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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240012i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Particularities of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction in Women – Pathways to Better Care</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Espíndola</surname>
						<given-names>Larissa Neto</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Almeida</surname>
						<given-names>Maria Cristina Costa de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Castro</surname>
						<given-names>Marildes Luíza de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Freire</surname>
						<given-names>Cláudia Maria Vilas</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0737-6188</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Oliveira</surname>
						<given-names>Gláucia Maria Moraes de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Izabel</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universitário de Belo Horizonte</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Centro Universitário de Belo Horizonte – (UNIBH), Belo Horizonte, MG – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Pesquisa e Ensino Médico do Estado de Minas Gerais</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Pesquisa e Ensino Médico do Estado de Minas Gerais (IPEMED), Belo Horizonte, MG – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5">
				<label>5</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Gláucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</bold> • Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – R. Prof. Rodolpho P. Rocco, 255 – 8° Andar – Sala 6. Postal Code 21941-913, Cidade Universitária, RJ – Brazil. E-mail: <email>glauciamoraesoliveira@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsible for the review: Luis Beck-da-Silva</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>13</day>
				<month>08</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>08</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>4</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20240012</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>28</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>20</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>20</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>While heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) is more prevalent in males, female predominance is a striking feature in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF).</p>
				<p>The incidence of HFpEF has been gaining alarming proportions. It has exceeded HFrEF as the primary form of heart failure, especially in the female sex. Women tend to have smaller cardiac chambers with higher left ventricular ejection fraction; however, they have more severe symptoms and signs. Until now, there is no consensus about the exact mechanisms of these differences related to sex. Understanding these mechanisms is essential to mitigate the risks for HFpEF and direct efforts towards identifying novel preventive and disease-modifying treatments. Lifestyle, pharmacologic, and device-based approaches to reduce the medical and societal impact of HFpEF could improve patients’ quality of life.</p>
				<p>The purpose of this review is to outline known biological sex differences in women with HFpEF with a specific focus on pathways to better care for the diagnosis and treatment of women with HFpEF.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Women</kwd>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Left Ventricular Function</kwd>
				<kwd>Diagnosis</kwd>
				<kwd>Therapeutics</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="10"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="48"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Particularities of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction in Women – Pathways to Better Care</title>
							<p><italic>Algorithm for better diagnosis and care of women with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF).</italic><sup>47,48</sup> <italic>ARB: angiotensin-receptor blocker; ARNI: Angiotensin Receptor - Neprilysin Inhibitor; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; CT: computed tomography; E/e’: ratio between E wave and e’ wave velocities; EF: ejection fraction; GLS: global longitudinal strain; HF: heart failure; LAVI: left atrial volume index; LV: left ventricular; LVMI: left ventricular mass index; MRA: mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist; PET: positron emission tomography; RWT: relative wall thickness; SGLT2i: sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor; TR: tricuspid regurgitation.</italic></p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240012-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome of systemic nature, defined as cardiac dysfunction that causes inadequate blood supply to meet tissue metabolic needs. Heart failure is the third leading cause of cardiovascular death in developed countries and a significant cause of morbidity and hospitalization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The major causes of HF are ischemia in men and hypertension and diabetes in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The clinical syndrome of HF is the sum of multiple anatomical, functional, and biological changes that interact with each other and can be characterized according to left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF - LVEF &gt;50%) is the most common condition in women over 65 years of age, associated with smaller cardiac chambers, higher LVEF, and high morbidity and mortality. Risk factors differ between heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) and HFpEF, whose patients are older, mostly women, and more often have hypertension, obesity, and anemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Breathlessness and edema are common in both sexes, but, in general, women have orthopnea and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea more frequently than men. Women more often tend to have advanced symptoms and congestion, and lower quality of life. Despite having similar rates of HF hospitalization compared to men, women less often are properly treated and more frequently have depression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In the Framingham Study, median survival was 1.7 years for men and 3.2 years for women, with only 25% of men and 38% of women surviving for 5 years. The 5-year survival rate for all patients with HF, regardless of the ejection fraction, is lower than 50%. Although survival of patients with HFrEF has improved over time, the same has not happened to patients with HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>A recent publication has shown that approximately 50% of hospitalizations for HF were due to HFpEF, and 50%, to HFrEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The purpose of this review is to outline known biological sex differences in women with HFpEF with a specific focus on pathways to better care for the diagnosis and treatment of these patients.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Epidemiology and risk factors</title>
