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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20240019i</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240019i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Hydralazine and Isosorbide Dinitrate in Heart Failure: From Evidence to Clinical Practice</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0095-9049</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Fernandes-Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Miguel Morita</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Gama</surname>
						<given-names>Ana Carolina Krachinski de Andrade</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Saito</surname>
						<given-names>Gabriela Yumi Konno</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Goulart</surname>
						<given-names>Bruna Czelusniak</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Mol</surname>
						<given-names>Even Edilce</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Lofrano-Alves</surname>
						<given-names>Marco Stephan</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Paraná</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Curitiba, PR – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Miguel Morita Fernandes da Silva</bold> • Universidade Federal do Paraná - Rua Gerneral Carneiro, 181. Postal Code <postal-code>80060-900</postal-code>, Curitiba, PR - Brazil Email: <email>miguelmorita@ufpr.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold></p>
					<p>Miguel Morita Fernandes da Silva – Fees for lectures from Novartis and Boehringer.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsible for the review: Luis Beck-da-Silva</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>19</day>
				<month>07</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>4</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20240019</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>04</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>09</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>09</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>The treatment of heart failure (HF) with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) has evolved significantly over time, with the emergence of various pharmacotherapies targeting different pathophysiological pathways. While neurohumoral antagonists like angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and beta-blockers have become first-line therapies, the main paradigm shift occurred with medications with vasodilatory effects, including the combination of hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate (H-ISDN). Although the role of H-ISDN has been overshadowed over time, it remains significant, particularly in certain populations.</p>
				<p>With proven hemodynamic benefits in HF by reducing both preload and afterload, H-ISDN was initially tested in the 1980s in the Vasodilator Heart Failure Trial I (V-HeFT I), with promising results. Nevertheless, subsequent trials like V-HeFT II indicated that ACE inhibitors were superior to H-ISDN in reducing mortality.</p>
				<p>Later, post-hoc analyses of V-HeFT trials suggested a potential benefit of H-ISDN among black patients. This prompted the African-American Heart Failure trial (A-HeFT), which demonstrated a significant reduction in mortality with H-ISDN in black patients with HFrEF, who were under standard HF treatment including ACE inhibitors.</p>
				<p>Current guidelines recommend H-ISDN in black patients with HFrEF who remain symptomatic despite optimized therapy or in those who cannot tolerate ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers. However, the use of H-ISDN in other racial groups and in certain clinical scenarios like decompensated HF or renal failure remains less clear due to limited evidence. In this article, we review the history, pharmacological mechanisms, and clinical evidence for the H-ISDN in the treatment of HFrEF.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Race</kwd>
				<kwd>Hydralazine</kwd>
				<kwd>Isosorbide Dinitrate</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="10"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="63"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Throughout the years, the treatment of heart failure (HF) has changed with the discovery of new pathophysiology. From the 1950s until the 1960s, the cardiorenal concept prevailed in HF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> so diuretics and digitalis were used on the premise that they would increase water and salt excretion and improve myocardial contractility, leading to better heart function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> From the 1970s to the 1980s, however, it was discovered that ventricular ejection depended on the resistance to ejection of blood,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> which motivated the use of drugs acting on the hemodynamics of the cardiovascular system, the vasodilating drugs.</p>
			<p>The primary representation of these drugs was the combination of hydralazine (H) and nitrates. Despite their continued recommendation in HF treatment guidelines, they have often been overlooked and forgotten. In this article, we review the current evidence, mechanisms, and recommendations for the combination of H and isosorbide dinitrate (ISDN) (H-ISDN).</p>
			<sec>
				<title>History</title>
				<p>The neurohumoral paradigm of HF was highly accepted by the scientific community, promoting angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi), beta receptor blockers (BB), mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRA), angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), and angiotensin receptor/neprilysin inhibitors (ARNi) to the first line of treatment of HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> This acceptance was due to large clinical trials consistently proving their efficacy in reducing mortality. The initial trials with ACEi were the CONSENSUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> (1987) and the SOLVD<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> (1991) trials - both confirming enalapril's effectiveness when compared to placebo. Later, the RALES<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> (1999) - with spironolactone, and the EMPHASIS-HF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (2011) - with eplerenone, consolidated the use of MRA in clinical practice. For BB, CIBIS-II<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (1999), MERIT-HF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> (1999), and COPERNICUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> (2001) confirmed the benefit of bisoprolol, metoprolol succinate, and carvedilol, respectively, in patients with HF.</p>
				<p>Despite the currently accepted neurohumoral concept, the idea of using vasodilators in HF began in the 1970s with intravenous sodium nitroprusside, which was shown to reduce systemic vascular resistance, decreasing left ventricular diastolic filling pressures, and improving cardiac output in patients with HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> These hemodynamic benefits led to the search for oral agents for patients with chronic HF. In 1974, Franciosa et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> tested the use of ISDN oral in twelve 12 patients with HF, showing a reduction of the left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Three years later, Franciosa and Cohn studied the effect of H in 16 patients with HF, demonstrating a reduction in systemic vascular resistance similar to that obtained with nitroprusside, coupled with a more substantial increase in cardiac index.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> In 1977, Massie et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> then tested H-ISDN in 12 patients with severe chronic HF. The authors demonstrated that H-ISDN effectively reduced both ventricular filling pressures and systemic vascular resistance, yielding a hemodynamic benefit that was not attained when either H or ISDN was administered alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Such studies motivated the deeper search for the efficacy of the H-ISDN combination.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Originally, H was used in the treatment of hypertension,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> meanwhile, ISDN was employed mainly in angina pectoris.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> The idea behind associating them was to create a synergistic effect between an arterial vasodilator (H), which would reduce afterload, and a venous dilator (ISDN), reducing preload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f5">
					<caption>
						<title>Hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate combined has favorable hemodynamic effects in heart failure. Its clinical efficacy was tested in three main clinical trials: the V-HeFT I in 1986 showed it reduces mortality against placebo; the V-HeFT II in 1991 showed to be inferior to enalapril; and the A-HeFT in 2004 showed it reduces mortality in blacks when added to standard HF therapy. Source: Created by the authors.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240019-gf05.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>In 1986, a large randomized trial known as the Vasodilator Heart Failure Trial I (V-HeFT I) was conducted to assess the effect of H-ISDN compared to placebo. The trial demonstrated a significant reduction in mortality rates among the group that received H-ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Due to the growing use of highly effective neurohumoral antagonists in the nineties, the same group that conducted the V-HeFT I decided to make a comparison between ACEis and H-ISDN, creating the V-HeFT II.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> In this trial, patients with chronic HF were randomly assigned to receive enalapril or H-ISDN. The results revealed a significant reduction in mortality in the enalapril group compared to H-ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Such evidence strengthened the use of ACEi over H-ISDN in clinical practice, relegating the latter to a secondary treatment option for HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In 1987, Jay Cohn, author of the V-HeFT studies, submitted to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) a patent for a H-ISDN pill, which led to the production of &quot;BiDil&quot;, a single-pill containing H and ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Although the patent was approved, marketing of BiDil was denied by the FDA based on the results of V-HeFT II, which suggested that H-ISDN was inferior to ACEi.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Later, after a post hoc analysis of V-HeFT trials suggesting that H-ISDN could be particularly beneficial among blacks,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> the company NitroMed applied to the FDA for a &quot;race-specific&quot; patent on BiDil. The FDA asserted the approval of BiDil if there was a confirmatory trial of the drug in the treatment of HF in African Americans, which led NitroMed to promote the African-American Heart Failure Trial (A-HeFT).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> The A-HeFT trial, published in 2004,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> randomized African-American patients with HF to receive either H-ISDN or placebo in addition to optimized HF treatment, including ACEi. The trial was ended prematurely, due to a clear benefit of H-ISDN on mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				<p>After analyzing A-HeFT results, the FDA approved, in 2005, the use of Bidil in the treatment of HF in black patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> In parallel, guidelines for the management of HF made specific recommendations for H-ISDN, which consolidated its use in clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Timeline of the studies mentioned is described in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Timeline of evidence supporting the use of hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate in heart failure. Source: Created by the authors; in blue: trials related to the neurohumoral paradigm of heart failure; in green: trials related to the hemodynamic theory of heart failure; in green dotted lines: early trials that tested the hypothesis of vasodilators in heart failure, but not with mortality as their primary outcome.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240019-gf01.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pharmacodynamics</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Hydralazine</title>
