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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20240022i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240022i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Theoretical Concepts of Lung Ultrasound in the Diagnosis of Congestion</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8289-7357</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Menegazzo</surname><given-names>Willian Roberto</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6409-2109</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Saadi</surname><given-names>Marina Petersen</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7264-8277</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Silvano</surname><given-names>Gustavo Paes</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6564-8834</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Gonzalez</surname><given-names>Vinícius Leite</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0327-3392</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Silveira</surname><given-names>Anderson Donelli da</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul – Programa de Pós-Graduação em Cardiologia e Ciências Cardiovasculares, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><label>Mailing Address:</label> <bold>Willian R. Menegazzo</bold> • Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre – Cardiologia - Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. Postal Code <postal-code>90035-903</postal-code>, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil E-mail: <email>wmenegazzo@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="edited-by">
<p>Editor responsible for the review: Luis Beck-da-Silva</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>28</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>4</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e20240022</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>12</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>26</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>30</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Accurate detection of pulmonary congestion remains a challenge in cardiology, despite advances in diagnostic methods. Traditional approaches, such as physical examination and chest radiography, have limitations in real-time assessment and dynamic monitoring of volume status. Lung ultrasound (LUS) has emerged as a promising tool, offering a non-invasive, bedside approach to detect pulmonary congestion with greater diagnostic accuracy, providing valuable information about volume status. In patients with heart failure, LUS has demonstrated high sensitivity and specificity in detecting pulmonary congestion, contributing to more accurate differential diagnosis and streamlining clinical decision-making. In the context of stress echocardiography, LUS improves risk stratification, identifying patients with a greater likelihood of adverse cardiovascular events. Beyond the context of heart failure, LUS has also been applied in other clinical scenarios, such as acute coronary syndrome and assessment of volume status in patients on dialysis. This expanded use reflects the potential of LUS as a versatile and valuable tool in different clinical settings, offering an earlier, more accurate, and more effective approach to cardiology care.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Pulmonary Edema</kwd>
<kwd>Ultrasonography</kwd>
<kwd>Stress Echocardiography</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="6"/>
<table-count count="4"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="53"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f3">
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240022-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Despite advances in diagnostic methods in cardiology and heart failure (HF), accurate detection of pulmonary congestion still faces notable challenges. Although conventional methods such as physical examination, chest radiography, and biomarkers offer effective approaches to assessment, they have inherent limitations, especially in relation to real-time assessment and dynamic monitoring of volume status.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>The combination of clinical examination with biomarkers, such as brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), and imaging tests has been recommended to improve the distinction between possible differential diagnoses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Nonetheless, traditional chest radiography also has limited sensitivity in assessing congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Given this complex clinical scenario, there is a need for more accurate diagnostic and monitoring methods. In this context, lung ultrasound (LUS) has emerged as a promising tool, offering a non-invasive bedside approach to detect pulmonary congestion with better diagnostic accuracy and reproducibility than traditional clinical assessment (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Compared to other imaging methods that can identify congestion, LUS stands out due to its primary features: low cost, bedside applicability, wide availability, ability to monitor therapeutic effects, usefulness in stress protocols, and association with clinical outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Comparative diagnostic value between clinical signs and lung ultrasound in detection of pulmonary congestion</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
<th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle"/>
<th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Sensitivity (%)</th>
<th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Specificity (%)</th>
<th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Accuracy (%)</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
<th align="center" valign="middle">Physical examination</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Rales</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">55</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">91</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">65</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Jugular venous distension</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">40</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">86</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">52</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Peripheral edema</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">37</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">95</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">52</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Lung ultrasound</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">90</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">95</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">91</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><p>Adapted from Kataoka and Takada (2000).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<sec>
<title>Technical aspects</title>
<p>In normal lungs, LUS only identifies the pleura as a hyperechoic horizontal line that presents pleural sliding during breathing and always reverberates in the scanning area at equidistant intervals, described as pattern A (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1A</xref>). When there is a decrease in the amount of air and an increase in lung density, B lines appear as vertical ultrasound artifacts that originate from the pleura and extend throughout the scanning area, omitting A lines and moving according to the patient&apos;s breathing, indicating the presence of pulmonary interstitial edema (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1B</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Lung ultrasound patterns: A) pattern A; B) pattern B; C) pleural effusion.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240022-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>In addition to identifying pulmonary interstitial edema, LUS also allows diagnosis of pleural effusion, through identification of a hypoechoic image above the diaphragm in the lateral and posterior windows, close to the costophrenic angle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1C</xref>).</p>