				<p>In the community, approximately 50% of the patients with HF have HFpEF. Although the age-specific incidence of HF is decreasing, this trend is less dramatic for HFpEF than for HFrEF. The risk of HFpEF increases sharply with age, but hypertension, obesity, and coronary artery disease are additional risk factors. Multimorbidity is common in HFpEF, with nearly 50% of patients having 5 or more significant comorbidities. It is essential to note that most deaths in patients with HFpEF are cardiovascular, but the proportion of noncardiovascular deaths is higher in HFpEF than in HFrEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>With regards to sex distribution, women are ≈2 times more likely than men to develop HFpEF. Black women with HFpEF experience a disproportionately higher excess prevalence of disability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup>Community-based cohort studies have reported higher proportions of women in HFpEF populations, leading to the general idea that women may be more susceptible to HFpEF than men. Women with type 2 diabetes show more pronounced adverse left ventricular (LV) remodeling (concentric hypertrophy) and worse outcomes and quality of life compared to men with type 2 diabetes, even when they have a mean body mass index and glucose levels in the prediabetes range. A recent study suggests that obesity and obesity-related cardiometabolic traits (including insulin resistance) are more strongly associated with the risk of incident HFpEF than HFrEF, especially in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A systematic review of Brazilian studies has demonstrated that the prevalence of HFpEF in patients with confirmed HF ranged from 28.2% to 59.0% in the outpatient setting and from 20.0% to 53.1% in the hospital environment. The most frequently reported comorbidities were systemic arterial hypertension and diabetes, with a prevalence of 57.4% to 100.0%. The proportion of women in the samples ranged from 44% to 74%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The main comorbidities of women with HFpEF are illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– <italic>Main comorbidities in women with HFpEF. DM: diabetes mellitus; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; LV: left ventricular.</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240012-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pathophysiological mechanisms related to HFpEF in women</title>
				<p>Until now, no consensus exists about the exact pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the HFpEF differences between sexes. What we know is that despite the heterogeneity in pathophysiology, all patients show signs of ‘pump failure’ reflected in the pathognomonic pathological increases in exertional left atrial (LA) pressures, which represent an increase in pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP). This abnormality is related to pulmonary edema, dyspnea, reduced exercise capacity, and prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<p>It is undeniable that the inflammatory paradigm plays a central role in the pathophysiology of HFpEF, especially in women, who experience more significant inflammation and chronic microvascular dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and obesity are among the main drivers of systemic microvascular inflammation. But other noncardiac conditions, such as physical inactivity, estrogen deprivation, chronic kidney disease, iron deficiency, eclampsia and preeclampsia, and chronic pulmonary disease, also stimulate overexpression of vascular adhesion molecules, facilitating leukocyte migration through the endothelium, leading to oxidative stress, increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS), reducing nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) levels in cardiomyocytes, and altering the titin phosphorylation. The final path comprises cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, leading to concentric hypertrophy, diastolic dysfunction, and, finally, HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In addition, autoimmune diseases, more prevalent in women, with a heightened immune response (e.g., lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroiditis), may be associated with HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Estrogen may mediate signaling pathways attenuating ROS, leading to downstream anti-inflammatory effects. So, the loss of estrogen protection can contribute to systemic inflammation. Moreover, in women after menopause, there is an activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RASS) in response to low estrogen levels, which increases oxidative stress, resulting in an additional decline in NO and increasing collagen synthesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Women with HFpEF have more severe disturbances of arterial hemodynamics than men and female controls, showing a reduced aortic capacitance and a less compliant arterial system, which results in higher LV afterload and reinforces the idea of vascular dysfunction as one of the pathophysiological mechanisms of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> It is important to remember that coronary flow reserve (CFR) and arterial resistance are also impaired, resulting in coronary microvascular dysfunction.</p>
				<p>Redfield et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> have demonstrated that both increasing age and female sex were associated with increases in arterial stiffness and load. Furthermore, in population-based studies, arterial stiffness increased more steeply with age in females than in males. As the aorta stiffens, cardiac workload and wall stress increase, LV contractility raises, and concentric remodeling develops to maintain cardiac performance, predisposing to HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Obesity contributes in a multifactorial way: insulin resistance and the adipose tissue may exacerbate metabolic inefficiency,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> leading to systemic inflammation (increasing the secretion of inflammatory cytokines), endothelial dysfunction, and subsequent myocyte remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Schulz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> have found a dynamic LA filling impairment with worse LA functional reserve only in women with HFpEF. Based on these findings, LA dysfunction appears to be a critical mediator of the elevation in PCWP during exertion in HFpEF, suggesting that loss of LA functional reserve may be a preferential driver of elevation in exercise PCWP in female HFpEF.</p>
				<p>Multiple mechanisms can explain the pathophysiology of HFpEF and are detailed in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– <italic>Pathophysiological mechanisms involved in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction in women. CRP: C-reactive protein; NO: nitric oxide; RAAS: renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system; ROS: reactive oxygen species.</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240012-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Sex differences and risk factors of HFpEF in women</title>
				<p>In the HF’s background, there are significant sex differences, particularly when considering HFpEF, such as epidemiologic, phenotypic, and outcome factors.</p>
				<p>Ischemia is the major cause of HF in men, especially HFrEF, whereas women are at greater risk attributable to the traditional risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Hypertension confers a more significant risk of HF in women (a 3-fold increase in risk <italic>versus</italic> a 2-fold increase in men). Diabetes mellitus also has a more significant effect on HF in women, with an associated 5-fold increase in risk in women <italic>versus</italic> a 2-fold increase in risk in men. Obesity carries a higher risk for HF in women, not just because it is more prevalent in women, but the association of obesity with HF risk is more significant for women, with an increased propensity for HFpEF, being a more potent risk factor. Tobacco use is reported as less prevalent in women. However, the independent risk association of smoking with HF among women is almost double that of men. Lifestyle also influences the risk of HF; in this context, dietary patterns may be of particular importance. It should be noted that heavy alcohol consumption is related to HF risk with no documented sex difference.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Haykowsky et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> have found that intra-abdominal fat was significantly higher in patients with HFpEF compared to healthy controls and was the strongest predictor of peak oxygen consumption (a marker of exercise performance).</p>