					<p>Hydralazine is a direct vasodilator of arterioles, commonly used to treat refractory arterial hypertension, hypertensive emergencies, pre-eclampsia, and, more recently, HFrEF, associated with ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The mechanism of action of H requires further elucidation. Evidence suggests that it may involve intracellular calcium homeostasis, either by inhibiting the release of calcium by the endoplasmic reticulum of vascular smooth muscle cells or by inhibiting the phosphorylation of myosin in these cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> This leads to muscle relaxation, resulting in arterial vasodilation, and therefore, lower peripheral vascular resistance, reducing afterload. On the other hand, it stimulates the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine through baroreceptors, increasing venous return and cardiac output.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> This compensatory stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system causes one of its main side effects: reflex tachycardia, which can be mitigated by the association with BB.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Furthermore, it has been suggested that H has antioxidant effects, inhibiting the formation of reactive oxygen species such as superoxide, which interferes with nitric oxide (NO) metabolism.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Isosorbide dinitrate</title>
					<p>ISDN is a direct vasodilator, affecting both arterial and venous vessels, but its primary action is on the venous component, which reduces preload and <bold>LVEDP</bold>. This organic nitrate acts by stimulating NO signaling, commonly used for treating angina pectoris, myocardial infarction, and congestive HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
					<p>NO exists in three isoforms (induced, neuronal, and endothelial) and is synthesized from L-arginine by the enzyme NO synthase (NOs), a process triggered by a variety of physical and chemical stimuli upon interaction with specific agonists.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Then, the endothelial NO diffuses to adjacent smooth muscle cells, where it binds to the soluble guanylate cyclase enzyme, leading to the conversion of guanosine triphosphate to cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), activating multiple kinases. This results in muscle relaxation and vasodilation through multiple mechanisms, reflecting an intimate relationship between NO and vascular homeostasis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> The pharmacodynamics of H-ISDN are summarized in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>.</p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Pharmacodynamics of hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate leading to vasodilation. Source: Created by the authors. ISDN: isosorbide dinitrate; NO: nitric oxide; GTP: guanosine triphosphate; cGMP: cyclic guanosine monophosphate; P:phosphate; Ca2+: calcium; CAM: calmodulin; ISDN is an organic nitrate converted to NO in the smooth muscle cell. NO enhances calcium removal from cytosol via calcium pumps. Beyond that, along with soluble guanylate cyclase, NO catalyzes the conversion of GTP into cGMP, which acts on intracellular signaling of several kinases, resulting in calcium decrease and stimulation of myosin light-chain phosphatase enzyme, that dephosphorylates mysosin-actin filaments. Without calcium and phosphate, muscle contraction is inhibited, leading to vasodilation of the vessels. The way through which hydralazine contributes to this is not well established, but evidence suggests it's related to stimulation of cGMP and myosin phosphatase and inhibition of calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240019-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>The mechanism of vasodilation induced by NO appears to be diminished in black patients due to lower bioavailability of NO, combined with a greater imbalance between NO and superoxides. Increasing bioavailability of NO could account for why these patients may have greater benefits from H-ISDN therapy, although this remains unproven.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>The possible synergism between hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate in heart failure</title>
				<p>Different mechanisms have been proposed to explain a potential synergistic effect between H and ISDN. The combination of ISDN with H has favorable hemodynamic effects that are central to the management of HFrEF, as it contributes to reducing both preload and afterload (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Central Illustration</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figure 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Pharmacodynamics of hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate leading to vasodilation. Source: Created by the authors. ISDN: isosorbide dinitrate; NO: nitric oxide; GTP: guanosine triphosphate; cGMP: cyclic guanosine monophosphate; P:phosphate; Ca2+: calcium; CAM: calmodulin; ISDN is an organic nitrate converted to NO in the smooth muscle cell. NO enhances calcium removal from cytosol via calcium pumps. Beyond that, along with soluble guanylate cyclase, NO catalyzes the conversion of GTP into cGMP, which acts on intracellular signaling of several kinases, resulting in calcium decrease and stimulation of myosin light-chain phosphatase enzyme, that dephosphorylates mysosin-actin filaments. Without calcium and phosphate, muscle contraction is inhibited, leading to vasodilation of the vessels. The way through which hydralazine contributes to this is not well established, but evidence suggests it's related to stimulation of cGMP and myosin phosphatase and inhibition of calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240019-gf03.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>Moreover, NO influences the signaling of several molecules, particularly in cysteine residues, through a process called S-nitrosylation, which affects cardiac contractility. While superoxides facilitate this process, high concentrations of superoxides have the opposite effect, inhibiting this signaling mechanism and impairing the NO pathway. In HF, there is an increase in superoxide production, which affects the NO synthesis, suggesting the role of nitroso-redox signaling in this disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Hydralazine possesses antioxidant properties that inhibit the production of superoxides. This enhances and prolongs the action of ISDN by attenuating tolerance to this medication and improving the bioavailability of NO in the blood vessels (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figure 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Possible synergic effect of hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate. Source: Created by the authors. ISDN: isosorbide dinitrate; NO: nitric oxide; O-2: superoxide. Enzymes called oxidases convert O2 to O-2, which disrupts the NO pathway and S-nitrosylation. A possible synergic effect is proposed for the combined use of ISDN and Hydralazine. ISDN stimulates NO pathway while Hydralazine may inhibit oxidases, thus preventing the impairment of NO pathway and enhancing its action.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240019-gf04.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Evidence from preclinical science</title>
				<p>In the early 1990s, studies in animals were developed to understand the role of H and nitrates in HF. After clinical studies had shown that this combination was beneficial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Bauer and Fung investigated the interaction between H and organic nitrates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> They conducted an <italic>in vitro</italic> and <italic>in vivo</italic> study using HF rat models to determine whether H could preserve the favorable preload effects of nitroglycerin, an organic nitrate just like isosorbide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In the <italic>in vivo</italic> experiment, two groups of rats were allocated to receive either nitroglycerin alone or a combination of nitroglycerine plus H. The first group showed initial reductions in LVEDP, but no significant changes in left ventricular end-systolic pressure (LVESP). The LVEDP later returned to near-baseline levels, indicating the development of drug tolerance. The second group exhibited a sustained decrease in both LVESP and LVEDP following the administration of H bolus, persisting for an extended duration. This suggests that the combination mitigates nitroglycerin tolerance.</p>
				<p>In the <italic>in vitro</italic> experiment, isolated rat aortic rings were incubated with one of three solutions: a control solution (Krebs-bicarbonate), nitroglycerin alone, or a combination of nitroglycerin plus H. In this <italic>in vitro</italic> experiment, pre-incubation with nitroglycerin induced vascular tolerance to this drug, which was not affected by the presence of H. Because of that, a synergistic effect between hydralazine and nitrates does not appear to result from local interaction.</p>
				<p>Nitrate tolerance may result from systemic compensatory changes, and the <italic>in vivo</italic> experiment suggests that H preserves the preload effects of nitroglycerin. Moreover, the interaction between H and nitrates cannot be explained by their pharmacokinetics, since there were no changes in the metabolite's plasma concentration. Another hypothesis the preservation of renal blood flow due to the addition of H, which modulates the activation of renal neurohormonal factors like sympathetic and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone systems.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Wilson et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> in 2009, investigated the influence of a fixed dose of H-ISDN in Left Ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and myocardial remodeling in hypertension-induced diastolic HF. Two groups of mice were divided to receive either saline or an aldosterone infusion. Adding H-ISDN was able to prevent hypertension, but it did not revert the LVH induced by aldosterone, since the left ventricular (LV) weight/body weight ratio remained increased. Likewise, H-ISDN did not induce any changes in the perivascular and interstitial fibrosis caused by aldosterone. On the other hand, H-ISDN improved the diastolic function, as shown by a decrease in the mitral A/E ratio, indicating a more compliant LV.</p>
