidente cardiovascular não fatal. Empagliflozina apresentou-se não apenas segura, mas de modo surpreendente mostrou efetiva cardioproteção. Houve redução de 16% de MACE, 38% de morte cardiovascular, 35% de internações por IC e 32% de mortalidade por todas as causas. Os benefícios na redução de desfechos em IC foram observados muito precocemente com 2 a 3 semanas após o início da terapia com empagliflozina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Na sequência o CANVAS PROGRAM, composto por 2 estudos CANVAS (Canagliflozin Cardiovascular Assessment Study) e CANVAS-R (CANVAS-renal) avaliou 10.142 portadores de diabetes sendo que dois terços da população avaliada apresentavam histórico de DCV. Houve redução de 14% de MACE e 33% de redução de internações por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O estudo DECLARE (Dapagliflozin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes) avaliou o efeito da dapagliflozina em 17.160 diabéticos, sendo incluídos indivíduos com DCV aterosclerótica estabelecida (59% da amostra) e indivíduos sem DCV, mas com múltiplos fatores de risco (41% da amostra). Nesta população com menor gravidade, não houve redução de MACE, mortalidade cardiovascular ou mortalidade por todas as causas, mas manteve-se efetiva a redução na taxa de hospitalização por IC, na ordem de 27%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Subanálise do estudo DECLARE identificou redução de morte cardiovascular no grupo de pacientes com histórico de insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFER) ou infarto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> O estudo VERTIS avaliou ertugliflozina em 8.246 pacientes portadores de DM tipo 2 e de DCV aterosclerótica, não sendo verificada redução de morte cardiovascular, mas com redução significativa de primeira internação por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, o SCORED Trial, estudo de segurança cardiovascular com sotagliflozina em portadores de diabetes e disfunção renal, apresentou redução de desfecho primário composto por morte cardiovascular, internações por IC e visita em sala de urgência por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Estes 6 grandes ensaios avaliaram indivíduos com diferentes espectros de gravidade, desde portadores de DCV a pacientes com múltiplos fatores de risco. Em conjunto estes ensaios mostram consistente redução de internação por IC na população com DM tipo 2, mesmo em indivíduos sem diagnóstico prévio de DCV aterosclerótica e sem diagnóstico prévio de IC, destacando-se que nestes ensaios clínicos a taxa de diagnóstico de IC previamente à randomização foi de 10% a 14%. Os benefícios cardiovasculares não aparentam ser secundários ao melhor controle glicêmico, destacando-se que a diferença de hemoglobina glicada entre os grupos é discreta. Metanálise destes estudos revelou fortes evidências de redução da morte cardiovascular em pacientes com DCV e uma possível tendência de redução da morte cardiovascular nos indivíduos com alto risco de DCV. Foi observada principalmente uma robusta redução do risco de hospitalização por IC em todos os grupos, independente do histórico de DCV aterosclerótica ou da função renal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figura 5</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f06002">
						<label>Figura 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Impacto sobre morte cardiovascular e hospitalização por insuficiência cardíaca de 6 grandes ensaios de tratamento de diabetes mellitus com iSGLT2. Adaptado de Braunwald.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
							</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf06-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Benefícios clínicos dos iSGLT2 no tratamento da ICFER</title>
				<p>Pacientes com ICFER apresentam um risco muito elevado de eventos desfavoráveis, como morte e hospitalização por IC, mesmo quando medicados com doses máximas toleradas dos bloqueadores neuro-hormonais, enfatizando a necessidade de busca de novas terapias para essa condição.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Neste sentido considerando-se os benefícios dos iSGLT2 verificados nos ensaios de tratamento de DM endereçando a segurança e monitorando desfechos cardiovasculares, iniciou-se a investigação da sua aplicabilidade clínica no tratamento de pacientes com IC, independentemente da presença de DM.</p>