				<p>It is worth keeping in mind the sex-specific risk factors for HF, with some of them being risk factors for HFpEF. An example of this is radiation therapy for breast cancer, which can be associated with an increased risk for HF due to potential cardiac radiation exposure (especially in cases of left breast cancer), resulting in microvascular endothelial inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A range of sex-related differences in risk factors still need to be better studied. Women need to be better represented in studies so that we can finally understand the mechanisms involved, from pathophysiology to therapeutic response, focusing on knowledge gaps that still need to be filled.</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 3</xref> summarizes the impact of risk factors for HFpEF in women.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f04">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– <italic>Sex differences in risk factors for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) in women. DM: diabetes mellitus; HF: heart failure; PPCM: peripartum cardiomyopathy</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240012-gf04.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Diagnosis of HFpEF in women</title>
				<p>Pretest probability algorithms for HFpEF have been used to evaluate patients with suspected diagnosis, and echocardiogram plays an essential role in this investigation. However, non-invasive methods for the diagnosis or exclusion of HFpEF depend on many parameters, always in combination with others derived from clinical and laboratory tests, which together provide a probability for the diagnosis.</p>
				<p>Sex-neutral thresholds are used to define HF syndromes. However, these thresholds may result in underestimating LV dysfunction in women. An ejection fraction of about 50%, especially in the presence of HF symptoms, may reflect a relatively more significant reduction in systolic function compared to men with the same LVEF. It is important to remember that LVEF is one systolic function parameter, but not the only one. In this context and keeping in mind the hallmark feature of the HFpEF, we should improve the understanding that other measures of LV systolic dysfunction are of particular relevance to women and can be found in specific literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Women with HFpEF more frequently have some echocardiographic signs, such as concentric remodeling, smaller LV diameters, a greater propensity to elevated ejection fraction, and the trend toward a more preserved global longitudinal strain (GLS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Concentric remodeling in women predisposes to more pronounced changes in diastolic relaxation and LV stiffness when compared to those of men with HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> An Asian cohort with 55% female participants, PURSUIT-HFpEF, has shown that women had more pronounced parameters of diastolic dysfunction on echocardiography than men (septal e’ &lt; 7 cm/s, lateral e’ &lt; 10 cm/s, E/e’ &gt; 14, LA volume &gt; 34 mL/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>, and tricuspid regurgitation velocity &gt; 2.8 m/s) and that the female sex alone was a factor associated with diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>One of the most specific stress tests in diagnosing HFpEF is the cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET), which assesses cardiorespiratory fitness during exertion, aerobic capacity, and gas exchange efficiency by measuring maximum oxygen consumption (VO2 peak).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> The relationship between ventilation (VE) and carbon dioxide production (VCO2) during exercise is represented by VE/VCO2 slope, and the higher it is, the worse the gas exchange efficiency is during exercise, which may be an early marker of cardiovascular dysfunction and indicates a worse prognosis in HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup>Women with HFpEF have worse effort capacity and gas exchange efficiency than men, which can be demonstrated by the parameters analyzed in CPET: lower VO2 peak and VO2 at ventilatory threshold and anaerobic threshold, and a higher VE/VCO2 slope. These CPET parameters are essential in guiding the management of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Studies evaluating hemodynamic criteria for HFpEF based on invasive CPET have shown that, after multivariate analysis, women had lower systolic and diastolic reserve and that the latter correlated with diastolic dysfunction found on echocardiography. In addition, they have shown higher capillary pressure, higher pulmonary pressure at peak effort, and lower pulmonary and systemic arterial compliance during exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> On exertion, there were also more significant increase in elastance and lower chronotropic and contractile reserve than in men, contributing to considerable effort intolerance associated with substantial increase in heart rate, exacerbated by the smaller LV dimension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				<p>While healthy women have modestly higher natriuretic peptide levels than men, women with HFpEF have natriuretic peptide levels lower than or similar to those of men. Men have higher markers of cardiac injury, both in the general population and among patients with HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In addition to echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) has been increasingly used in diagnosing heart disease, providing information on cardiac structure, myocardial mass, chamber volume, and ejection fraction. In women with HFpEF, CMR shows smaller LV volume and mass, and ejection fraction equal to or greater than that of men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Stress CMR is an effective method to evaluate microcirculation dysfunction through the analysis of CFR, which is correlated with diastolic function, as well as to evaluate the presence of ischemic coronary artery disease, helping understand HFpEF pathophysiology. In addition, CFR can be assessed using methods, such as myocardial perfusion scintigraphy with PET, which is still rarely available.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In conclusion, imaging methods are essential in diagnosing and understanding the pathophysiology of HFpEF and its peculiarities in females, helping the better management and analyses of its prognosis.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Particularities of the treatment of HFpEF in women</title>
				<p>The treatment of HFrEF has an arsenal of medications with proven efficacy in reducing unfavorable outcomes and mortality, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs), angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), beta-blockers (BB), and, more recently, the new hypoglycemic drugs, such as sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors. However, the treatment of HFpEF is still controversial, and the drugs used to treat HFrEF do not always show the same results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The effectiveness of medications to treat HFrEF has been proven by large randomized controlled trials. Still, in most of them, women are underrepresented, generally corresponding to around 20% to 25% of the studied population. One of the explanations for the exclusion of women, especially those of childbearing age, might be the potential teratogenic effects of some drugs and the predominance of HFpEF in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Studies have shown that around 72% of studies still do not conduct a differentiated analysis about sex, which may be a treatment bias because the doses used in women are the same as in men, therefore without adjustment for body weight. These data may be related to the more significant adverse effect of drugs (AED) in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Women have specific characteristics regarding the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs, the first being related to intrinsic factors, such as genetic predisposition, weight, liver and kidney function, and associated diseases, as well as to external factors, such as interaction with other drugs, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Other factors, such as women’s anatomical, biochemical, physiological, and hormonal characteristics, which influence the response to the drug’s effect, must be mentioned. Sexual differences in drug absorption are related to higher gastric pH and longer gastrointestinal transit in women, differences about the intestinal metabolism of cytochrome P-450 and the active transporter p-glycoprotein (GLp), with its hepatic expression 2.4 times lower in women. Furthermore, associated with a smaller body surface, lead to greater exposure to medications which are used in the same dosage as for men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> There are particularities in the safety and efficacy of pharmacotherapy, such as the fact that AEDs are 1.5 to 1.7 times more frequent in women, and, therefore, more hospitalizations secondary to these effects occur.