				<p>Animal studies also showed potential beneficial effects of H-ISDN in vascular inflammation and exercise capacity. It was shown that H-ISDN reduces the levels of cell adhesion molecules, indicating a reduction in vascular inflammation. Exercise capacity, as measured by running distance, also increased, possibly due to improvement of diastolic function and ventricular-arterial coupling, as a result of lower vascular inflammation and stiffness. These data suggest that H-ISDN improves diastolic function and exercise capacity, possibly through vascular-ventricular interconnections that impact LV filling and ejection rates, but not because it affects myocardial remodeling or fibrosis.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Evidence from clinical trials in heart failure</title>
				<p>The effect of the combination of H-ISDN on HF outcomes was tested in the three main clinical trials: V-HeFT I, V-HeFT II, and A-HeFT (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Central Figure</xref>).</p>
				<p>The V-HeFT I trial tested the concept that adding a vasodilator therapy could improve hemodynamics in HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> The authors recruited 642 men with HF in 11 Veterans Administration (VA) hospitals in the United States and randomized them to receive H-ISDN, prazosin, or placebo. Inclusion criteria required cardiac dilatation and/or low ejection fraction (below 45%) by radionuclide angiography, associated with low functional capacity confirmed by peak VO2 below 25 mL/kg/min. H-ISDN resulted in a 34% lower mortality compared to placebo (p&lt;0.028) in the first two years of follow-up, although for the entire follow-up period (average, 2.3 years), the reduction in mortality with H-ISDN had borderline statistical significance (p~0.05). In addition, H-ISDN improved the LV ejection fraction (LVEF) by 4.3% (p&lt;0.001) in one year compared to placebo.</p>
				<p>Later, the V-HeFT II trial randomized 804 patients with HF and the same inclusion criteria as the V-HeFT I to receive H-ISDN or enalapril.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> In the V-HeFT II trial, mortality at two years of follow-up was significantly lower with enalapril (18%), compared with H-ISDN (25%, p=0.016), although this was not statistically significant (p=0.08) for the entire follow-up period (average, 2.5 years). The lower mortality in the enalapril group was driven by lower sudden cardiac death. Despite the higher mortality, H-ISDN resulted in significantly greater enhancements in LVEF and functional capacity than enalapril.</p>
				<p>A smaller trial, the Hy-C, showed lower mortality with an ACEi compared with H in patients with advanced HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> A hemodynamic protocol initially used nitroprusside to obtain specific pulmonary artery catheter measurements. Patients were then transitioned to either captopril or hydralazine, but both groups could receive isosorbide dinitrate.</p>
				<p>A post-hoc analysis revealed varying responses based on race in the V-HeFT trials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> In V-HeFT I, where blacks constituted approximately one-fourth of the sample, H-ISDN demonstrated significantly lower mortality compared with placebo/prazosin for blacks (hazard ratio [HR] 0.53; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.29 to 0.98), while no significant difference was observed among whites (HR 0.88; 95% CI 0.63 to 1.24). Conversely, in V-HeFT II, enalapril showed a significant reduction in mortality compared to H-ISDN in whites (31 vs. 39%, p=0.02), but there was no difference between the groups among black patients (37 vs. 37%, p=0.96).</p>
				<p>Because of this race-related response, suggesting that blacks with HF may have a more favorable response to H-ISDN, a trial was designed to test the effect of adding H-ISDN in blacks. The A-HeFT trial randomized 1050 blacks with HFrEF, and NYHA class III or IV, to receive H-ISDN vs placebo added to standard therapy, which included ACEi/ARB, betablockers, and spironolactone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> The study was terminated early due to significantly lower mortality in the H-ISDN group compared to placebo (HR 0.57, p=0.01) over a mean follow-up of 10 months. H-ISDN also reduced the risk of hospitalization for HF and improved quality of life, resulting in significantly better results in the primary endpoint compared to placebo.</p>
				<p>Recently, an open-label, single-center trial tested the addition of H to standard therapy in 408 patients with decompensated HF, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) &lt;35% and mitral regurgitation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> After a mean follow-up of 3.5 years, H significantly reduced the combined endpoint of cardiovascular death and HF hospitalization (HR 0.613, 95% CI 0.427–0.877, p&lt;0.001), compared with controls. In this study, only 94 (46 in the hydralazine and 48 in the control group) of patients used ISDN. The trial's population, its single-center and open-label design impose limitations on the ability to draw conclusive insights on the role of isolated H in HF.</p>
				<p>The main results of outcome-driven trials with H-ISDN in HF are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Hard-endpoint-driven clinical trials testing the Hydralazine and Isosorbide Dinitrate in heart failure</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="11%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
								<th align="left" valign="middle">Study</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Year of publication</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Population</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">N</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Baseline HF treatment</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Intervention</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Comparator</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Main result</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Comments</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>V-HEFT I</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1986</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Men, VO2p &lt; 25 mL/kg/min + cardiac dilatation<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref> or LVEF &lt; 45%<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">†</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">642</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Vasodilators: 37%<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">‡</xref> SL nitroglycerin: 20%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">H-ISDN Target dose: H 75mg qid + ISDN 40 mg qid Average daily dose: H 270 mg, ISDN 136 mg</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Prazosin Target dose: 5 mg qid<break/> Average daily dose: 19 mg or Placebo</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Lower 2-year mortality with H-ISDN (26%) vs placebo (34%, p&lt;0.028)</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>V-HEFT II</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1991</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Men, VO2p &lt; 25 mL/kg/min + cardiac dilatation<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref> or LVEF &lt; 45%<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">†</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">804</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Vasodilators, including ACEi, were withdrawn during the study, while digoxin and diuretics were &quot;optimized&quot;</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">H-ISDN Target dose: H 75mg qid + ISDN 40 mg qid Average daily dose: H 199 mg, ISDN 100 mg</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Enalapril Target dose: 10 mg bid<break/> Average daily dose: 15 mg</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Lower 2-year mortality with enalapril (18%) vs H-ISDN (25%, p 0.016).</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">H-ISDN resulted in higher improvement in LVEF and VO2p than enalapril</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Hy-C</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1992</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Advanced HF referred to cardiac Tx, NYHA III/IV, PCWP ≥20 mmHg and/or CI ≤ 2.2 L/min/m<sup>2</sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">104</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Digoxin: 63% ISDN<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">¶</xref>: 85%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">H Target dose<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">#</xref>: 150 mg qid</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Captopril Target dose<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">#</xref>: 100 mg qid</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Lower 1-year mortality with captopril (18%) vs H (49%), p=0.05</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Crossover was high, difference in mortality was driven by higher rates of sudden death with H</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>A-HEFT</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2004</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Black (60% men), NYHA III/IV, LVEF &lt; 35% or LVEF &lt;45% + LV diastolic diameter &gt; 65 mm</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">1050</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">ACEi: 69% ARB: 17% BB:74% MRA: 38% Digoxin: 60%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">H-ISDN Target dose: 75 mg tid + ISDN 40 mg tid Average daily dose: H 143 mg, ISDN 76 mg</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Lower mortality with H-ISDN vs placebo (HR: 0.57, p=0.01), mean follow-up 10 months<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">§</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">H-ISDN also reduced hospitalization for HF and improved quality of life scores</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Hsiao et al</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2023</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Decompensated HF, NYHA III/IV, LVEF &lt; 35% + MR (EROA &gt; 30 mm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">408</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">ACEi/ARB: 81% BB:76% MRA: 62% Digoxin: 60%</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">H Target dose: 50 mg qid Average daily dose: 264 mg</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">No H</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Lower rate of the combined endpoint CV death + HF hospitalization with H (HR 0.61, p=0.002)</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Open label design, single center. Only 23% used ISDN (both groups)</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>V-HeFT: Veterans Administration Cooperative Vasodilator-Heart Failure trial, A-HeFT: African-American Heart Failure trial, SL: Sublingual, H: hydralazine, ISDN: isosorbide dinitrate, H-ISDN: hydralazine–isosorbide dinitrate; MR: Mitral regurgitation; EROA: effective regurgitant orifice area; ACEi: angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blockers; MRA: mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists; BB: beta receptor blockers; LVEF: left ventricle ejection fraction; VO2p: peak oxygen consumption; Tx: transplantation; qid: four times a day; tid: three times a day; bid: two times a day; PCWP: Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure; CI: cardiac index; CV: cardiovascular.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<label>*</label>