				<p>Em 2019 foi publicado o estudo DAPA-HF (Dapagliflozin in Patients with Heart Failure and Reduced Ejection Fraction) com 4.744 pacientes com ICFER sintomática, recebendo a terapia padrão, que foram randomizados para receber dapagliflozina 10 mg uma vez ao dia ou placebo, sendo que somente 41,8% desta população era portadora de diabetes. Após um seguimento mediano de 18,2 meses, este ensaio mostrou uma redução de 26% no desfecho primário combinado de morte cardiovascular ou piora da IC (hospitalização por IC ou visita urgente resultando em terapia endovenosa para IC). Quando analisados estes desfechos de forma isolada, verificou-se uma redução de 18% em morte cardiovascular e de 30% em piora da IC, independente da presença de diabetes. É importante ressaltar que também houve uma redução de 17% de morte por qualquer causa, com bom perfil de segurança, sem eventos adversos significativos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07002">Figura 6</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f07002">
						<label>Figura 6</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Curvas cumulativas de eventos observados nos resultados do estudo DAPA-HF. A – Desfecho primário (morte cardiovascular ou evento de insuficiência cardíaca), com redução relativa de risco de 26%; B – mortalidade por qualquer causa, com redução de risco relativo de 17%. Essa pesquisa foi originalmente publicada no The New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM). McMurray et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref>
							</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf07-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>No ano seguinte foram publicados os resultados do estudo EMPEROR-Reduced (Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes with Empagliflozin in Heart Failure), que avaliou o benefício da empagliflozina 10 mg uma vez ao dia contra placebo em 3.730 pacientes com ICFER sintomáticos e medicados com a terapia padrão. Neste estudo, os pacientes com diabetes correspondiam a 50,2% da população. Com relação ao desfecho primário de morte cardiovascular ou hospitalização por piora da IC, observou-se uma redução de 35%, favorecendo o grupo empagliflozina. Quando analisados de forma isolada, houve uma redução de 31% em hospitalização por IC, independente da presença de diabetes, entretanto, não se verificou benefício na redução isolada de morte cardiovascular ou morte por qualquer causa. Assim como no DAPA-HF, não houve eventos adversos relevantes, com bom perfil de segurança.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Uma análise de dados agrupados envolvendo ambos estudos, perfazendo uma população de 8.474 pacientes, mostrou redução de 13% na mortalidade geral, de 14% na mortalidade cardiovascular e de 31% no risco de hospitalização por IC, estabelecendo um novo e importante pilar na terapia para o tratamento da ICFER, já aprovada e recomendada por diretrizes nacionais e internacionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Benefícios clínicos dos iSGLT2 no tratamento da ICFEP</title>
				<p>Nos últimos anos, diversos ensaios clínicos testando o efeito de bloqueadores neuro-hormonais falharam em demonstrar redução de eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEP). Com as publicações dos estudos de segurança cardiovascular dos iSGLT2, vislumbrou-se uma “luz no fim do túnel” com a possibilidade de um tratamento que atingisse esse objetivo nessa grande população de pacientes.</p>
				<p>Em 2021 foi publicado os resultados do EMPEROR-Preserved (Empagliflozin in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction) com 5.988 pacientes portadores de IC e fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) maior que 40%, em classe funcional II-IV da New York Heart Association, que foram randomizados para empagliflozina 10 mg uma vez ao dia ou placebo. Após um seguimento mediano de 26,2 meses houve uma redução de 21% no desfecho primário de morte cardiovascular ou hospitalização por IC, favorecendo o uso da empagliflozina. Reduziu-se as hospitalizações por IC em 29%, mas sem redução no desfecho isolado de morte cardiovascular e sem evidência de benefício no desfecho de redução de morte por qualquer causa. Os resultados foram consistentes tanto em pacientes com diabetes quanto em pacientes sem diabetes, e não houve relato de eventos adversos graves significativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>No ano seguinte, o estudo DELIVER (Dapagliflozin in Heart Failure with Mildly Reduced or Preserved Ejection Fraction) apresentou resultados muito semelhantes ao EMPEROR-Preserved, com 6.263 pacientes com IC e FEVE maior que 40%, randomizados para dapagliflozina 10 mg uma vez ao dia ou placebo. Após um seguimento mediano de 