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Drug clearance is also influenced by sexual factors, such as the expression of sex-linked metabolic enzymes, reduced renal clearance in women due to a lower glomerular filtration rate, lower body mass index, and differences in blood volume, plasma volume, and body water percentage. In addition, other physiological hormonal changes, such as higher percentage of body fat in women and hormonal changes in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy, are related, as many of these particularities depend on estrogen and progesterone. All these factors can alter the distribution of drugs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Despite these relevant data, sexual differences in the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs are not usually taken into consideration in guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Studies have shown that, when parameters are corrected for body weight, there is a 15% reduction in statistical difference in the drug’s pharmacokinetics. At the same time, non-correction leads to a difference greater than 20%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Beta-blockers have more significant effects on women, with a more significant reduction in heart rate and blood pressure, compared to men at the same doses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> The European, prospective, multicenter cohort study, <italic>BIOlogy Study to Tailored Treatment in Chronic Heart Failure</italic>, and the Asian prospective, multicenter, cohort study, <italic>Asian Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure</italic> registry, have evaluated the ideal dose for treating HFpEF in men and women and have concluded that women who used BB associated with ACEIs or ARBs, at half the dose recommended in the guidelines, had a lower risk of hospitalization and death, without further risk reduction when the drugs were used at full dose. These data must be evaluated carefully, as they can lead to valuable information regarding specific doses for women in the treatment of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The pathophysiology of HFpEF is directly related to obesity, increased insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome. Thus, weight reduction and encouragement of physical activity are essential to prevent HFpEF, especially in women (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figures 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">3</xref>). Regarding pharmacological treatment, the evidence is not so robust, and, even until recently, no pharmacological therapy has been recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Randomized studies have shown a neutral effect of the major drugs used for HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Sub-analyses of two of those studies, one involving spironolactone, TOPCAT, and another involving angiotensin receptor II blocker - neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI), PARAGON-HF, have suggested different responses to therapy according to sex. In addition, SGLT2 inhibitors have shown benefits in HFpEF with similar results in men and women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Thus, current evidence points to the benefit of SGLT2 inhibitors for both sexes and the potential benefit of spironolactone and sacubitril-valsartan for women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup>In the PARAGON-HF study, a sub-analysis of sex differences in the treatment of HFpEF with sacubitril-valsartan compared to valsartan alone has shown that women had a more significant reduction in hospitalization and mortality with sacubitril-valsartan, whereas men did not had this benefit.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> This finding emphasizes the need for further studies to understand the interaction between sexual characteristics and the therapeutic response to drugs in the HFpEF treatment, aimed at better results at lower doses. Prospective studies to assess differences between sexes are necessary. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4</xref> highlights the the main differences between sexes in HF.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f05">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– <italic>Main differences between sexes in heart failure. CRT: cardiac resynchronization therapy; HF: heart failure; LV: left ventricular; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240012-gf05.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Women have nonobstructive ischemic heart diseases as the etiology of HFpEF, and, as a remodeling response, less fibrosis and a lower rate of ventricular arrhythmias, resulting in fewer sudden cardiac deaths. However, even after adjusting for age and comorbidities, the female sex had a lower probability of receiving an implantable cardiac device as compared to the male sex. It is worth noting that women have higher rates of complications related to device implantation, such as pneumothorax, infection, bleeding, and tamponade. However, because of the less fibrotic profile and even structural and anatomical characteristics, studies have suggested that women respond more favorably to cardiac resynchronization therapy, which improves symptoms, quality of life, LVEF, and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				<p>With population aging, higher incidence of HFpEF in women, and few therapeutic options of proven efficacy to date, adequate treatment must be carried out for the comorbidities with most significant risk, such as obesity, diabetes, and hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Further studies are needed to better understand the female-sex characteristics that impact the HFpEF treatment. In addition, prospective multicenter registries could provide more accurate evidence in the female population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Prognosis of women with HFpEF</title>
				<p>In addition to mortality and hospitalization, patients with HFpEF experience significantly reduced quality of life, similar to that in HFrEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The HFpEF is associated with multimorbidity, with up to 50% of patients experiencing 5 or more significant comorbidities. Atrial fibrillation and chronic kidney disease are factors that worsen the prognosis of women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Approximately 60% of deaths in HFpEF are due to cardiovascular conditions, such as sudden death, right ventricular failure, and stroke but women are at lower risk of sudden death. One study has shown that pulmonary hypertension is present in 73% of patients, predominantly in women, leading to right ventricular dysfunction in 20-50%, which worsens the prognosis and increases mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup>A high NYHA functional class is also associated with shorter survival, previous hospitalization, higher levels of natriuretic peptides, and high-sensitivity troponin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Early diagnosis, treatment, and prophylactic measures, such as control of risk factors in HFpEF, are essential to provide a better prognosis for this severe and prevalent pathology. In addition to reducing mortality, it is necessary to recognize that reducing hospitalization and improving symptoms and functional capacity are critical patient-centered goals in treating HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The best way to prevent progression to advanced HFpEF is the institution of adequate cardiovascular prevention strategies and proper treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Perspectives for women with HFPEF</title>