							<p>Defined as cardiothoracic ratio &gt; 0.55 on X-ray or left ventricular diameter &gt;27 mm/m<sup>2</sup>.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN3">
							<label>†</label>
							<p>Measured by radionuclide ventriculography.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN4">
							<label>‡</label>
							<p>The study reported that 35-40% used vasodilators at baseline, without specifying which type of drug.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN5">
							<label>§</label>
							<p>Trial stopped early due to higher mortality in the placebo group.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN6">
							<label>¶</label>
							<p>ISDN was given to all patients in the Hydralazine group and to those in the Captopril group if patient had history of coronary artery disease or PCWP persisted ≥20 mmHg.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN7">
							<label>#</label>
							<p>Drug doses were adjusted with pulmonary artery catheter to maintain optimal hemodynamic status while nitroprusside therapy was gradually withdrawn.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Clinical practice</title>
				<p>National and international guidelines provide similar recommendations, with slight differences, for using H-ISDN in patients with HFrEF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>). The AHA/ACC/HFSA guidelines (2022) adopts IA recommendation for patients self-identified as African American, in NYHA functional class III-IV and HFrEF who are receiving optimized therapy to improve symptoms and reduce morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> The ESC guidelines (2021) adopts IIA recommendation for NYHA class II-IV patients self-declared as black with LVEF ≤35% (or &lt;45% combined with LV dilation), despite the use of ACEIs (or ARNI), a BB, and an ARM, to reduce the risk of hospitalization due to HF or death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> And the Brazilian guidelines for chronic and acute HF (2018) adopts IB recommendation for self-declared black patients with symptomatic systolic dysfunction in functional class III-IV (NYHA), despite optimized therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Table 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Class of recommendation and level of evidence for the combination hydralazine/isosorbide dinitrate in heart failure across different guidelines</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="25%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
								<th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical setting</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">AHA/ACC/HFSA<break/> (2022)</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">ESC<break/> (2021)</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Brazilian<break/> (2018)</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Self-identified black patients with HFrEF in NYHA III-IV on optimized therapy to improve symptoms; decreased risk of hospitalization and mortality</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">COR: I<break/> LOE: A</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">COR: IIa<break/> LOE: B</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">COR: I<break/> LOE: B</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Previously or currently symptomatic HFrEF patients (independently of race) who cannot receive or have contraindications to ACEi/ARB/ARNi</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">COR: IIb<break/> LOE: C-LD<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">COR: IIb<break/> LOE: B</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">COR: I<break/> LOE: B</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN8">
							<p>COR: class of recommendation; LOE: level of evidence; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; NYHA: New York Heart Association; ACEi: angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; ARNi: angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor; AHA: American Heart Association; ACC American College of Cardiology; HFSA: Heart Failure Society of America; ESC: European Society of Cardiology.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN9">
							<label>*</label>
							<p>LD: limited data.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
				<p>However, the benefit of using H-ISDN in HF patients from other ethnic origins is less clear. While there was no definitive proof of reduced mortality in white patients with the use of H-ISDN in previous trials, there was an improvement in ejection fraction and exercise tolerance. Currently, AHA/ACC/HFSA and ESC guidelines recommend that H-ISDN can be considered (with limited data) in patients with HFrEF with current or previous symptoms, who cannot receive first-line agents such as ACEI/ ARB/ARNI due to drug intolerance or renal failure (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
				<p>An important point for clinical practice is the formulation used and its titration to the effective dose. In the V-HeFT studies, the drugs were administered in separate pills (start dose of 37.5 mg of H and 20 mg of ISDN, in four daily doses) with a target dose of 300 mg of H and 160 mg of ISDN. In the A-HeFT study, the combination was administered in a single pill (BiDil®, containing 37.5 mg of H + 20 mg of ISDN, in three daily doses), with a target dose of 225 mg of H and 120 mg of ISDN. In Brazil, the presentations of H are 25 or 50 mg tablets, while those of ISDN vary from 5 or 10 mg tablets (taken every 6-8 hours). For these reasons, the doses taken to reach the target would be 3 to 4 daily doses, i.e., a greater number of tablets.</p>
				<p>Although the H-ISDN combination has been recommended by current guidelines, insufficient prescription has been observed in daily practice. In the United States, a study showed that only 7.8% of black patients with indications for using H-ISDN were receiving this treatment on an outpatient basis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> After a hospitalization for HF, only 4.5% of black patients and 2.6% of white patients were prescribed H-ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> In another study, using a database with 26,439 patients aged 18-64 years with recently diagnosed HF, the adherence to long-term treatment with H-ISDN was the lowest of five classes of drugs recommended by guidelines for treatment of HFrEF (ACEi/ARB; BB; MRA and H-ISDN).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Some reasons for this lack of adherence to guidelines may be linked to hypotension and dizziness associated with target doses of H-ISDN, in addition to the amount of pills and a regimen of three to four daily intakes.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Gaps of evidence</title>
				<p>The racial definition may not be a sufficiently accurate marker to determine physiological and genetic variations. Genotype-phenotype studies have demonstrated that endothelial NO synthase polymorphism may be associated with worse event-free survival, regardless of race, suggesting that non-black HF patients could also benefit from H-ISDN treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> We have to point out the difficulty in translating the results obtained in the previous trials to our Brazilian population, markedly characterized by miscegenation of different ethnicities. Furthermore, there are controversies regarding the concept of a &quot;race-specific&quot; drug, as it raises questions about the ethical implications of targeting drugs based on racial or ethnic backgrounds.</p>
				<p>Early studies on HFrEF with predominantly non-black populations compared the effect of H-ISDN with the vasodilator prazosin or placebo (V-HeFT) or enalapril (V-HeFT II), which is not representative of the current HF treatment standard.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> There are insufficient data to guide the use of H-ISDN in association with ARNi. There are no randomized studies using other nitrate formulations such as isosorbide mononitrate or propatylnitrate in HF patients, and there are no specific recommendations for these formulations in this scenario.</p>
				<p>The data are insufficient to assess the sex-related differential effect since the V-HeFT trials included only men and, in the A-HeFT trial, women represented 40%. In a post hoc analysis of A-HeFT, women had a greater mortality reduction than men with the use of H-ISDN, but due to differences in baseline characteristics, this analysis should be considered exploratory only and not conclusive.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Data supporting the use of H-ISDN in decompensated HF are also limited. There are multiple theoretical benefits for using H-ISDN in this scenario since HF decompensation is associated with a disruption of NO signaling and increased oxidative stress. In a retrospective study, patients admitted for decompensated HF who were discharged with H-ISDN in addition to an ACEI or ARB showed a more significant improvement in cardiac index and systemic vascular resistance, and to lower all-cause mortality rate compared to those receiving only ACEi or ARB.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> So far, no trial has evaluated H-ISDN on HF-related endpoints in patients with HF and preserved ejection fraction.</p>
				<p>Regarding potential use of H-ISDN in patients with renal failure, data are also scarce. The A-HeFT study showed no significant interaction between &quot;history of renal failure&quot; and the effect of H-ISDN. A small randomized, proof-of-concept study on 44 HFrEF patients with cardiorenal syndrome demonstrated only a trend toward improvement in the 6-minute walk test in patients using H-ISDN compared with standard care at six months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> In a retrospective study from the United States Renal Data System database, 6,306 patients on dialysis using H-ISDN were compared to 75,509 who did not use H-ISDN. H-ISDN was independently associated with reduced mortality (HR 0.48; 95% CI 0.43-0.54); however, the incidence of myocardial infarction and admission for HF were higher in those using H-ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<p><bold>Sources of funding</bold></p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<p><bold>Study association</bold></p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<ref-list>
			<title>References</title>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
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			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240019</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Hidralazina e Dinitrato de Isossorbida na Insuficiência Cardíaca: Da Evidência à Prática Clínica</article-title>
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			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
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					<name>
						<surname>Fernandes-Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Miguel Morita</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
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				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Gama</surname>
						<given-names>Ana Carolina Krachinski de Andrade</given-names>
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					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
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						<surname>Saito</surname>