<p>As high temporal and spatial resolution is not necessary, most commercially available ultrasound scanners, including portable ones, are usually sufficient to acquire quality images. Use of a 5 MHz convex transducer or a 2.5 to 5 MHz cardiac sector transducer is recommended. The convex transducer should be positioned perpendicular to the chest wall, between the ribs, in order to avoid shadows that could interfere with visualization of the pleural line and underlying pulmonary parenchyma; the cardiac transducer, due to its smaller size, typically does not hinder adequate visualization of the intercostal spaces. Harmonic imaging can be used to better identify B lines. Depth and gain settings are adjusted to optimize visualization of the pleura and pulmonary tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Multiple protocols have been described for performing LUS, varying in the number of lung fields examined.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The 8-field protocol is still the most widely used in clinical practice, and it is recommended by the most recent European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI) consensus statement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> This protocol consists of bilateral scanning of the anterior and lateral areas of the chest, dividing each hemithorax into the following 4 fields: anterior superior and anterior inferior, in the midclavicular line; lateral superior and lateral inferior, in the mid-axillary line (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="other" rid="f4">Video 1</xref>). The identification of 3 or more B lines in 2 or more fields suggests pulmonary congestion (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f5">Video 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The increase in the number of B lines correlates with elevated pulmonary capillary pressure (PCP), as validated by invasive hemodynamic measurements, making a non-invasive approach possible to estimate left ventricular filling pressures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Left: lung fields assessed in the 8-field protocol, 4 in each hemithorax; 1) anterior superior; 2) anterior inferior; 3) lateral superior; 4) lateral inferior. Right: definition of pulmonary congestion according to lung ultrasound.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240022-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<media id="f4" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240022-m01.mp4">
<label>Video 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Example of left hemithorax lung ultrasound acquisition of the four lung fields: anterior superior, anterior inferior, lateral superior and lateral inferior respectively. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcheartfailure.org/supplementary-material/2024/401/2024-0022_AR_video_1.mp4">http://abcheartfailure.org/supplementary-material/2024/401/2024-0022_AR_video_1.mp4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
<media id="f5" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240022-m02.mp4">
<label>Video 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Example of B lines: vertical ultrasound artifacts that originate from the pleura and distribute throughout the scanning area. Link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abcheartfailure.org/supplementary-material/2024/401/2024-0022_AR_video_2.MP4">http://abcheartfailure.org/supplementary-material/2024/401/2024-0022_AR_video_2.MP4</ext-link>.</title></caption>
</media>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Lung ultrasound in heart failure</title>
<p>In echocardiographic assessment of patients with HF, LUS is an additional marker of congestion in relation to traditionally obtained parameters. In addition to enlarged left atrium, elevated E/e’ ratio, elevated pulmonary pressures, and elevated estimated central venous pressure by assessment of the inferior vena cava, the presence of pulmonary B lines is an independent marker of left HF and increased left ventricular filling pressures, which can be obtained with the same transducer and the addition of a few minutes to the total examination time in cases with clinical suspicion or diagnosis of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Acute heart failure</title>
<p>LUS has emerged as a promising diagnostic, therapeutic monitoring, and prognostic tool in the setting of acute HF. In emergency scenarios, it offers quick, non-invasive assessment, demonstrating an important role in the differential diagnosis of dyspnea, with a sensitivity of 93.7% (95% confidence interval: 86.01% to 97.9%) and specificity of 86.1% (95% confidence interval: 70.5% to 96.3%) to discriminate cardiac and non-cardiac etiology of dyspnea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> When associated with traditional clinical assessment in diagnosis of acute decompensated HF in the emergency setting, LUS showed greater diagnostic capacity (area under the curve [AUC] 0.95 versus AUC 0.88; p &lt; 0.01), while the use of chest radiography and NT-proBNP did not perform better than traditional clinical assessment (AUC 0.87 versus AUC 0.85; p &gt; 0.05).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Furthermore, the use of LUS reduced 8% of diagnostic errors compared to traditional clinical assessment, in addition to reducing diagnostic time by 100 minutes compared to complementary evaluation with chest radiography and NT-proBNP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> In a study conducted in the setting of decompensated HF, the search for pleural effusion by means of LUS demonstrated high sensitivity and specificity (90% and 95%, respectively) in detecting pulmonary congestion, outperforming physical examination signs, such as crackles or rales, jugular venous distension, and peripheral edema.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Moreover, it led to a faster decision to recommend hospital admission, as well as a 33% reduction in the total length of hospital stay.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In serial evaluation of patients hospitalized for HF, in parallel with other markers of congestion such as E/e’ ratio, BNP, and estimated central venous pressure by measurement of the inferior vena cava, LUS was shown to be the only predictor of all-cause mortality, as well as a composite outcome of mortality and rehospitalization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>In the setting of patients who are hospitalized for decompensated HF, monitoring of congestion through assessment of pulmonary B lines is highly useful, due to the rapid response of the decreased B lines with improved congestion, which can assist in detection of subclinical congestion and management of diuretics, potentially reducing the length of hospital stay.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<p>During pre-hospital discharge assessment, the presence of residual congestion seems to identify patients with worse prognosis and, especially, higher need for new hospitalization due to HF during follow-up within 6 months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> In this scenario, a randomized clinical trial that evaluated the use of pre-hospital discharge LUS to guide the clinical management of residual congestion compared to traditional clinical management by a general practitioner, including at-home LUS performed after hospital discharge by trained nurses, reduced the need for rehospitalization within 30 days by 66% and 37% in 90 days compared to traditional management.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> The presence of 12 or more B lines at hospital discharge was shown to be an independent predictor of hospital readmission and 6-month mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Another recently published cohort study showed that the presence of 2 to 3 lung fields with B patterns posed a 25% greater risk of readmission for HF within 30 days, and the presence of more than 4 fields with B patterns increased the risk of hospitalization within 30 days by 50%, compared to patients discharged with 0 to 1 positive fields.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> In line with these findings, a recently published meta-analysis demonstrated that a greater number of B lines at admission, at hospital discharge, and at the outpatient level was associated with rehospitalization due to HF and general mortality, and that the addition of LUS to the MAGGIC and AHEAD scores reclassified the prognosis of patients in all three scenarios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Chronic heart failure</title>