2,3 anos, houve uma redução de 18% no desfecho primário de piora da IC (constituído de hospitalização não planejada por IC ou visita urgente a emergência por IC) ou morte cardiovascular. Entretanto, não houve redução de morte cardiovascular ou morte por qualquer causa, apresentando redução de 23% nas hospitalizações por IC. Os resultados foram similares entre os diversos subgrupos, incluindo pacientes com FEVE maior ou igual a 60% e menor que 60%, e pacientes com e sem diabetes. Os eventos adversos foram semelhantes nos dois grupos, sem evento grave significativo. Um detalhe relevante é a participação de 18,4% de pacientes com IC com fração de ejeção melhorada, uma população que geralmente não é incluída nos ensaios de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Ao avaliar estes dois ensaios clínicos associados, totalizando 12.251 pacientes, o uso de iSGLT2 mostrou redução de 20% na morte cardiovascular ou primeira hospitalização por IC. Estes resultados foram consistentes em ambos os componentes deste desfecho, com redução de 12% em morte cardiovascular e de 26% na primeira hospitalização por IC, mas sem impacto em morte por qualquer causa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Assim, empagliflozina e dapagliflozina mostram benefícios significativos no tratamento de pacientes crônicos ambulatoriais em todo o espectro de FEVE, sendo aplicável para pacientes com ICFER, ICFEP e IC com fração de ejeção levemente reduzida, incluindo pacientes com FEVE melhorada. Essa é a primeira classe de drogas a demonstrar tal amplitude de benefício clínico.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Benefícios clínicos dos iSGLT2 no tratamento da IC aguda</title>
				<p>A IC aguda refere-se ao rápido ou gradual início dos sinais e sintomas de IC, graves o suficiente para fazer o paciente procurar um serviço médico de urgência, levando a uma hospitalização não planejada ou visita ao departamento de emergência. A IC aguda pode ser a primeira manifestação clínica de IC ou secundária a uma IC crônica agudamente descompensada. Este é um momento crucial para iniciar e/ou intensificar o tratamento da IC com medicações que trazem impacto na sobrevida destes pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Neste sentido, o ensaio clínico EMPA-RESPONSE-AHF (Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre pilot study on the effects of empagliflozin on clinical outcomes in patients with acute decompensated heart failure) randomizou 80 pacientes com IC aguda, com ou sem diabetes, para receber dapagliflozina 10 mg uma vez ao dia ou placebo, com objetivo de avaliar a variação no escore de dispneia através de uma escala visual, resposta ao diurético (definida como perda de peso para cada 40 mg de furosemida), mudança no NT-proBNP e tempo de hospitalização. A primeira descompensação por IC (IC <italic>de novo</italic>) esteve presente em 47% destes pacientes. Empagliflozina reduziu o desfecho combinado de piora de IC intra-hospitalar, rehospitalização por IC ou morte em 60 dias de forma significativa, mas sem impacto nos outros desfechos avaliados. O débito urinário até o 4º dia foi substancialmente maior no grupo empagliflozina. Ela foi bem tolerada, segura e sem efeitos na pressão arterial ou na função renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Posteriormente, estudo EMPULSE (Impact of empagliflozin on decongestion in acute heart failure) avaliou o efeito da empagliflozina 10 mg uma vez ao dia contra placebo nos desfechos relacionados à descongestão em 530 pacientes hospitalizados por IC aguda. Os desfechos avaliados foram perda de peso, perda de peso ajustado para a dose diária de diurético de alça, níveis séricos de NT-proBNP, hemoconcentração e escore clínico de congestão após 15, 30 e 90 dias do início do tratamento. Pacientes que receberam empagliflozina demonstraram uma redução significativa nos marcadores de descongestão em todos esses momentos de avaliação. A eficácia foi independente da fração de ejeção e da presença de diabetes, com taxa de eventos adversos similares entre os dois grupos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O ensaio clínico DICTATE-AHF (Efficacy and Safety of Dapagliflozin in Acute Heart Failure) está avaliando a eficácia e segurança de iniciar dapagliflozina 10 mg uma vez ao dia nas primeiras 24 horas de hospitalização em pacientes com DM tipo 2 com IC aguda hipervolêmica e com TFG estimada de pelo menos 30 mL/min/1,73 m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>. O desfecho primário foi a resposta diurética expressa em perda de peso cumulativa por dose