				<p>Knowledge about HFpEF in women has evolved in recent years. Understanding the pathophysiology has helped understand the behavior of the disease. However, our knowledge is still scarce, and more research is needed, including the contributions of sex hormones and their deficiency, to identify new preventive and modifying treatments for HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				<p>It would be interesting to review and create sex-specific diagnostic cutoff points in ejection fraction, as well as to identify new circulating biomarkers related to tissue remodeling, inflammation, and neurohormonal regulation to refine risk prediction in women with HFpEF, along with a better mechanistic understanding of sex-specific inflammatory cascades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Existing evidence suggests that sex-specific microRNA networks may mediate the relationship between comorbidity-induced inflammatory activation and the pathogenesis of HFpEF in women. Future research into microRNA-induced mechanisms may shed light on unique pathways that contribute to the development of HFpEF in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Innovative approaches to treating HF, using artificial intelligence for proper diagnosis and optimized approach, still do not consider sex differences. This care needs to be considered to avoid erroneous behaviors and futile treatment. A preventive strategy must be adopted to reduce the growing incidence and prevalence of HFpEF in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Proposed algorithm for better diagnosis and care of women with HFpEF</p>
				<p>The most used algorithms for diagnosing HFpEF are the H2FPEF (proposed by Reddy <italic>et al.</italic>) and HFA-PEFF (proposed by the European Society of Cardiology), which include clinical, echocardiographic, and laboratory parameters. In 2023, the European Society of Cardiology suggested a simplified approach to HFpEF using 3 basic criteria: 1. presence of symptoms and/or signs of HF; 2. LVEF ≥ 50%; 3. objective evidence of cardiac structural and/or functional abnormalities consistent with the presence of LV diastolic dysfunction/raised LV filling pressures, including raised natriuretic peptides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Central Illustration</xref>, we propose an algorithm to facilitate the management of HFpEF, summarizing currently available literature data.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
	</body>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<p>Sources of funding</p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20240012</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Particularidades da Insuficiência Cardíaca com Fração de Ejeção Preservada em Mulheres – Caminhos para o Melhor Cuidado</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Espíndola</surname>
						<given-names>Larissa Neto</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Almeida</surname>
						<given-names>Maria Cristina Costa de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Castro</surname>
						<given-names>Marildes Luíza de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Freire</surname>
						<given-names>Cláudia Maria Vilas</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0737-6188</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Oliveira</surname>
						<given-names>Gláucia Maria Moraes de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5002"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Centro Universitário de Belo Horizonte – (UNIBH), Belo Horizonte, MG – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Pesquisa e Ensino Médico do Estado de Minas Gerais (IPEMED), Belo Horizonte, MG – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5002">
				<label>5</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"><bold>Correspondência: Gláucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</bold> • Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – R. Prof. Rodolpho P. Rocco, 255 – 8° Andar – Sala 6. CEP 21941-913, Cidade Universitária, RJ – Brasil. E-mail: glauciamoraesoliveira@gmail.com </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Luis Beck-da-Silva</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>Enquanto a insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFEr) é mais prevalente em homens, mulheres predominam entre os portadores de insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEp).</p>
				<p>A incidência de ICFEp vem atingindo proporções alarmantes. Superou a ICFEr como forma primária de insuficiência cardíaca, em especial no sexo feminino. Mulheres tendem a apresentar câmaras cardíacas menores com maior fração de ejeção ventricular esquerda. Entretanto, mulheres têm sintomas e sinais mais graves. Até o momento, não há consenso quanto aos mecanismos dessas diferenças entre os sexos, cuja compreensão é essencial para mitigar os riscos da ICFEp e direcionar esforços para identificar novos tratamentos preventivos e modificadores da doença. Estilo de vida e abordagens farmacológica e com base em dispositivos para reduzir o impacto médico e social da doença poderiam melhorar a qualidade de vida dos pacientes.</p>
				<p>O objetivo desta revisão é delinear as conhecidas diferenças entre os sexos nas mulheres com ICFEp, com foco específico nos caminhos para o melhor diagnóstico e tratamento dessas pacientes.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Mulheres</kwd>
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Função Ventricular Esquerda</kwd>
				<kwd>Diagnóstico</kwd>
				<kwd>Terapêutica</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
		<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Particularidades da Insuficiência Cardíaca com Fração de Ejeção Preservada em Mulheres – Caminhos para o Melhor Cuidado</title>
							<p><italic>Algoritmo para o melhor diagnóstico e cuidado de mulheres com insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEp).</italic><sup>47,48</sup> <italic>ARNI: inibidor do receptor de angiotensina-neprilisina; ARM: antagonista do receptor mineralocorticoide; BRA: bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina; E/e’: relação entre as velocidades de ondas E e e’; FE: fração de ejeção; SLG: strain longitudinal global; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; VAEi: volume do átrio esquerdo indexado; LVMI: índice de massa ventricular esquerda; PET: tomografia com emissão de pósitron; RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca; ERP: espessura relativa da parede; SGLT2i: inibidor do cotransportador de sódio-glicose-2; TC: tomografia computadorizada; RT: regurgitação tricúspide; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</italic></p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240012-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) é uma síndrome clínica complexa de natureza sistêmica, definida como uma disfunção cardíaca que causa suprimento sanguíneo inadequado às necessidades metabólicas dos tecidos. A IC é a terceira principal causa de morte cardiovascular nos países desenvolvidos, além de ser importante responsável por morbidade e hospitalização.