<p>In the outpatient setting, the majority of stable patients with controlled symptoms can be adequately assessed by means of anamnesis and physical examination.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> However, at least three randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that patients with LUS-guided outpatient management, when compared to those guided by traditional clinical assessment alone, showed a reduction in HF-related events, including the composite outcome of death, hospitalization, and urgent emergency visits due to worsening HF in the first 6 months after hospital discharge, especially due to a reduction in the last outcome mentioned, and the number of patients needed to assess with LUS to reduce an emergency visit event was 5.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Accordingly, the association of LUS with traditional clinical assessment improves detection of residual congestion, with an impact on reduced cardiovascular events, especially hospital admission for HF.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Lung ultrasound in stress echocardiography</title>
<p>Stress echocardiography is considered a cost-effective imaging modality, and it is recommended by the most recent guidelines for evaluating patients with coronary artery disease (CAD)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> and HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> In addition to providing a detailed analysis of wall motility, it allows dynamic assessment of valvular heart disease, pulmonary hypertension, diastolic function, and B lines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
<p>In particular, B lines represent a practical and direct approach to assessing the presence of extravascular pulmonary water and its variation during stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> In healthy individuals, exercise leads to only a slight increase in PCP and pulmonary artery pressure, without significantly impacting the pulmonary vascular bed. On the other hand, in patients with substantial left ventricular dysfunction, exercise increases left ventricular end-diastolic filling pressure and PCP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> When PCP exceeds 25 mmHg during exercise, there occurs an increased transfer of water from the vascular compartment to the extravascular compartment, overcoming the attraction exerted by oncotic pressure and resulting in an accumulation of extravascular pulmonary water.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>The presence of 10 or more B lines at peak stress (or immediately after), in a 4-field protocol with any form of physical or pharmacological stress, was an independent predictor for death and non-fatal acute myocardial infarction in patients with CAD and/or HF during a mean follow-up of 15.2 months (hazard ratio: 3.544; 95% confidence interval: 1.466 to 8.687; p = 0.006).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> In a study with patients referred for physical exercise echocardiography, B lines increased during exercise in all groups studied (CAD, HF, and ischemic mitral regurgitation ≥ moderate at rest), except in controls. In multivariate analysis, the presence of B lines at peak stress was an independent predictor of all-cause death after a mean follow-up of 29 months (hazard ratio: 2.179; 95% confidence interval: 1.015 to 4.680; p = 0.046).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>In HF with reduced ejection fraction, the number of B lines during physical stress echocardiography showed a strong correlation with resting NT-proBNP values (r: 0.88; p &lt; 0.0001), peak VO<sub>2</sub> (r: −0.90; p &lt; 0.0001), and pulmonary artery systolic pressure under stress (r: 0.84; p &lt; 0.0001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> The detection of a greater number of B lines at peak exercise was associated with greater risk of hospitalization and death due to HF (12-month event-free survival of 95% in patients with &lt; 30 B lines versus 7% in patients with ≥ 30 B lines; p &lt; 0.0001), in an analysis protocol with 28 pulmonary fields.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
<p>In patients with HF with preserved ejection fraction, the development of pulmonary congestion during exercise occurs concomitantly with worsening diastolic function, predominantly with an increase in the mean E/e’ ratio and a reduction in the late diastolic strain rate (R<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>: 0.776; p &lt; 0.04).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Both the number of B lines at peak (hazard ratio: 1.50; 95% confidence interval: 1.21 to 1.85; p &lt; 0.001) and the change in relation to baseline (hazard ratio: 1.34; 95% confidence interval: 1.12 to 1.62; p = 0.002) during physical exercise echocardiography were predictors of cardiovascular death or hospitalization for HF within 1 year in this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
<p>These findings indicate that LUS can improve the diagnosis of HF and contribute to risk stratification when combined with stress echocardiography. Along these lines, LUS has been integrated into expanded physical stress echocardiography protocols<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> and protocols performed in conjunction with cardiopulmonary exercise testing,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> providing an additional range of parameters for analysis.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Lung ultrasound in other scenarios</title>
<p>In up to a third of cases, patients with acute coronary syndrome may develop HF, which is associated with an increased risk of total mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> In ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction, LUS combined with the Killip classification forms the LUCK (Lung Ultrasound Combined with Killip) score, which has shown higher diagnostic accuracy than Killip alone for predicting in-hospital mortality, as well as high negative predictive value for ruling out pulmonary congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
<p>Fluid overload poses a continuous challenge in the dialysis population given the difficulty in assessing volume status in this patient profile,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> leading to hypertension, prolonged hospitalization, and increased hospital readmission rates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> For a long time, the process of determining a patient&apos;s dry weight and assessing extravascular lung water were based on vital signs and physical examination data. With the advent of LUS, this tool has become valuable to the identification of pulmonary congestion in patients with chronic disease on dialysis, with resolution of B lines following the removal of fluids during hemodialysis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> showing potential use in monitoring response to dialysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Challenges and limitations</title>