cumulativa de diurético de alça equivalente a 40 mg de furosemida endovenosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O estudo SOLOIST-WHF (Sotagliflozin in Patients with Diabetes and Recent Worsening Heart Failure) com a sotagliflozina, um inibidor dos receptores SGLT1 e SGLT2, evidenciou uma redução de eventos entre 1.222 indivíduos com DM tipo 2 hospitalizados por IC que receberam esta medicação durante a internação ou logo após a alta hospitalar. A sotagliflozina associou-se a uma redução de 29% de morte cardiovascular ou piora da IC em um seguimento médio de 18 meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Recomendações para uso dos iSGLT2 na prática clínica</title>
				<p>Diante destas evidências, uma análise do impacto da associação dos iSGLT2 ao tratamento da ICFER com betabloqueador, antagonista do receptor mineralocorticoide e inibidores do receptor da angiotensina e neprilisina mostrou um redução de 62% em morte cardiovascular ou hospitalização por IC, com redução de 50% em morte cardiovascular, de 68% em hospitalização por IC e de 47% em morte por qualquer causa, quando comparado ao tratamento com betabloqueador e inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina ou bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina II. Além disso, essas quatro classes de medicamentos proporcionaram 2,7 anos e 8,3 anos livres de morte cardiovascular ou hospitalização por IC e aumentou a sobrevida em 1,4 anos e 6,3 anos, respectivamente para pacientes com 80 anos e 55 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Estes resultados consagraram os iSGLT2 como um novo pilar no tratamento da IC, recebendo classe de recomendação I nível de evidência A para o tratamento da ICFER nas últimas atualizações das diretrizes europeia e americana para o tratamento da ICFER crônica, ao lado do betabloqueador sacubitril/valsartana e antagonistas dos receptores de mineralocorticoides (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08002">Figura 7</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f08002">
						<label>Figura 7</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Cenário atual para o tratamento da ICFER, destacando-se as 4 drogas fundamentais visando redução da mortalidade. Essa pesquisa foi originalmente publicada no European Heart Journal. Bauersachs J.42 ARM: antagonista do receptor mineralocorticoide; BRA: bloqueador dos receptores da angiotensina; BRE: bloqueio de ramo esquerdo; DAVE: dispositivo de assistência ventricular esquerda; ICFER: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina; INRA: inibidor da neprilisina e do receptor de angiotensina-neprilisina; IVP: isolamento das veias pulmonares; FA: fibrilação atrial; RM: regurgitação mitral; RS: ritmo sinusal; SGLT2: co-transportador de sódio e glicose 2; TC: transplante cardíaco; TRC: terapia de ressincronização cardíaca; TSAT: saturação de transferrina.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240027-gf08-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Para o tratamento da ICFEP e IC com fração de ejeção levemente reduzida, a última diretriz europeia recomenda o uso de dapagliflozina ou empagliflozina também com classe de recomendação I nível de evidência A, para reduzir o risco de hospitalização por IC ou morte cardiovascular. Além disso, o uso destes fármacos também apresenta o mesmo grau de recomendação para a prevenção de IC em pacientes com diabetes e doença renal crônica para reduzir os riscos de hospitalização por IC ou morte cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusões</title>
				<p>A história de sucesso dos iSGLT2 se estende desde a prevenção de desenvolvimento de IC em pacientes diabéticos até a redução de mortalidade geral em pacientes com IC. Trata-se da primeira classe de drogas com demonstração de benefício palpável em todas as faixas de FEVE tanto no cenário de IC crônica ambulatorial como na IC aguda em pacientes hospitalizados. Essa trajetória de sucesso rendeu às gliflozinas o status de medicação de uso recomendado com alto nível de evidência científica nas diretrizes internacionais para tratamento da IC.</p>
			</sec>
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				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Vinculação acadêmica</label>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</label>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<label>Fontes de financiamento:</label>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
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	</sub-article>
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