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Suas principais causas são isquemia nos homens e hipertensão e diabetes nas mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A síndrome clínica de IC é a soma de múltiplas alterações anatômicas, funcionais e biológicas que interagem entre si, podendo ser caracterizada de acordo com a fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE). Insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEp - FEVE &gt;50%) é a condição mais comum em mulheres com mais de 65 anos, associando-se a câmaras cardíacas menores, maior FEVE e alta morbimortalidade. Os fatores de risco diferem entre insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFEr) e ICFEp, cujos pacientes são mais idosos e, em sua maioria, mulheres, que mais frequentemente apresentam hipertensão, obesidade e anemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Dispneia e edema são comuns nos dois sexos, mas, em geral, mulheres apresentam ortopneia e dispneia paroxística noturna com maior frequência do que homens. Sintomas e congestão avançados e pior qualidade de vida mais comumente ocorrem em mulheres. Ainda que tenham taxas de hospitalização por IC semelhantes às dos homens, as mulheres menos frequentemente são tratadas de maneira adequada e mais frequentemente têm depressão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>No Estudo Framingham, a mediana de sobrevida foi 1,7 ano para homens e 3,2 anos para mulheres, com apenas 25% dos homens e 38% das mulheres sobrevivendo por 5 anos. A taxa de sobrevida em 5 anos para todos os pacientes com IC, independentemente da fração de ejeção, foi menor que 50%. Embora a sobrevida dos pacientes com ICFEr tenha melhorado, o mesmo não ocorreu com os pacientes com ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>Publicação recente mostrou que cerca de 50% das hospitalizações por IC foram devidas a ICFEp e 50%, a ICFEr.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O objetivo desta revisão é delinear as conhecidas diferenças entre os sexos nas mulheres com ICFEp, com foco específico nos caminhos para o melhor diagnóstico e tratamento dessas pacientes.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Epidemiologia e fatores de risco</title>
					<p>Na comunidade, cerca de 50% dos pacientes com IC têm ICFEp. Embora a incidência de IC específica para a idade esteja diminuindo, essa tendência é menos drástica para ICFEp do que para ICFEr. O risco de ICFEp aumenta bruscamente com a idade, sendo hipertensão, obesidade e doença arterial coronariana fatores de risco adicionais. Multimorbidade é comum na ICFEp, com quase 50% dos pacientes apresentando cinco ou mais comorbidades significativas. É essencial notar que a maioria das mortes em pacientes com ICFEp é de origem cardiovascular, mas a proporção de mortes não cardiovasculares é maior na ICFEp do que na ICFEr.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Com relação à distribuição por sexo, mulheres têm cerca de duas vezes mais probabilidade do que homens de desenvolver ICFEp. Mulheres negras com ICFEp apresentam prevalência excessiva e incapacidade desproporcionalmente maiores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup>Estudos de coorte de base comunitária relataram maiores proporções de mulheres nas populações de ICFEp, levando à ideia geral de que mulheres sejam mais suscetíveis a ICFEp do que homens. Mulheres com diabetes tipo 2 apresentam remodelamento adverso do ventrículo esquerdo (VE) mais marcado (hipertrofia concêntrica) e piores desfecho e qualidade de vida em comparação a homens com diabetes tipo 2, mesmo quando têm índice de massa corporal e níveis glicêmicos médios na faixa de pré-diabetes. Estudo recente sugeriu que obesidade e traços cardiometabólicos relacionados a obesidade (inclusive resistência insulínica) acham-se mais fortemente associados com o risco de ICFEp incidente do que ICFEr, em especial em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Uma revisão sistemática de estudos brasileiros mostrou que a prevalência de ICFEp em pacientes com IC confirmada variou de 28,2% a 59,0% no cenário ambulatorial e de 20,0% a 53,1% no ambiente hospitalar. As comorbidades mais frequentemente relatadas foram hipertensão arterial sistêmica e diabetes, com prevalência variando de 57,4% a 100,0%. A proporção de mulheres na amostra variou de 44% a 74%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					<p>As principais comorbidades das mulheres com ICFEp estão ilustradas na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– <italic>Principais comorbidades em mulheres com insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEp). VE: ventrículo esquerdo; DM: diabetes mellitus.</italic></title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240012-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismos fisiopatológicos relacionados a ICFEp em mulheres</title>
					<p>Até o momento não há consenso quanto aos mecanismos fisiopatológicos envolvidos na diferença de prevalência da ICFEp entre os sexos. Sabe-se que, a despeito da heterogeneidade na fisiopatologia, todos os pacientes apresentam sinais de ‘falha da bomba’, refletidos no aumento patológico patognomônico das pressões no átrio esquerdo ao esforço, o que representa um aumento na pressão capilar pulmonar em cunha (PCPC). Essa anormalidade está relacionada a edema pulmonar, dispneia, capacidade de exercício reduzida e pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					<p>É inegável que o paradigma inflamatório tenha papel central na fisiopatologia da ICFEp, em especial em mulheres, que apresentam inflamação e disfunção microvascular crônica mais significativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Doenças como diabetes, hipertensão e obesidade estão entre os principais desencadeantes de inflamação microvascular sistêmica. Entretanto, outras condições não cardíacas, como inatividade física, privação de estrogênio, doença renal crônica, deficiência de ferro, eclâmpsia, pré-eclâmpsia e doença pulmonar crônica, também estimulam a superexpressão de moléculas de adesão vascular, facilitando a migração de leucócitos através do endotélio, levando a estresse oxidativo, aumentando espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs), reduzindo a biodisponibilidade de óxido nítrico (NO) e os níveis de monofosfato cíclico de guanosina (GMPc) nos cardiomiócitos, além de alterar a fosforilação da titina. No final há hipertrofia de cardiomiócitos, levando a hipertrofia concêntrica e disfunção diastólica, culminando em ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Além disso, doenças autoimunes, mais prevalentes em mulheres, podem desempenhar um papel, com resposta imune exacerbada (lúpus, artrite reumatoide, tireoidite), podendo estar associadas a ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estrogênio pode mediar vias de sinalização que atenuam as EROs, levando a efeitos anti-inflamatórios. Assim, a perda da proteção do estrogênio pode contribuir para inflamação sistêmica. Ademais, em mulheres pós-menopáusicas, há ativação do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA) em resposta aos baixos níveis de estrogênio, o que aumenta o estresse oxidativo, resultando em redução adicional do NO e aumento da síntese de colágeno.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Mulheres com ICFEp têm distúrbios mais graves da hemodinâmica arterial do que homens e controles femininos, apresentando reduzida capacitância aórtica e sistema arterial menos complacente, o que resulta em maior pós-carga do VE e reforça a ideia de disfunção vascular como um dos mecanismos fisiopatológicos da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> É importante lembrar que a reserva de fluxo coronariano (RFC) e a resistência arterial coronariana também estão comprometidas, resultando em disfunção microvascular coronariana.</p>
					<p>Redfield et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> mostraram que tanto o avançar da idade quanto o sexo feminino associaram-se a aumento na rigidez e na carga arterial. Além disso, em estudos de base populacional, a rigidez arterial aumentou mais abruptamente com a idade em mulheres do que em homens. À medida que a aorta se enrijece, a carga de trabalho cardíaco e o estresse da parede cardíaca aumentam, eleva-se a contratilidade do VE e desenvolve-se o remodelamento concêntrico para manter o desempenho cardíaco, predispondo a ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Obesidade contribui de modo multifatorial: resistência insulínica e tecido adiposo podem exacerbar a ineficiência metabólica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> levando a inflamação sistêmica (aumentando a secreção de citocinas inflamatórias), disfunção endotelial e subsequente remodelamento de miócitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Schulz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> relataram comprometimento do enchimento dinâmico do átrio esquerdo com pior reserva funcional atrial esquerda apenas em mulheres com ICFEp. Com base nesses achados, a disfunção atrial esquerda parece ser um mediador crítico da elevação da PCPC durante o esforço na ICFEp, sugerindo que a perda da reserva funcional atrial esquerda possa ser um desencadeante preferencial da elevação da PCPC durante exercício em mulheres com ICFEp.</p>