<p>Other pulmonary interstitial diseases can also be shown on LUS through the presence of B lines. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) presents with non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema, with difficult differential diagnosis from cardiogenic pulmonary congestion. Some features, such as the presence of some spared areas among areas with many B lines and the presence of subpleural consolidation, may be more suggestive of ARDS. Pulmonary fibrosis, compared to cardiogenic edema, less frequently presents a gravitational association (cardiogenic edema is more frequent in posterior and inferior fields), and its pattern does not show changes after therapy with diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>LUS has been established as a highly valuable diagnostic tool in detecting pulmonary congestion in patients with both acute and chronic HF. With practical and non-invasive application, this ultrasound method offers better diagnostic accuracy, dynamic monitoring of pulmonary congestion, and identification of patients with worse prognosis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>), overcoming the limitations of traditional assessment methods.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption><title>Lung ultrasound and its prognostic role in different clinical scenarios</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Scenario</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Study design</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Findings/prognosis</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Reference</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Observational retrospective</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LUS in the emergency room reduced the total length of hospital stay by 33%</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Núñez-Ramos et al., 2023,<break/> Am J Emerg Med<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Observational prospective</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Greater number of B lines at admission was associated with more in-hospital adverse events. Higher number of B lines at discharge was associated with readmission and death within 90 and 180 days.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Platz et al., 2019, J Am Coll Cardiol HF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Acute HF</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prospective cohort</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Resolution of pulmonary congestion on LUS during hospitalization was the best predictor of absence of mortality or readmission within 6 months.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Öhman et al., 2018, Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Randomized clinical trial</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Residual congestion on pre-discharge LUS (≥ 10 B lines) was associated with early readmission (&lt; 14 days) and multiple readmissions within 90 days.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Zisis et al., 2024, J Card Fail<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prospective cohort</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">≥ 12 B lines at discharge predicted readmission and mortality within 6 months.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Rattarasarnet al., 2022, BMC Cardiovasc. Disord<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prospective cohort</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">ELUS with 2 to 3 fields with a B pattern at discharge was associated with a 25% increase in the risk of readmission within 30 days; ≥ 4 fields with B pattern increased risk by 50%.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cohen et al., 2023, J. Ultrasound Med<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Randomized clinical trial</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LUS-guided treatment demonstrated improved functional capacity and reduced hospitalization for HF in 180 days.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Rivas-Lasarte et al., 2019, <break/>Eur J Heart Fail<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Outpatient/chronic HF</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Randomized clinical trial</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LUS-guided treatment reduced the risk of hospitalization for HF by 45% within 6 months.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Araiza-Garaygordobil et al., 2020, <break/>Am Heart J<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Randomized clinical trial</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Addition of LUS to physical examination reduced risk of rehospitalization by 56% in 6 months.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Marini et al., 2020, Heart<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prospective cohort</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">≥ 10 B lines at peak stress predicted death and non-fatal acute myocardial infarction within 15 months in patients with CAD and/or HF.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Scali et al., 2020, JACC Cardiovasc Imaging<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Stress echocardiography</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prospective cohort</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Increased B lines at peak stress was an independent predictor of all-cause death at 29 months in patients with CAD, HF, and moderate mitral regurgitation.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Merli et al., 2022, Circ Cardiovasc Imaging<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prospective cohort</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Greater number of B lines at peak and change in relation to baseline were predictors of death and hospitalization at 1 year in HF with preserved EF.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coiro et al., 2020, Circ Heart Fail<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Acute myocardial infarction</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prospective cohort</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Addition of LUS to Killip classification improved prognostic accuracy and re-stratified risk of in-hospital mortality in ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Araújo et al., 2020, Circ Cardiovasc Imaging<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2"><p>CAD: coronary artery disease; EF: ejection fraction; HF: heart failure; LUS: lung ultrasound.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>In the challenging clinical contexts of decompensated HF, LUS has emerged as a reliable predictor of congestion, demonstrating its usefulness in the early identification of patients at risk of adverse outcomes. The ability to detect pulmonary interstitial edema and subclinical volume overload through B lines allows for earlier therapeutic interventions, with a positive impact on morbidity and mortality associated with HF.</p>
<p>Moreover, LUS has proven to be a valuable tool in the context of stress echocardiography, expanding diagnostic capacity and improving risk stratification. Nonetheless, the presence of B lines is not exclusive to cardiogenic congestion, underscoring the need for careful interpretation when facing other pulmonary interstitial diseases, such as ARDS and pulmonary fibrosis.</p>
<p>The advent of LUS reflects a qualitative leap in cardiac care, making it a fundamental component in cardiologists’ diagnostic arsenal, offering an earlier, more accurate, and effective approach to the management of HF.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