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					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
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						<surname>Goulart</surname>
						<given-names>Bruna Czelusniak</given-names>
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					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
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						<surname>Mol</surname>
						<given-names>Even Edilce</given-names>
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					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
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						<given-names>Marco Stephan</given-names>
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					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff3">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff4">
					<label>2</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Curitiba, PR – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Miguel Morita Fernandes da Silva</bold> • Universidade Federal do Paraná - Rua Gerneral Carneiro, 181. CEP <postal-code>80060-900</postal-code>, Curitiba, PR - Brasil E-mail: <email>miguelmorita@ufpr.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
					<p>Miguel Morita Fernandes da Silva – Honorários para palestras da Novartis e Boehringer.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Luis Beck-da-Silva</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>O tratamento da Insuficiência Cardíaca (IC) com Fração de Ejeção reduzida (ICFEr) evoluiu significativamente ao longo do tempo, com a emergência de várias farmacoterapias, visando diferentes vias fisiopatológicas. Enquanto antagonistas neuro-humorais como Inibidores da Enzima Conversora de Angiotensina (IECA) e betabloqueadores tornaram-se terapias de primeira linha, a principal mudança de paradigma ocorreu com medicações com efeitos vasodilatadores, incluindo a combinação de hidralazina e dinitrato de isossorbida (H-ISDN). Embora o papel da H-ISDN tenha sido ofuscado ao longo do tempo, ele continua significativo, particularmente em algumas populações.</p>
				<p>Com benefícios hemodinâmicos comprovados na IC reduzindo-se tanto a pré-carga como a pós-carga, a H-ISDN foi inicialmente testada na década de 80 no <italic>Vasodilator Heart Failure Trial I</italic> (V-HeFT I), com resultados promissores. No entanto, ensaios subsequentes como o V-HeFT II indicaram que os IECAs eram superiores à H-ISDN na redução de mortalidade.</p>
				<p>Posteriormente, análises pós-hoc dos ensaios V-HeFT sugeriram um benefício potencial da H-ISDN em pacientes negros. Tal fato estimulou o desenvolvimento do <italic>African-American Heart Failure trial</italic> (A-HeFT), que demonstrou uma redução na mortalidade com H-ISDN em pacientes negros com ICFEr, que recebiam tratamento padrão da IC incluindo IECAs.</p>
				<p>Diretrizes atuais recomendam H-ISDN em pacientes negros com ICFEr que permanecem sintomáticos apesar de terapia farmacológica otimizada ou que não toleram o uso de IECAs ou de bloqueadores de receptor de angiotensina. No entanto, o uso de H-ISDN em outros grupos raciais e alguns cenários clínicos como IC descompensada ou insuficiência renal continua menos claro por falta de evidências. Neste artigo, revisamos a história, os mecanismos farmacológicos, e as evidências clínicas para a H-ISDN no tratamento de ICFEr.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Raça</kwd>
				<kwd>Hidralazina</kwd>
				<kwd>Dinitrato de Isossorbida</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>Ao longo dos anos, o tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca (IC) mudou com a descoberta de novas fisiopatologias. Entre as décadas de 40 e 60, o conceito cardiorrenal prevaleceu na IC,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> de modo que os diuréticos e digitálicos eram usados sob a premissa de que aumentariam a excreção de água e eletrólitos, e melhorariam a contratilidade do miocárdio, possibilitando uma melhor função cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Entre a década de 70 e 80, no entanto, descobriu-se que a ejeção ventricular dependia da resistência à ejeção de sangue,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> o que motivou o uso de medicamentos agindo sobre a hemodinâmica do sistema cardiovascular, como as drogas vasodilatadoras.</p>
				<p>A representação primária dessas drogas foi a combinação de Hidralazina (H) e nitratos. Apesar de sua constante recomendação em diretrizes de tratamento da IC, esses medicamentos têm sido negligenciados e esquecidos. Neste artigo, fazemos uma revisão de evidências, mecanismos, e recomendações atuais para a combinação de H com Dinitrato de Isossorbida (H-ISDN).</p>
				<sec>
					<title>História</title>
					<p>O paradigma neuro-humoral da IC foi muito aceito pela comunidade científica, promovendo os inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA), betabloqueadores (BB), antagonistas de receptores mineralocorticoides (ARMs), bloqueadores de receptor de angiotensina (BRAs), e inibidores do receptor de angiotensina-neprilisina (ARNI) à primeira linha de tratamento da IC com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFEr).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Essa aceitação foi graças a grandes ensaios clínicos que consistentemente provaram a eficácia desses agentes na redução da mortalidade. Os primeiros ensaios com IECA foram o CONSENSUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> (1987) e o SOLVD<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> (1991) – ambos comprovando a eficácia do enalapril em comparação a placebo. Em seguida, o RALES<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> (1999), com espironolactona, e o EMPHASIS-HF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> (2011), com a eplerenona, consolidaram o uso de ARM na prática clínica. Para os BB, os estudos CIBIS-II<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (1999), MERIT-HF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> (1999), e COPERNICUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> (2001) confirmaram os benefícios do bisoprolol, do succinato de metoprolol e do carvedilol, respectivamente, em pacientes com IC.</p>
					<p>Apesar do conceito neuro-humoral aceito atualmente, a ideia de usar vasodilatadores na IC surgiu na década de 70 com a administração endovenosa de nitroprussiato de sódio, que mostrou reduzir a resistência vascular sistêmica, diminuindo a pressão de enchimento diastólico do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), e melhorando o débito cardíaco em pacientes com IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Esses benefícios hemodinâmicos motivaram a busca de agentes orais para pacientes com IC crônica. Em 1974, Franciosa et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> testaram o uso de ISDN oral em 12 pacientes com IC, mostrando uma redução da pressão diastólica final do VE (PDFVE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Três anos depois, Franciosa e Cohn estudaram o efeito da H em 16 pacientes com IC, demonstrando uma redução na resistência vascular sistêmica similar à obtida com o nitroprussiato, combinada com um aumento mais substancial no índice cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Em 1977, Massie et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> testaram H-ISDN em 12 pacientes com IC crônica grave. Os autores demonstraram que a combinação H-ISDN reduziu tanto a pressão de enchimento ventricular quanto a resistência vascular periférica, gerando um benefício hemodinâmico que não era alcançado quando somente a H ou a ISDN eram administradas sozinhas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Esses estudos motivaram uma pesquisa mais aprofundada sobre a eficácia da combinação H-ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Originalmente, a H era usada no tratamento da hipertensão,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> enquanto a ISDN era empregada principalmente na angina pectoris.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> A ideia de associá-las foi criar um efeito sinergístico entre um vasodilatador arterial (H), que reduziria a pós-carga, e um vasodilatador venoso (ISDN), que reduziria a pré-carga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					<fig id="f10">
						<caption>
							<title>A combinação de hidralazina com dinitrato de isossorbida tem efeitos hemodinâmicos favoráveis na insuficiência cardíaca. Sua eficácia clínica foi testada em três ensaios clínicos principais: o V-HeFT I em 1986 mostrou que ela reduz a mortalidade em comparação ao placebo; no V-HeFT II, em 1991, a combinação mostrou ser inferior ao enalapril; e o A-HeFT em 2004 mostrou que ela reduz mortalidade em indivíduos negros quando adicionada à terapia padrão da insuficiência cardíaca. Fonte: os autores.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240019-gf05-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>Em 1986, um grande ensaio randomizado conhecido como <italic>Vasodilator Heart Failure Trial</italic> I (V-HeFT I) foi conduzido para avaliar o efeito da H-ISDN em comparação a placebo. O ensaio demonstrou uma redução significativa nas taxas de mortalidade no grupo que recebeu H-ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Devido ao uso crescente de antagonistas neuro-humorais altamente eficazes na década de 90, o mesmo grupo que desenvolveu o V-HeFT I decidiu realizar uma comparação entre os IECAs e H-ISDN, criando o V-HeFT II.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Neste ensaio, os pacientes com IC crônica foram aleatoriamente separados para receber enalapril ou H-ISDN. Os resultados revelaram uma redução significativa na mortalidade no grupo que recebeu enalapril em comparação ao que recebeu H-ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Essa evidência fortaleceu o uso de IECA em relação a H-ISDN na prática clínica, relegando a H-ISDN à segunda opção de tratamento para a IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em 1987, Jay Conh, autor dos estudos V-HeFT, submeteu ao FDA (<italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic>) uma patente para um comprimido de H-ISDN, o que levou à produção da &quot;BiDil&quot;, um único comprimido contendo H e ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Embora a patente tenha sido aprovada, a comercialização da BiDil foi negada pelo FDA com base nos resultados do V-HeFt II, que sugeriu que a H-ISDN foi inferior ao IECA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Posteriormente, depois de uma análise post-hoc dos ensaios V-HeFT sugerindo que a H-ISDN poderia ser particularmente benéfico entre indivíduos negros,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> a empresa NitroMed submeteu ao FDA uma patente &quot;específica para a raça&quot; da BiDil. O FDA afirmou a aprovação do BiDil se houvesse um ensaio confirmando o benefício da droga no tratamento da IC em afro-americanos, o que motivou a NitroMed a promover o <italic>African-American Heart Failure Trial</italic> (A-HeFT).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> O ensaio A-HeFt, publicado em 2004,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> separou, aleatoriamente, pacientes afro-americanos com IC para receber H-ISDN ou placebo além do tratamento ótimo para IC, incluindo IECA. O ensaio foi interrompido precocemente, dado o claro benefício da H-ISDN sobre a mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Após a análise dos resultados do A-HeFT, o FDA aprovou, em 2005, o uso do BiDil no tratamento da IC em pacientes negros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Paralelamente, diretrizes para o manejo da IC fizeram recomendações específicas para H-ISDN, o que consolidou seu uso na prática clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A linha do tempo dos estudos mencionados está descrita na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