					<p>Múltiplos mecanismos podem explicar a fisiopatologia da ICFEp, sendo detalhados na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– <italic>Mecanismos fisiopatológicos envolvidos na insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada em mulheres. PCR: proteína C reativa; EROs: espécies reativas de oxigênio; NO: óxido nítrico; SRAA: sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona.</italic></title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240012-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diferenças relacionadas ao sexo e fatores de risco na ICFEp em mulheres</title>
					<p>Na IC, em particular na ICFEp, há significativas diferenças relacionadas ao sexo, tais como epidemiológicas, fenotípicas e de desfecho. Em comparação aos homens, as mulheres são mais idosas, têm maior incidência de hipertensão e obesidade, além de relatar pior qualidade de vida, mas, tipicamente, têm menor risco de mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Nos homens, isquemia é a mais importante causa de IC, em especial de ICFEr, mas as mulheres apresentam maior risco atribuído aos fatores de risco tradicionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Hipertensão confere um risco mais significativo de IC em mulheres (aumento de três vezes no risco <italic>versus</italic> aumento de duas vezes em homens). Diabetes mellitus tem efeito mais significativo na IC em mulheres, nas quais confere aumento de cinco vezes no risco em comparação a aumento de duas vezes no risco em homens. Em mulheres, a obesidade confere maior risco de IC, não apenas por ser mais prevalente, mas sua associação com risco de IC é mais significativa nas mulheres, que têm maior propensão a ICFEp, sendo a obesidade um fator de risco mais potente. Tabagismo é relatado como menos prevalente em mulheres. Entretanto, a associação de risco independente do tabagismo com IC nas mulheres é quase o dobro daquela nos homens. Estilo de vida também influencia o risco de IC; nesse contexto, os padrões dietéticos podem ser de particular importância. Vale notar que abuso de álcool está relacionado ao risco de IC sem qualquer diferença documentada quanto ao sexo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Haykowsky et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> relataram que a quantidade de gordura intra-abdominal foi significativamente maior em pacientes com ICFEp em comparação a controles saudáveis, sendo o preditor mais forte de consumo máximo de oxigênio (marcador de aptidão aeróbica).</p>
					<p>Deve-se ter em mente a existência de fatores de risco para IC específicos do sexo, alguns dos quais são fatores de risco para ICFEp. Um exemplo é a radioterapia para câncer de mama, que pode ser associada a aumento do risco de IC devido à potencial exposição cardíaca à radiação, especialmente nos casos de câncer de mama esquerda, resultando em inflamação endotelial microvascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<p>As variedades de diferenças relacionadas ao sexo nos fatores de risco ainda precisam ser mais bem estudadas. Para tal, as mulheres precisam ser melhor representadas nos estudos para que os mecanismos envolvidos possam ser esclarecidos, desde a fisiopatologia até a resposta terapêutica, com foco nas falhas de conhecimento.</p>
					<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 3</xref> resume o impacto dos fatores de risco para ICFEp em mulheres.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04002">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– <italic>Diferenças ligadas ao sexo nos fatores de risco para insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEp) em mulheres. IC: insuficiência cardíaca; DM: diabetes mellitus; CMPP: cardiomiopatia periparto.</italic></title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240012-gf04-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diagnóstico de ICFEp em mulheres</title>
					<p>Algoritmos de probabilidade pré-teste de ICFEp têm sido usados para avaliar pacientes com suspeita diagnóstica, tendo o ecocardiograma papel essencial nessa investigação. No entanto, métodos não invasivos para diagnosticar ou excluir ICFEp dependem de muitos parâmetros, sempre em combinação com outros derivados da clínica e de exames laboratoriais, que juntos fornecerão a probabilidade diagnóstica.</p>
					<p>Limiares neutros em relação ao sexo são usados para definir a síndrome de IC. Entretanto, esses limiares podem resultar em subestimação da disfunção do VE em mulheres. Uma fração de ejeção em torno de 50%, em especial na presença de sintomas de IC, pode refletir uma redução relativamente mais significativa da função sistólica em mulheres em comparação aos homens com a mesma FEVE. É importante lembrar que a FEVE é um parâmetro de função sistólica, mas não o único. Nesse contexto e considerando a marca registrada da ICFEp, devemos melhorar o entendimento de que outras medidas de disfunção sistólica do VE são particularmente relevantes para as mulheres e podem ser encontradas na literatura específica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Mulheres com ICFEp mais frequentemente apresentam sinais ecocardiográficos, como remodelamento concêntrico, menores diâmetros do VE, maior propensão a fração de ejeção elevada e tendência a strain longitudinal global (SLG) preservado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> O remodelamento concêntrico em mulheres predispõe a alterações mais pronunciadas no relaxamento diastólico e na rigidez do VE em comparação ao dos homens com ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Uma coorte da Ásia com 55% de participantes do sexo feminino, PURSUIT-HFpEF, mostrou que as mulheres tinham parâmetros ecocardiográficos mais marcados de disfunção diastólica do que os homens (e’ septal &lt; 7 cm/s, e’ lateral &lt; 10 cm/s, E/e’ &gt; 14, volume atrial esquerdo &gt; 34 mL/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> e velocidade de regurgitação tricúspide &gt; 2,8 m/s) e que ‘sexo feminino’ sozinho foi um fator associado com disfunção diastólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Um dos testes de estresse mais específicos para o diagnóstico de ICFEp é o teste cardiopulmonar de esforço (TCPE), que avalia a aptidão cardiorrespiratória durante esforço, a capacidade aeróbica e as trocas gasosas através da medida do consumo máximo de oxigênio (VO2máx).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> A relação entre ventilação (VE) e produção de dióxido de carbono (VCO2) durante o exercício é representada pela inclinação VE/VCO2 e, quanto maior, pior a eficiência de troca gasosa durante o exercício, podendo ser um marcador precoce de disfunção cardiovascular e indicar pior prognóstico da IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup>Mulheres com ICFEp apresentam piores capacidade de esforço e eficiência de troca gasosa do que homens, o que pode ser demonstrado pelos parâmetros analisados no TCPE: VO2máx e VO2 mais baixos nos limiares ventilatório e anaeróbico, e maior inclinação VE/VCO2. Tais parâmetros do TCPE são essenciais para orientar a conduta na ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Estudos que avaliaram critérios hemodinâmicos de ICFEp com base em TCPE invasivo mostraram que, após análise multivariada, as mulheres apresentavam menores reservas sistólica e diastólica, sendo que a última se correlacionou com a disfunção diastólica encontrada na ecocardiografia. Além disso, mostraram mais altas pressões capilar e pulmonar no esforço máximo e menores complacências arteriais pulmonar e sistêmica durante exercício.