<label>Sources of funding</label>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<label>Study association</label>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240022</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Conceitos Teóricos da Ecografia Pulmonar no Diagnóstico da Congestão</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8289-7357</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Menegazzo</surname><given-names>Willian Roberto</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6409-2109</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Saadi</surname><given-names>Marina Petersen</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7264-8277</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Silvano</surname><given-names>Gustavo Paes</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6564-8834</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Gonzalez</surname><given-names>Vinícius Leite</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0327-3392</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Silveira</surname><given-names>Anderson Donelli da</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul – Programa de Pós-Graduação em Cardiologia e Ciências Cardiovasculares, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondência:</label> <bold>Willian R. Menegazzo</bold> • Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre – Cardiologia - Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. CEP <postal-code>90035-903</postal-code>, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil E-mail: <email>wmenegazzo@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><label>Potencial conflito de interesse</label>
<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="edited-by"><p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Luis Beck-da-Silva</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>Detectar com precisão a congestão pulmonar continua sendo um desafio na cardiologia, apesar dos avanços nos métodos diagnósticos. Abordagens tradicionais, como exame físico e radiografia de tórax, têm limitações na avaliação em tempo real e no monitoramento dinâmico do estado volêmico. A ecografia pulmonar (EP) surge como uma ferramenta promissora, oferecendo uma abordagem não invasiva e à beira do leito para detectar congestão pulmonar com maior acurácia diagnóstica, fornecendo informações valiosas sobre o estado volêmico. Em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca, a EP demonstrou sensibilidade e especificidade elevadas na detecção de congestão pulmonar, contribuindo para um diagnóstico diferencial mais preciso e agilizando a tomada de decisão clínica. No cenário do ecocardiograma de estresse, a EP melhora a estratificação de risco, identificando pacientes com maior probabilidade de eventos cardiovasculares adversos. Fora do contexto da insuficiência cardíaca, a EP também tem sido aplicada em outros cenários clínicos, como na síndrome coronariana aguda e na avaliação do status volêmico em pacientes em diálise. Essa expansão de uso reflete o potencial da EP como uma ferramenta versátil e valiosa em diferentes contextos clínicos, oferecendo uma abordagem mais precoce, precisa e eficaz no cuidado cardiológico.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
<kwd>Edema Pulmonar</kwd>
<kwd>Ultrassonografia</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia sob Estresse</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f8">
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240022-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>Apesar dos progressos nos métodos diagnósticos na cardiologia e insuficiência cardíaca (IC), a detecção precisa da congestão pulmonar ainda enfrenta notáveis desafios. Embora os métodos convencionais, como exame físico, radiografia de tórax e biomarcadores ofereçam abordagens eficazes de avaliação, estes possuem limitações inerentes, especialmente em relação à avaliação em tempo real e ao monitoramento dinâmico do estado volêmico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>A combinação do exame clínico com biomarcadores, como o peptídeo natriurético cerebral (BNP) e exames de imagem é recomendada para melhorar a distinção entre possíveis diagnósticos diferenciais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> No entanto, a tradicional radiografia de tórax também apresenta sensibilidade limitada na avaliação de congestão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Diante desse cenário clínico complexo, há necessidade de métodos diagnósticos e monitoramento mais precisos. Nesse contexto, a ecografia pulmonar (EP) emerge como uma ferramenta promissora, ao oferecer uma abordagem não invasiva e à beira do leito para detectar a congestão pulmonar com acurácia diagnóstica e reprodutibilidade superior à avaliação clínica tradicional (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Em comparação com outros métodos de imagem que podem identificar congestão, a EP se destaca por suas características primordiais: baixo custo, aplicabilidade à beira do leito, ampla disponibilidade, capacidade de monitoramento do efeito terapêutico, utilidade em protocolos de estresse e associação com desfechos clínicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Diagnóstico comparativo entre sinais clínicos e ecografia pulmonar na detecção de congestão pulmonar</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
<th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle"/>
<th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Sensibilidade (%)</th>
<th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Especificidade (%)</th>
<th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Precisão (%)</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
<th align="center" valign="middle">Exame físico</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Crepitantes</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">55</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">91</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">65</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Turgência jugular</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">40</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">86</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">52</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Edema periférico</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">37</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">95</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">52</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Eco pulmonar</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">90</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">95</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">91</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3"><p>Adaptado de Kataoka e Takada (2000).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<sec>
<title>Aspectos técnicos</title>
<p>Em um pulmão normal, a EP identifica somente a pleura, como uma linha horizontal hiperecoica que apresenta deslizamento pleural com a respiração e reverbera na área de escaneamento sempre em intervalos equidistantes, descrito como padrão A (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1A</xref>). Quando há um decréscimo na quantidade de ar e aumento da densidade pulmonar, ocorre o surgimento das linhas B, artefatos ultrassonográficos verticais que se originam da pleura e se estendem por toda a área de escaneamento, omitindo as linhas A e se movendo conforme a respiração do paciente, indicando a presença de edema pulmonar intersticial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1B</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Padrões ecográficos pulmonares: A) padrão A; B) padrão B; C) derrame pleural.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240022-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Além da identificação do edema intersticial pulmonar, a EP também permite o diagnóstico de derrame pleural, através da identificação de imagem hipoecoica acima do diafragma nas janelas laterais e posteriores, junto ao ângulo costofrênico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1C</xref>).</p>