					<fig id="f6">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Linha do tempo das evidências que corroboram o uso de hidralazina e dinitrato de isossorbida na insuficiência cardíaca; em azul: ensaios relacionados ao paradigma neuro-humoral da insuficiência cardíaca; em verde: ensaios relacionados à teoria hemodinâmica da insuficiência cardíaca; em linhas verdes pontilhadas: ensaios iniciais que testaram a hipótese dos vasodilatadores na insuficiência cardíaca, mas sem mortalidade como desfecho primário; fonte: os autores.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240019-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Farmacodinâmica</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Hidralazina</title>
						<p>A H é um vasodilatador direto das arteríolas, comumente usada no tratamento de hipertensão arterial refratária, emergências hipertensivas, pré-eclâmpsia e, mais recentemente, ICFEr, associada com ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
						<p>O mecanismo de ação da H requer elucidação. Evidências sugerem que pode envolver a homeostase do cálcio intracelular, ou inibindo a liberação de cálcio pelo retículo endoplasmático das células do músculo liso vascular, ou inibindo a fosforilação da miosina nessas células.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Isso leva ao relaxamento muscular, resultando na vasodilatação arterial e, portanto, em menor resistência vascular periférica, reduzindo a pós-carga. Por outro lado, esse mecanismo estimula a liberação de epinefrina e norepinefrina pelos barorreceptores, aumentando o retorno venoso e o débito cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Essa estimulação compensatória do sistema nervoso simpático causa um de seus principais efeitos colaterais: taquicardia reflexa, a qual pode ser mitigada pela associação com BB.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Além disso, foi sugerido que a H possui efeitos antioxidantes, inibindo a formação de espécies reativas de oxigênio, tais como o superóxido, que interfere no metabolismo de Óxido Nítrico (NO).</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Dinitrato de isossorbida</title>
						<p>O ISDN é um vasodilatador direto, atuando em vasos arteriais e venosos, mas com ação primária no componente venoso, reduzindo principalmente a pré-carga e a PDFVE. Esse nitrato orgânico atua estimulando a sinalização do NO, comumente usado para tratar angina, infarto do miocárdio, e IC congestiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
						<p>O NO existe em três isoformas (induzida, neuronal e endotelial), e é sintetizado a partir da L-arginina pela enzima NO sintase (NOS), um processo estimulado por uma variedade de estímulos químicos e físicos, mediante interação com agonistas específicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Então, o NO endotelial difunde-se às células musculares lisas adjacentes, onde se liga à enzima guanilato ciclase solúvel, levando à conversão do trifosfato de guanosina ao monofosfato de guanosina cíclico (GMPc), ativando múltiplas quinases. Isso resulta em relaxamento muscular e vasodilatação por múltiplos mecanismos, refletindo uma íntima relação entre o NO e a homeostase vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> A farmacodinâmica da H-ISDN está resumida na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 2</xref>.</p>
						<fig id="f7">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Farmacodinâmica da hidralazina e do dinitrato de isossorbida levando à vasodilatação; ISDN: dinitrato de isossorbida; NO: óxido nítrico; GTP: guanosina trifosfato; GMPc: monofosfato de guanosina cíclico; P: fosfato; Ca<sup>2+</sup>: cálcio; CAM: calmodulina; ISDN é um nitrato orgânico convertido a NO na célula muscular lisa. O NO promove a remoção de cálcio do citosol por meio de bombas de cálcio. Além disso, juntamente com a guanilato ciclase solúvel, o NO catalisa a conversão da GTP em GMPc, que atua na sinalização intracelular de várias quinases, resultando em diminuição de cálcio e estímulo da enzima miosina fosfatase de cadeia leve, que desfosforila filamentos de actina-miosina. Sem cálcio e fosfato, a contração muscular é inibida, levando à vasodilatação dos vasos. O modo como a hidralazina contribui para isso não está bem estabelecido, mas evidências sugerem que isso esteja relacionado ao estímulo da GMPc e da miosina fosfatase e à inibição da liberação de cálcio do retículo sarcoplasmático;</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240019-gf02-pt.tif"/>
							<attrib>Fonte: os autores.</attrib>
						</fig>
						<p>O mecanismo de vasodilatação induzido pelo NO parece estar diminuído em pacientes negros devido à menor biodisponibilidade de NO, combinada com um maior desequilíbrio entre NO e superóxidos. O aumento da biodisponibilidade do NO poderia explicar o potencial benefício da terapia com H-ISDN nesses pacientes, embora isso ainda não tenha sido comprovado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Possível sinergismo entre hidralazina e dinitrato de isossorbida na insuficiência cardíaca</title>
					<p>Diferentes mecanismos foram propostos para explicar um potencial efeito sinergístico entre a H e o ISDN. A combinação de ISDN com H tem efeitos hemodinâmicos favoráveis que são centrais no manejo da ICFEr, ao contribuir para reduzir tanto a pré-carga como a pós-carga (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 3</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura Central</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					<fig id="f8">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Efeitos hemodinâmicos do uso combinado de hidralazina e dinitrato de isossorbida; ISDN: dinitrato de isossorbida; o ISDN reduz tanto a pós-carga como a pré-carga, mas tem um efeito mais pronunciado na pré-carga, promovendo o relaxamento do músculo liso nas veias. Por outro lado, a hidralazina primariamente reduz a pós-carga induzindo o relaxamento muscular nas artérias. A combinação desses dois medicamentos beneficia pacientes com IC, promovendo vasodilatação tanto de veias como de artérias.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240019-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						<attrib>Fonte: os autores.</attrib>
					</fig>
					<p>Ainda, o NO influencia a sinalização de várias moléculas, particularmente nos resíduos de cisteína, por um processo chamado S-nitrosilação, que afeta a contratilidade cardíaca. Enquanto os superóxidos facilitam esse processo, concentrações elevadas de superóxidos têm o efeito oposto, inibindo esse mecanismo de sinalização e prejudicando a via do NO. Na IC, ocorre um aumento na produção de superóxido, que afeta a síntese de NO, sugerindo o papel da sinalização nitroso-redox nessa doença. A H possui propriedades antioxidantes que inibem a produção de superóxidos. Isso melhora e prolonga a ação do ISDN atenuando a tolerância à essa medicação e melhorando a disponibilidade do NO nos vasos sanguíneos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 4</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
					<fig id="f9">
						<label>Figura 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Possível efeito sinérgico entre hidralazina e dinitrato de isossorbida; ISDN: dinitrato de isossorbida; NO: óxido nítrico; O<sup>-</sup><sub>2</sub>: superóxido; enzimas chamadas oxidases convertem O2 em O<sup>-</sup><sub>2</sub>, que interfere na via do NO e da S-nitrosilação. Um possível efeito sinérgico é proposto para o uso combinado do ISDN e da hidralazina; o ISDN estimula a via do NO enquanto a hidralazina pode inibir oxidases, prevenindo, assim, o comprometimento da via do NO e melhorando sua ação.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240019-gf04-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Evidências de ciência pré-clínica</title>
					<p>No início da década de 90, foram desenvolvidos estudos com animais para compreender o papel da H e nitratos na IC. Após estudos clínicos haverem demonstrado os benefícios dessa combinação,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Bauer e Fung investigaram a interação entre H e nitratos orgânicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Eles conduziram um estudo <italic>in vitro</italic> e <italic>in vivo</italic> usando modelos de IC com ratos para determinar se a H poderia preservar os efeitos favoráveis na pré-carga da nitroglicerina, um nitrato orgânico assim como a isossorbida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No experimento <italic>in vivo</italic>, dois grupos de ratos foram alocados para receber somente nitroglicerina ou uma combinação de nitroglicerina com H. O primeiro grupo mostrou reduções iniciais na PDFVE, mas sem mudanças significativas na Pressão Sistólica Final do VE (PSFVE). A PDFVE logo retornou a níveis próximos aos basais, indicando o desenvolvimento de tolerância à droga. O segundo grupo exibiu uma diminuição sustentada tanto na PDFVE como na PSFVD após a administração em <italic>bolus</italic> de H, persistindo por um período prolongado. Tal fato sugere que a combinação minimiza a tolerância à nitroglicerina.</p>
					<p>No experimento <italic>in vitro</italic>, anéis aórticos isolados de ratos foram incubados com uma das três soluções: uma solução controle (Krebs-bicarbonato), somente nitroglicerina, ou uma combinação de nitroglicerina com H. Nesse experimento <italic>in vitro</italic>, a pré-incubação com nitroglicerina induziu tolerância vascular a essa droga, o que não foi afetado pela presença de H. Por causa disso, um efeito sinergístico entre H e nitratos não parece resultar de uma interação local.</p>
					<p>A tolerância ao nitrato pode resultar de mudanças sistêmicas, e o experimento <italic>in vivo</italic> sugere que a H preserva os efeitos de pré-carga da nitroglicerina. Ainda, a interação entre H e nitratos não pode ser explicada por sua farmacocinética, uma vez que não houve mudanças na concentração plasmática do metabólito. Outra hipótese é a preservação do fluxo sanguíneo renal devido à adição de H, que modula a ativação de fatores renais neuro-hormonais, como o sistema simpático e o sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Wilson et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> em 2009, investigaram a influência de uma dose fixa de H-ISDN na hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) e no remodelamento do miocárdio na IC diastólica induzida por hipertensão. Dois grupos de camundongos foram separados para receberem infusão salina ou aldosterona. A adição de H-ISDN foi capaz de prevenir a hipertensão, mas não reverteu a HVE induzida pela aldosterona, uma vez que a razão entre o peso do VE e o peso corporal continuou aumentada. Ainda, a H-ISDN não induziu nenhuma alteração na fibrose perivascular e intersticial causada pela aldosterona. Por outro lado, H-ISDN melhorou a função diastólica, como mostrado pela diminuição na razão A/E mitral, indicando um VE mais complacente.</p>