<p>Por não haver necessidade de grande resolução temporal e espacial, o uso da maior parte dos ecógrafos comercialmente disponíveis, incluindo os portáteis, costuma ser suficiente para adquirir imagens de qualidade. Sugere-se o uso de transdutor convexo de 5 MHz ou transdutor cardíaco setorial com 2,5 a 5 MHz. O transdutor convexo deve ser posicionado perpendicularmente à parede torácica, entre as costelas, a fim de evitar sombreamentos que possam interferir na visualização da linha pleural e do parênquima pulmonar subjacente; o transdutor cardíaco, pelo menor tamanho, costuma não dificultar a adequada visualização dos espaços intercostais. A imagem harmônica pode ser utilizada para melhor identificação das linhas B. As configurações de profundidade e ganho são ajustadas para otimizar a visualização da pleura e do tecido pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Diversos protocolos foram descritos para realização da EP, variando no número de campos pulmonares examinados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> No entanto, o protocolo de 8 campos é o mais comumente utilizado na prática clínica e é sugerido pelo novo consenso da Associação Europeia de Imagem Cardiovascular (EACVI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Este protocolo consiste na varredura bilateral das áreas anterior e lateral do tórax, com cada hemitórax sendo dividido em 4 campos: ântero-superior e ântero-inferior, na linha hemiclavicular; campos látero-superior e látero-inferior, na linha axilar média (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="other" rid="f9">Vídeo 1</xref>). A identificação de 3 ou mais linhas B em 2 ou mais campos sugere congestão pulmonar (<xref ref-type="other" rid="f10">Vídeo 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> O aumento do número de linhas B correlaciona-se com elevação da pressão capilar pulmonar (PCP), conforme validado por medidas hemodinâmicas invasivas, proporcionando uma possibilidade de abordagem não invasiva para estimar as pressões de enchimento do ventrículo esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>À esquerda: campos pulmonares a serem avaliados no protocolo de 8 campos, sendo 4 em cada hemitórax; 1- ântero-superior; 2- ântero-inferior; 3- látero-superior; 4- látero-inferior. À direita: definição de congestão pulmonar pela ecografia pulmonar.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240022-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<media id="f9" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240022-m01.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Exemplo da aquisição da ecografia pulmonar dos quatro campos pulmonares no hemitórax esquerdo: anterior superior, anterior inferior, lateral superior e lateral inferior, respectivamente. Link: http://abcheartfailure.org/supplementary-material/2024/401/2024-0022_AR_video_1.mp4.</title></caption>
</media>
<media id="f10" mime-subtype="mp4" mimetype="video" xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240022-m02.mp4">
<label>Vídeo 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Exemplo de linhas B: artefatos ultrassonográficos verticais que se originam da pleura e se distribuem pela área de escaneamento. Link: http://abcheartfailure.org/supplementary-material/2024/401/2024-0022_AR_video_2.MP4.</title></caption>
</media>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ecografia pulmonar na insuficiência cardíaca</title>
<p>Na avaliação ecocardiográfica de pacientes com IC, a EP é um marcador adicional de congestão em relação aos parâmetros tradicionalmente obtidos. Além do aumento do átrio esquerdo, da relação E/e’ elevada, da elevação das pressões pulmonares e da estimativa da pressão venosa central elevada através da avaliação da veia cava inferior, a presença de linhas B pulmonares é um marcador independente de IC esquerda e aumento nas pressões de enchimento ventricular esquerda, podendo ser obtido com o mesmo transdutor e com adição de poucos minutos no tempo total do exame em casos com suspeita clínica ou diagnóstico de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Insuficiência cardíaca aguda</title>
<p>A EP emergiu como uma ferramenta diagnóstica, de monitoramento terapêutico e prognóstica promissora no cenário da IC aguda. Em cenários de emergência, oferece uma avaliação rápida e não invasiva, demonstrando importante papel no diagnóstico diferencial de dispneia, com sensibilidade de 93,7% (intervalo de confiança de 95%: 86,01% a 97,9%) e especificidade de 86,1% (intervalo de confiança de 95%: 70,5% a 96,3%) para discriminar etiologia cardíaca e não cardíaca da dispneia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Quando associada à avaliação clínica tradicional no diagnóstico da IC agudamente descompensada no cenário da emergência, a EP apresentou maior capacidade diagnóstica (área sob a curva [AUC] 0,95 versus AUC 0,88; p &lt; 0,01), enquanto o uso de radiografia de tórax e NT-proBNP não superou a avaliação clínica tradicional (AUC 0,87 versus AUC 0,85; p &gt; 0,05).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Ademais, o uso da EP reduziu 8% dos erros diagnósticos comparada à avaliação clínica tradicional, além da redução do tempo de diagnóstico em 100 minutos comparada à avaliação complementar com radiografia de tórax e NT-proBNP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Em estudo conduzido no cenário da IC descompensada, a pesquisa de derrame pleural através da EP demonstrou ter elevadas sensibilidade e especificidade (90% e 95%, respectivamente) na detecção de congestão pulmonar, superando os sinais do exame físico, como estertores crepitantes, turgência venosa jugular e edema periférico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Além disso, resultou em maior agilidade na indicação de internação hospitalar e em redução no tempo total de internação hospitalar em 33%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Em avaliação seriada em pacientes internados por IC, em paralelo com outros marcadores de congestão como relação E/e’, BNP e estimativa pressão venosa central por medida da veia cava inferior, a EP se mostrou como único fator preditor de mortalidade por todas as causas, assim como desfecho composto por mortalidade e rehospitalização.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>No cenário de pacientes internados por IC descompensada, o monitoramento da congestão através da avaliação de linhas B pulmonares é bastante útil, devido à rápida resposta da diminuição de linhas B com a melhora da congestão, o que pode auxiliar na detecção de congestão subclínica, no ajuste de diuréticos e potencialmente diminuir o tempo de internação hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na avaliação pré-alta hospitalar, a presença de congestão residual parece identificar pacientes com pior prognóstico e especialmente maior necessidade de nova hospitalização por IC no seguimento em até 6 meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Neste cenário, ensaio clínico randomizado que avaliou o uso de EP para guiar o manejo clínico da congestão residual pré-alta hospitalar comparado ao manejo clínico tradicional por médico generalista, com realização de EP domiciliar após a alta hospitalar por enfermeiros treinados, reduziu em 66% a necessidade de nova hospitalização em 30 dias e em 37% em 90 dias comparado ao manejo tradicional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> A presença de 12 ou mais linhas B na alta hospitalar se mostrou preditor independente de readmissão hospitalar e mortalidade em 6 meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Outra coorte recentemente publicada mostrou que a presença de 2 a 3 campos pulmonares com padrão B apresenta 25% mais risco de reinternação por IC em 30 dias e mais do que 4 campos com padrão B aumenta 50% o risco de internação em 30 dias comparado a pacientes que recebem alta com 0 a 1 campos positivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Na mesma linha, uma metanálise publicada recentemente demonstrou que uma maior quantidade de linhas B tanto na admissão, na alta hospitalar e a nível ambulatorial está associada a rehospitalização por IC e mortalidade geral e que a adição da EP ao escore MAGGIC e AHEAD reclassifica o prognóstico dos pacientes nos três diferentes cenários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Insuficiência cardíaca crônica</title>