					<p>Estudos com animais também mostraram potenciais efeitos benéficos da H-ISDN na inflamação vascular e na capacidade de exercício. Mostrou-se que a H-ISDN reduz os níveis de moléculas de adesão celular, indicando uma redução na inflamação vascular. A capacidade do exercício, medida pela distância corrida, também aumentou, possivelmente por uma melhora na função diastólica e acoplamento ventrículo-arterial, como resultado de menor inflamação e menor rigidez vascular. Tais dados sugerem que a H-ISDN melhora a função diastólica e a capacidade de exercício, possivelmente por interconexão vascular-ventricular, que tem impacto sobre as taxas de enchimento e de ejeção do VE, e não por influência no remodelamento do miocárdio ou fibrose.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Evidências de ensaios clínicos na insuficiência cardíaca</title>
					<p>O efeito da combinação da H-ISDN sobre os desfechos da IC foi testado nos três ensaios clínicos principais: V-HeFT I, V-HeFT II, e A-HeFT (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
					<p>O ensaio V-HeFTI testou o conceito de que adicionar uma terapia vasodilatadora poderia melhorar a hemodinâmica na IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Os autores recrutaram 642 homens com IC em 11 hospitais da Administração de Veteranos nos Estados Unidos e randomizaram para receber H-ISDN, prazosina, ou placebo. Os critérios de inclusão exigiam dilatação cardíaca e/ou fração de ejeção reduzida (&lt;45%) por angiografia com radionuclídeos, associada à baixa capacidade funcional confirmada por VO<sub>2</sub> pico menor que 25mL/Kg/min. A H-ISDN resultou em uma mortalidade 34% mais baixa em comparação ao placebo (p&lt;0,028) nos dois primeiros anos de acompanhamento, embora para o período inteiro de seguimento (média de 2,3 anos), a redução na mortalidade com H-ISDN teve significância estatística limítrofe (p~0,05). Além disso, a H-ISDN melhorou a fração de ejeção do VE (FEVE) em 4,3% (p&lt;0,001) em um ano comparado com o placebo.</p>
					<p>Posteriormente, o ensaio V-HeFT II randomizou 804 pacientes com IC e os mesmos critérios de inclusão do V-HeFT I para receber H-ISDN ou enalapril.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> No ensaio V-HeFT II, a mortalidade em dois anos de acompanhamento foi significativamente mais baixa com enalapril (18%) em comparação a H-ISDN (25%, p=0,016), apesar de não ter atingido significância estatística (p=0,08) para o período inteiro de acompanhamento (média de 2,5 anos). A mortalidade mais baixa no grupo enalapril foi devido a uma ocorrência mais baixa de morte súbita. Apesar da mortalidade mais alta, a H-ISDN resultou em maiores melhorias na FEVE e na capacidade funcional que o enalapril.</p>
					<p>Um ensaio menor, o Hy-C, mostrou uma mortalidade mais baixa com um IECA em comparação à H em pacientes com IC avançada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Um protocolo hemodinâmico inicialmente usou nitroprussiato para obter medidas específicas com cateter de artéria pulmonar. Os pacientes foram então alocados para receberem captopril ou H, e ambos os grupos podiam receber dinitrato de isossorbida.</p>
					<p>Uma análise pós-hoc revelou respostas variadas conforme a raça nos ensaios V-HeFT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> No V-HeFT I, em que os indivíduos negros constituíam aproximadamente um quarto da amostra, a H-ISDN demonstrou mortalidade significativamente mais baixa em comparação a placebo/prazosina em negros [<italic>hazard ratio</italic> (HR) 0,53; Intervalo de Confiança (IC) 95% 0,29 a 0,98), ao passo que nenhuma diferença significativa foi observada entre pacientes brancos (HR 0,88; IC95% 0,63 a 1,24). Por outro lado, no V-HeFT II, o enalapril mostrou uma redução significativa na mortalidade em comparação ao H-ISDN em brancos (31 vs. 39%, p=0,02), mas não houve diferença entre os grupos nos pacientes negros (37 vs. 37%, p=0,96).</p>
					<p>Devido à essa resposta relacionada à raça, sugerindo que indivíduos negros com IC possam ter uma resposta favorável ao H-ISDN, um ensaio foi desenhado para testar o efeito de se adicionar H-ISDN em indivíduos negros. No ensaio A-HeFT, 1050 negros com ICFEr e classe NYHA III ou IV foram randomizados para receberem H-ISDN ou placebo adicionado à terapia padrão, a qual incluiu IECA/BRA, beta-bloqueadores e espironolactona.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> O estudo terminou precocemente, dada à mortalidade significativamente mais baixa no grupo H-ISDN em comparação a placebo (HR 0,57, p=0,01) por um período médio de 10 meses. A H-ISDN também diminuiu o risco de internação hospitalar por IC e melhorou a qualidade de vida, resultando em resultados significativamente melhores no desfecho primário em comparação ao placebo.</p>
					<p>Recentemente, um ensaio aberto e unicêntrico testou a adição da H à terapia padrão em 408 pacientes com IC descompensada, FEVE &lt;35% e regurgitação mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Após um acompanhamento médio de 3,5 anos, a H reduziu significativamente o desfecho combinado de morte cardiovascular e hospitalização por IC (HR 0,613, IC95% 0,427–0,877, p&lt;0,001), em comparação ao controle. Nesse estudo, somente 94 (46 no grupo H e 48 no grupo controle) dos pacientes usaram ISDN. A população do estudo, e seu delineamento unicêntrico e aberto impõem limitações à capacidade de se tirar conclusões sobre o papel da H isolada na IC.</p>
					<p>Os principais resultados dos ensaios focados nos desfechos do uso de H-ISDN na IC estão resumidos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Ensaios clínicos baseados em desfechos duros testando a hidralazina e dinitrato de isossorbida na insuficiência cardíaca</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="11%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Estudo</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Ano de<break/> publicação</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">População</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">N</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Tratamento basal da IC</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Intervenção</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Comparador</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Resultado principal</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Comentários</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>V-HEFT I</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">1986</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Homens, VO2p &lt; 25 mL/kg/min + dilatação cardíaca<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref> ou FEVE &lt; 45%<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">†</xref>
									</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">642</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Vasodilatadores: 37%<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">‡</xref> Nitroglicerina SL: 20%</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">H-ISDN Dose alvo: H 75mg 4x/dia + ISDN 40 mg 4x/dia Dose média diária: H 270 mg, ISDN 136 mg</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Prazosina Dose alvo: 5 mg 4x/dia<break/> Dose média diária: 19 mg ou placebo</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Menor mortalidade em dois anos com H-ISDN (26%) vs. placebo (34%, p&lt;0,028)</td>
									<td align="left" valign="middle"/>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>V-HEFT II</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">1991</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Homens, VO2p &lt; 25 mL/kg/min + dilatação cardíaca<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref> ou FEVE &lt; 45%<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">†</xref>
									</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">804</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Vasodilatadores, incluindo IECA, foram retirados durante o estudo, enquanto digoxina e diuréticos foram &quot;otimizados&quot;</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">H-ISDN Dose alvo: H 75mg 4x/dia + ISDN 40 mg 4x/dia Dose média diária: H 199 mg, ISDN 100 mg</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Enalapril Dose alvo: 10 mg 2x/dia<break/> Dose média diária: 15 mg</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Menor mortalidade em dois anos com enalapril (18%) vs. H-ISDN (25%, p 0,016).</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">H-ISDN resultou em um maior aumento na FEVE e no VO2p que enalapril</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Hy-C</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">1992</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Pacientes com IC avançada, encaminhados para transplante cardíaco, NYHA III/IV, PCP≥20 mmHg e/ou Índice Cardíaco≤2.2 L/min/m2</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">104</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Digoxina: 63% ISDN<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">¶</xref>: 85%</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">H Dose alvo<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">#</xref>: 150 mg 4x/dia</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Captopril Dose alvo<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">#</xref>: 100 mg 4x/dia</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Menor mortalidade em um ano com captopril (18%) vs. H (49%), p=0,05</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Crossover foi elevado, e a diferença na mortalidade foi devido às taxas mais altas de morte súbita com H</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>A-HEFT</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">2004</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Negros (60% homens), NYHA III/IV, FEVE &lt; 35% ou FEVE &lt;45% + diâmetro diastólico do VE &gt; 65 mm</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">1050</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">IECA: 69% BRA: 17% BB:74% ARM: 38% Digoxina: 60%</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">H-ISDN Dose alvo: 75 mg 3x/dia + ISDN 40 mg 3x/dia Dose média diária: H 143 mg, ISDN 76 mg</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Menor mortalidade com H-ISDN vs. placebo (HR: 0,57, p=0,01), tempo médio de acompanhamento de 10 meses<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN14">§</xref>
									</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">H-ISDN também reduziu internação hospitalar por IC e melhorou os escores de qualidade de vida</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Hsiao et al.</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">2023</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">IC descompensada, NYHA III/IV, FEVE &lt; 35% + RM (AORE &gt; 30 mm2)</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">408</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">IECA/BRA: 81% BB:76% ARM: 62% Digoxina: 60%</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">H Dose alvo: 50 mg 4x/dia Dose média diária: 264 mg</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Sem H</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Taxa mais baixa do desfecho combinado morte CV + internação por IC com H (HR 0.61, p=0.002)</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Delineamento aberto, unicêntrico. Somente 23% usou ISDN (ambos os grupos)</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN10">
								<p>V-HeFT: Veterans Administration Cooperative Vasodilator-Heart Failure trial, A-HeFT: African-American Heart Failure trial, SL: Sublingual, H: hidralazina, ISDN: dinitrato de isossorbida, H-ISDN: hidralazina–dinitrato de isossorbida; RM: Regurgitação Mitral; AORE: Área do Orifício Regurgitante Efetivo; CV: cardiovascular; IECA: inibidor de enzima conversora de angiotensina; BRA: bloqueadores de receptor de angiotensina; ARMs: antagonistas de receptores mineralocorticoides BB: betabloqueadores; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; VO2p: pico de consumo de oxigênio; PCP: pressão capilar pulmonar; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN11">
								<label>*</label>
								<p>Definida como índice cardiotorácico &gt; 0,55 no raio-X ou diâmetro ventricular esquerdo &gt;27 mm/m<sup>2</sup>.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN12">
								<label>†</label>
								<p>Medida por ventriculografia com radionuclídeos.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN13">
								<label>‡</label>
								<p>O estudo relatou que 35-40% usaram vasodilatadores no basal, sem especificar o tipo de medicamento.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN14">
								<label>§</label>
								<p>O ensaio foi interrompido precocemente dada à maior mortalidade no grupo placebo.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN15">
								<label>¶</label>
								<p>ISDN foi dado a todos os pacientes no grupo hidralazina e no grupo captopril se o paciente tivesse histórico de doença arterial coronariana ou se a pressão capilar pulmonar persistisse≥20 mmHg.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN16">
								<label>#</label>
								<p>As doses da droga foram ajustadas com cateter de artéria pulmonar para manter um status hemodinâmico adequado, enquanto a terapia com nitroprussiato foi gradualmente retirada.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Prática clínica</title>
					<p>Diretrizes nacionais e internacionais apresentam recomendações similares, com diferenças sutis, quanto ao uso de H-ISDN em pacientes com ICFEr (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>). As diretrizes da AHA/ACC/HFSA (2022) adotam a recomendação IA para pacientes que se identificam como afro-americanos, com classe funcional NYHA III-IV e FEVEr, que recebem terapia medicamentosa otimizada para a melhoria dos sintomas e redução da morbimortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> As diretrizes ESC (2021) adotam recomendação IIa para pacientes classe NYHA II-IV e FEVE ≤ 35% (ou &lt; 45% combinado com dilatação do VE), apesar do uso de IECAs (ou ARNI), um BB, e um ARM, para reduzir o risco de internação hospitalar por IC ou morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> As diretrizes brasileiras para IC aguda e crônica adotam a recomendação IB para pacientes que se autodeclaram negros, com disfunção sistólica sintomática e classe funcional III-IV (NYHA), apesar de terapia otimizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
					<table-wrap id="t4">
						<label>Tabela 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Classe de recomendação e nível de evidência para a combinação de hidralazina /dinitrato de isossorbida na insuficiência cardíaca em diferentes diretrizes</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="25%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
									<th align="left" valign="middle">Situação clínica</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">AHA/ACC/HFSA<break/> (2022)</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">ESC<break/> (2021)</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">Brasileira<break/> (2018)</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes que se autoidentificam como negros, com ICFEr e classe NYHA III-IV, em tratamento otimizado para melhora de sintomas, redução do risco de internação e mortalidade</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">CR: I<break/> NE: A</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">CR: IIa<break/> NE: B</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">CR: I<break/> NE: B</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes com ICFEr com sintomas prévios ou atuais (independentemente da raça) que não podem receber ou têm contraindicação a IECA/BRA/ARNi</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">CR: IIb<break/> NE: C-DL<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN18">*</xref>
									</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">CR: IIb<break/> NE: B</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">CR: I<break/> NE: B</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN17">
								<p>CR: Classe de Recomendação; NE: Nível de Evidência; ICFEr: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida; NYHA, New York Heart Association; IECA: inibidor de enzima conversora de angiotensina; ARMs: antagonistas de receptores mineralocorticoides, BRAs: bloqueadores de receptor de angiotensina; ARNI: inibidores do receptor de angiotensina-neprilisina; AHA: american heart association; ACC: american college of cardiology; HFSA: Heart Failure Society of America; ESC, European Society of Cardiology.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN18">
								<label>*</label>
								<p>DL: dados limitados.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
					<p>Contudo, o benefício de usar H-ISDN em pacientes com IC de outras origens étnicas é menos claro. Enquanto não se observou prova definitiva de reduzir mortalidade em pacientes brancos com o uso de H-ISDN em ensaios anteriores, houve uma melhora na fração de ejeção e tolerância ao exercício. Atualmente, as diretrizes AHA/ACC/HFSA e ESC recomendam que a H-ISDN pode ser considerada (com dados limitados) em pacientes com ICFEr e sintomas atuais ou prévios, que não podem receber agentes de primeira linha tais como IECA/BRA/ARNI devido à intolerância à medicação ou insuficiência renal (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
					<p>Um ponto importante para a prática clínica é a formulação usada e sua titulação à dose efetiva. Nos estudos V-HeFT, os medicamentos foram administrados em comprimidos separados (dose inicial de 37,5mg de H e 20 mg de ISDN, em quatro doses diárias) com uma dose alvo de 300 mg de H e 160 mg de ISDN. No estudo A-HeFT, a combinação foi administrada em um único comprimido (BiDil®, contendo 37,5 mg de H + 20 mg de ISDN, em três doses diárias), com uma dose alvo de 225 mg de H e 120 mg de ISDN. No Brasil, as apresentações da H são comprimidos de 25 ou 50 mg, enquanto as do ISDN variam entre comprimidos de 5 ou 10 mg (tomados a cada 6-8 horas). Por isso, seriam três a quatro tomadas diárias para atingir a dose alvo, ou seja, um número maior de comprimidos.</p>
					<p>Embora a H-ISDN tenha sido recomendada por diretrizes atuais, observou-se uma prescrição insuficiente na prática clínica. Nos Estados Unidos, um estudo mostrou que somente 7,8% dos pacientes negros com indicações para H-ISDN estavam recebendo esse tratamento ambulatorialmente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Após uma internação por IC, somente 4,5% dos pacientes negros e 2,6% dos pacientes brancos receberam prescrição de H-ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Em outro estudo, usando um banco de dados com 26439 pacientes com idade entre 18 e 64 anos e diagnóstico recente de IC, a adesão ao tratamento em longo prazo com H-ISDN foi a mais baixa de cinco classes de medicamentos recomendados por diretrizes para o tratamento de ICFEr (IECA/BRA, BB, ARM e H-ISDN).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Algumas razões para essa falta de adesão às diretrizes podem estar relacionadas à hipotensão e tontura associadas a doses alvos da H-ISDN, além da quantidade de comprimidos e um regime de três a quatro tomadas diárias.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Lacunas de evidências</title>
					<p>A definição racial pode não ser um marcador suficientemente preciso para determinar variações genéticas e fisiológicas. Estudos de genótipo-fenótipo mostram que o polimorfismo na NO sintase endotelial pode estar associado com pior sobrevida livre de evento, independentemente da raça, sugerindo que pacientes com IC, que não são negros, também poderiam se beneficiar do tratamento com H-ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Temos que destacar a dificuldade de se traduzir resultados obtidos em ensaios prévios para nossa população brasileira, marcadamente caracterizada por uma miscigenação de diferentes etnias. Ainda, existem controvérsias quanto ao conceito de um medicamento &quot;específico à raça&quot;, pois isso levanta questões sobre as implicações éticas de se basear o tratamento farmacológico no histórico étnico ou racial dos pacientes.</p>
					<p>Estudos prévios sobre ICFEr e populações predominantemente não negras compararam o efeito da H-ISDN com o vasodilatador prazosina ou placebo (V-HeFT) ou enalapril (V-HeFT II), que não são representativos do tratamento padrão atual da IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Não existem estudos randomizados usando outras formulações de nitrato tais como mononitrato de isossorbida ou propatilnitrato em pacientes com IC, e não há recomendações específicas para essas formulações neste cenário.</p>
					<p>Os dados são insuficientes para avaliar o efeito diferencial relacionado ao sexo, uma vez que os ensaios V-HeFT incluíram somente homens e, no ensaio A-HeFT, as mulheres representaram 40% da amostra. Em uma análise post hoc do A-HeFT, as mulheres tiveram uma maior redução na mortalidade que os homens com o uso de H-ISDN, mas, dadas as diferenças nas características basais, essa análise deve ser considerada exploratória e não conclusiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Dados que apoiam o uso da H-ISDN na IC descompensada também são limitados. Existem múltiplos benefícios teóricos para o uso de H-ISDN neste cenário, uma vez que a descompensação da IC está associada com uma ruptura da sinalização do NO e estresse oxidativo aumentado. Em um estudo retrospectivo, os pacientes internados por IC descompensada que receberam alta com H-ISDN além de um IECA ou BRA mostraram uma melhora mais significativa no índice cardíaco e na resistência vascular sistêmica, além de uma taxa mais baixa de mortalidade por todas as causas em comparação aos pacientes que receberam somente IECA ou BRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Até o momento, nenhum estudo avaliou o efeito da H-ISDN sobre os desfechos relacionados à IC nos pacientes com IC e fração de ejeção preservada.</p>
					<p>Em relação ao potencial uso de H-ISDN em pacientes com insuficiência renal, os dados também são escassos. O estudo A-HeFT não mostrou interação significativa entre &quot;história de insuficiência renal&quot; e o efeito da H-ISDN. Um pequeno estudo prova de conceito com 44 pacientes com ICFEr e síndrome cardiorrenal demonstrou somente uma tendência à melhora no teste de caminhada de seis minutos usando H-ISDN em comparação ao cuidado padrão em seis meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Em um estudo retrospectivo do banco de dados do <italic>United States Renal Data System</italic>, 6306 pacientes em diálise usando H-ISDN foram comparados a 75509 pacientes que não usaram H-ISDN. A H-ISDN foi independentemente associada a uma mortalidade mais baixa (HR 0,48; IC95% 0,43-0,54). No entanto, a incidência de infarto do miocárdio e internação hospitalar por IC foram mais altas nos pacientes que usaram H-ISDN.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
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					<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
					<p><bold>Vinculação acadêmica</bold></p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
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				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<p><bold>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</bold></p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
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