<p>Em pacientes ambulatoriais, a maioria dos pacientes estáveis e com sintomas controlados podem ser adequadamente avaliados através da anamnese e exame físico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Entretanto, pelo menos três ensaios clínicos randomizados demonstram que os pacientes com manejo ambulatorial guiado pela EP, quando comparados àqueles guiados pela avaliação clínica tradicional, apresentaram redução de eventos relacionados à IC, incluindo do desfecho composto de morte, hospitalização e visitas urgência na emergência por piora da IC nos primeiros 6 meses após a alta hospitalar, especialmente em decorrência da redução do último desfecho citado, com um número de 5 pacientes acompanhados com EP para reduzir um evento de visita à emergência.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Desta forma, a associação da EP à avaliação clínica tradicional melhora detecção de congestão residual, com impacto na redução de eventos cardiovasculares, em especial internação hospitalar por IC.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ecografia pulmonar no ecocardiograma de estresse</title>
<p>O ecocardiograma de estresse é considerado uma modalidade de imagem custo-efetiva e é recomendada pelas mais recentes diretrizes para avaliar pacientes com doença arterial coronariana (DAC)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> e IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Além de fornecer uma análise detalhada da motilidade parietal, permite a avaliação dinâmica de valvopatias, hipertensão pulmonar, função diastólica e linhas B.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em particular, as linhas B representam uma abordagem prática e direta para avaliar a presença de água extravascular pulmonar e sua variação durante o estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Em indivíduos saudáveis, o exercício determina apenas um leve aumento na PCP e na pressão da artéria pulmonar, sem impactar significativamente o leito vascular pulmonar. Por outro lado, em pacientes com disfunção substancial do ventrículo esquerdo, o exercício eleva a pressão de enchimento diastólico final do ventrículo esquerdo e a PCP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Quando a PCP ultrapassa os 25 mmHg durante o exercício, ocorre uma transferência aumentada de água do compartimento vascular para o extravascular, superando a atração exercida pela pressão oncótica e resultando em um acúmulo de água extravascular pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>A presença de 10 ou mais linhas B no pico do estresse (ou imediatamente após) em protocolo de 4 campos com qualquer forma de estresse físico ou farmacológico foi um preditor independente para morte e infarto agudo do miocárdio não fatal em pacientes com DAC e/ou IC durante seguimento médio de 15,2 meses (<italic>hazard ratio</italic>: 3,544; intervalo de confiança de 95%: 1,466 a 8,687; p = 0,006).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Em um estudo com pacientes referenciados para realização de ecocardiograma com exercício físico, as linhas B aumentaram durante o exercício em todos os grupos estudados (DAC, IC e regurgitação mitral isquêmica ≥ moderada em repouso), exceto nos controles. Na análise multivariada, a presença de linhas B no pico do estresse foi preditor independente de morte por todas as causas após seguimento médio de 29 meses (<italic>hazard ratio</italic>: 2,179; intervalo de confiança de 95%: 1,015 a 4,680; p = 0,046).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na IC com fração de ejeção reduzida, o número de linhas B durante ecocardiograma com estresse físico apresenta forte correlação com valores de NT-proBNP em repouso (r: 0,88; p &lt; 0,0001), VO<sub>2</sub> pico (r: −0,90; p &lt; 0,0001) e com a pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar sob estresse (r: 0,84; p &lt; 0.0001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> A detecção de um maior número de linhas B no pico do exercício está associada a um maior risco de hospitalização e morte por IC (sobrevida livre de eventos em 12 meses de 95% em pacientes com &lt; 30 linhas B versus 7% em pacientes com ≥ 30 linhas B; p &lt; 0,0001), em protocolo de análise de 28 campos pulmonares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em pacientes com IC com fração de ejeção preservada, o desenvolvimento de congestão pulmonar durante o exercício acontece concomitante com a piora da função diastólica, predominante com aumento da relação E/e’ média e redução do <italic>strain rate</italic> diastólico tardio (R²: 0.776; p &lt; 0,04).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Tanto o número de linhas B no pico (<italic>hazard ratio</italic>: 1,50; intervalo de confiança de 95%: 1,21 a 1,85; p &lt; 0,001) como a mudança em relação a linha de base (<italic>hazard ratio</italic>: 1,34; intervalo de confiança de 95%: 1,12 a 1,62; p = 0,002) durante ecocardiograma com exercício físico foram preditores de morte cardiovascular ou internação por IC em 1 ano nesta população.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
<p>Estes achados indicam que a EP pode aprimorar o diagnóstico de IC e contribuir para a estratificação de risco quando combinada com o ecocardiograma de estresse. Nesta linha, a EP tem sido integrada em protocolos expandidos de ecocardiograma com estresse físico<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> e protocolos realizados em conjunto com o teste cardiopulmonar de exercício,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> proporcionando uma gama adicional de parâmetros para análise.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ecografia pulmonar em outros cenários</title>
<p>Pacientes com síndrome coronariana aguda podem desenvolver IC em até um terço dos casos, que está associada com aumento do risco de mortalidade total.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> No infarto agudo do miocárdio com supradesnível do segmento ST, a EP, combinada com os critérios de Killip, configura o escore LUCK (do inglês, <italic>Lung Ultrasound Combined with Killip</italic>), que apresenta acurácia diagnóstica superior ao Killip de forma isolada para predição de mortalidade intra-hospitalar, assim como alto valor preditivo negativo para descartar congestão pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
<p>A sobrecarga de fluidos representa um desafio contínuo na população em diálise dada a dificuldade em avaliar o status volêmico neste perfil de pacientes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> acarretando em hipertensão, hospitalização prolongada e aumento das taxas de readmissão hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Por muito tempo, o processo de determinar o peso seco de um paciente e avaliar a água extravascular pulmonar esteve baseado em sinais vitais e dados do exame físico. Com o advento da EP, esta ferramenta tornou-se valiosa na identificação de congestão pulmonar na doença crônica dialítica, com a resolução das linhas B acompanhando a remoção de fluídos durante a hemodiálise,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> com potencial uso na monitorização da resposta dialítica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Desafios e limitações</title>
<p>Outras doenças intersticiais pulmonares também podem ser representadas na EP através da presença de linhas B. A síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo (SDRA) cursa com edema pulmonar não cardiogênico com difícil diagnóstico diferencial da congestão pulmonar cardiogênica. Algumas características, como a presença de algumas áreas poupadas entre áreas com muitas linhas B e presença de consolidações subpleurais podem ser mais sugestivas de SDRA. A fibrose pulmonar, em comparação ao edema cardiogênico, apresenta menos frequentemente associação gravitacional (o edema cardiogênico é mais frequente em campos posteriores e inferiores) e não apresenta modificação no seu padrão após terapêutica com diuréticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>A EP consolidou-se como uma ferramenta diagnóstica de grande valor na detecção da congestão pulmonar em pacientes com IC, tanto na apresentação aguda quanto crônica. Através de sua aplicação prática e não invasiva, este método ultrassonográfico oferece melhor acurácia diagnóstica, monitoramento dinâmico da congestão pulmonar e identificação dos pacientes de pior prognóstico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>), transcendendo as limitações dos métodos de avaliação tradicionais.</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption><title>Ecografia pulmonar e seu papel prognóstico em diferentes cenários clínicos</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Cenário</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Desenho do estudo</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Achados/prognóstico</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Referência</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Retrospectivo observacional</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">EP na emergência reduz em 33% o tempo total de internação hospitalar</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Núñez-Ramos et al., 2023, Am J Emerg Med<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prospectivo observacional</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Maior número de linhas B na admissão associado a mais eventos adversos intra-hospitalares. Maior número de linhas B na alta associado a reinternação e morte em 90 e 180 dias.</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Platz et al., 2019, J Am Coll Cardiol HF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>IC aguda</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coorte prospectiva</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Resolução da congestão pulmonar no EP durante internação é melhor fator preditor de ausência de mortalidade e reinternação em 6 meses</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Öhman et al., 2018, Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ensaio clínico randomizado</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Congestão residual no EP pré-alta (≥ 10 linhas B) associada a reinternações precoces (&lt; 14 dias) e múltiplas reinternações em 90 dias</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Zisis et al., 2024, J Card Fail<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coorte prospectiva</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">≥ 12 linhas B na alta predizem reinternação e mortalidade em 6 meses</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Rattarasarnet al., 2022, BMC Cardiovasc. Disord<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coorte prospectiva</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">EP com 2-3 campos com padrão B na alta associado a aumento de 25% no risco de reinternação em 30 dias; ≥ 4 campos com padrão B elevam o risco em 50%</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Cohen et al., 2023, J. Ultrasound Med<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ensaio clínico randomizado</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tratamento guiado por EP demonstrou melhora da capacidade funcional e redução de hospitalização por IC em 180 dias</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Rivas-Lasarte et al., 2019, Eur J Heart Fail<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>IC crônica/ ambulatorial</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ensaio clínico randomizado</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tratamento guiado por EP reduz em 45% o risco de hospitalização por IC em 6 meses</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Araiza-Garaygordobil et al., 2020, Am Heart J<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ensaio clínico randomizado</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Adição do EP ao exame físico reduz risco de rehospitalização em 56% em 6 meses</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Marini et al., 2020, Heart<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coorte prospectiva</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">≥ 10 linhas B no pico do estresse predizem morte e infarto agudo não fatal em 15 meses em pacientes com DAC e/ou IC</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Scali et al., 2020, JACC Cardiovasc Imaging<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Eco estresse</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coorte prospectiva</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Aumento de linhas B no pico do estresse como preditor independente de morte por todas as causas em 29 meses em pacientes com DAC, IC e insuficiência mitral moderada</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Merli et al., 2022, Circ Cardiovasc Imaging<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coorte prospectiva</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Maior número de linhas B no pico e mudança em relação à linha de base como preditores de morte e hospitalização em 1 anos em IC de FE preservada</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coiro et al., 2020, Circ Heart Fail<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Infarto agudo do miocárdio</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Coorte prospectiva</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Adição da EP ao Killip melhora acurácia prognóstica e re-estratifica risco de mortalidade intra-hospitalar no infarto agudo do miocárdio com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Araújo et al., 2020, Circ Cardiovasc Imaging<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4"><p>DAC: doença arterial coronariana; EP: ecografia pulmonar; FE: fração de ejeção; IC: insuficiência cardíaca.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Nos contextos clínicos desafiadores da IC descompensada, a EP emerge como um preditor confiável de congestão, evidenciando sua utilidade na identificação precoce de pacientes em risco de desfechos adversos. A habilidade de detectar edema intersticial pulmonar e a sobrecarga volêmica subclínica através das linhas B permite intervenções terapêuticas mais precoces, com um impacto positivo na morbidade e na mortalidade associadas à IC.</p>
<p>Além disso, a EP vem se demonstrando uma ferramenta valiosa no contexto do ecocardiograma de estresse, ampliando capacidade diagnóstica e melhorando a estratificação de risco. No entanto, a presença de linhas B não é exclusiva à congestão cardiogênica, ressaltando a necessidade de interpretação criteriosa diante de outras patologias pulmonares intersticiais, como a SDRA e a fibrose pulmonar.</p>
<p>O advento da EP reflete um salto qualitativo nos cuidados cardíacos, tornando-se componente fundamental no arsenal diagnóstico do cardiologista, alavancando uma abordagem mais precoce, acurada e efetiva no manejo da IC.</p>
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<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><label>Fontes de financiamento</label>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><label>Vinculação acadêmica</label>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</label>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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</sub-article>
</article>