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> No esforço, houve aumento mais significativo na elastância e menores reservas cronotrópica e contrátil do que nos homens, contribuindo para considerável intolerância ao esforço associada com substancial aumento na frequência cardíaca, exacerbada pela menor dimensão do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Enquanto mulheres saudáveis apresentam níveis de peptídeo natriurético levemente mais altos do que homens, aquelas com ICFEp apresentam níveis de peptídeo natriurético mais baixos ou similares aos dos homens. Os homens apresentam níveis mais altos de marcadores de dano cardíaco, tanto na população geral quanto entre pacientes com IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Além da ecocardiografia, a ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) tem sido cada vez mais usada para diagnosticar doença cardíaca, fornecendo informação sobre estrutura do coração, massa miocárdica, volume de câmara e fração de ejeção. Em mulheres com ICFEp, a RMC mostra menores volume e massa de VE, além de fração de ejeção igual a ou maior do que a de homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> A RMC de estresse é um método eficiente para avaliar disfunção da microcirculação através da análise da RFC, que se correlaciona com a função diastólica, além de avaliar a presença de doença arterial coronariana isquêmica, auxiliando na compreensão da fisiopatologia da ICFEp. Além disso, a RFC pode ser avaliada com o uso de outros métodos, como a cintilografia de perfusão miocárdica com PET, ainda apenas raramente disponibilizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em conclusão, os métodos de imagem são essenciais para o diagnóstico e a compreensão da fisiopatologia da ICFEp e suas peculiaridades em mulheres, auxiliando na melhor conduta e análise de seu prognóstico.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Particularidades do tratamento da ICFEp em mulheres</title>
					<p>O tratamento da ICFEr conta com um arsenal de medicamentos de comprovada eficácia para a redução de desfechos desfavoráveis e mortalidade, como inibidores da enzima de conversão da angiotensina (IECA), bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina II (BRA), betabloqueadores (BB) e, mais recentemente, os novos hipoglicemiantes, como inibidores do cotransportador de sódio-glicose-2 (SGLT2). Entretanto, o tratamento da ICFEp ainda é controverso e os medicamentos usados para tratar a ICFEr nem sempre mostram os mesmos resultados para a ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A efetividade dos medicamentos para tratar ICFEr foi comprovada em grandes ensaios randomizados controlados. No entanto, na maioria deles, as mulheres acham-se sub-representadas, correspondendo, em geral, a 20-25% da população estudada. Uma explicação para a exclusão das mulheres, especialmente aquelas em idade reprodutiva, podem ser os potenciais efeitos teratogênicos de alguns medicamentos e a predominância de ICFEp nas mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estudos mostraram que cerca de 72% dos estudos ainda não realizam uma análise diferenciada em relação ao sexo, o que pode constituir um viés de tratamento, pois as doses usadas em mulheres são as mesmas usadas em homens, sem ajuste, portanto, para peso corporal. Esses dados podem estar relacionados ao mais significativo efeito adverso das drogas (EAD) em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Com relação à farmacocinética e a farmacodinâmica dos medicamentos, as mulheres têm características específicas, estando a primeira relacionada a fatores intrínsecos, como predisposição genética, peso corporal, funções hepática e renal e doenças associadas, além dos fatores externos, como interação com outras drogas, tabagismo e consumo de álcool. Outros fatores, como características anatômicas, bioquímicas, fisiológicas e hormonais das mulheres, que influenciam a resposta às drogas, devem ser mencionados. As diferenças ligadas ao sexo na absorção das drogas estão relacionadas ao maior pH gástrico e mais longo trânsito gastrointestinal das mulheres, diferenças no metabolismo intestinal do citocromo P-450 e do transportador ativo glicoproteína p (GLp), cuja expressão hepática é 2,4 vezes menor em mulheres. Além disso, a associação com menor superfície corporal leva à maior exposição a medicamentos que são usados na mesma dosagem empregada para os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Há particularidades quanto à segurança e a eficácia da farmacoterapia, como o fato de os EAD serem 1,5 a 1,7 vez mais frequentes em mulheres, levando, portanto, a maior ocorrência de hospitalizações secundárias a esses efeitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A eliminação das drogas é também influenciada por fatores ligados ao sexo, como a expressão de enzimas metabólicas ligadas ao sexo, <italic>clearance</italic> renal reduzido em mulheres devido à menor taxa de filtração glomerular, menor índice de massa corporal, além de diferenças nos volumes sanguíneo e plasmático e na porcentagem de água corporal. Outras alterações hormonais fisiológicas, como maior porcentagem de gordura corporal em mulheres e alterações hormonais no ciclo menstrual e na gravidez, são relatadas, pois muitas dessas particularidades dependem do estrogênio e da progesterona. Todos esses fatores podem alterar a distribuição das drogas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No entanto, diferenças entre os sexos na farmacocinética e na farmacodinâmica dos medicamentos, em geral, não são consideradas nas diretrizes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Estudos mostraram que, quando os parâmetros são corrigidos para peso corporal, há uma redução de 15% na diferença estatística na farmacocinética de uma droga. Ao mesmo tempo, a não correção leva a uma diferença maior do que 20%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os BB têm efeitos mais significativos nas mulheres, com maior redução na frequência cardíaca e na pressão arterial, em comparação aos homens para as mesmas doses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> O estudo europeu de coorte, multicêntrico, prospectivo, <italic>BIOlogy Study to Tailored Treatment in Chronic Heart Failure</italic>, e o estudo asiático de coorte, multicêntrico, prospectivo, <italic>Asian Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure Registry</italic>, avaliaram a dose ideal para tratar ICFEp em homens e mulheres e concluíram que mulheres que usaram BB associados a IECA ou BRA, na metade da dose recomendada nas diretrizes, apresentaram menor risco de hospitalização e morte, sem redução adicional de risco quando os medicamentos foram usados na dose total. Tais dados devem ser cuidadosamente avaliados, pois podem fornecer informações valiosas quanto às doses específicas para o tratamento da ICFEp em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A fisiopatologia da ICFEp acha-se diretamente relacionada a obesidade, aumento da resistência insulínica e síndrome metabólica. Portanto, a redução de peso corporal e o encorajamento de prática de atividade física são essenciais para prevenir ICFEp, em especial em mulheres (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figuras 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">3</xref>). Quanto ao tratamento farmacológico, a evidência não é tão robusta e, até recentemente, não era recomendado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Estudos randomizados mostraram efeito neutro das principais drogas usadas para IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Subanálises de dois desses estudos, um envolvendo espironolactona, TOPCAT, e outro envolvendo inibidor do receptor de angiotensina-neprilisina (ARNI), PARAGON-HF, sugeriram diferentes respostas à terapia conforme o sexo. Além disso, os inibidores do SGLT2 mostraram-se benéficos na ICFEp com resultados similares em homens e mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Portanto, a evidência atual indica benefício do uso de inibidores do SGLT2 para ambos os sexos e potencial benefício de espironolactona e sacubitril-valsartana para mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup>No estudo PARAGON-HF, uma subanálise das diferenças ligadas ao sexo no tratamento da ICFEp com sacubitril-valsartana em comparação à valsartana sozinha mostrou que mulheres tinham uma redução mais significativa de hospitalizações e mortalidade com sacubitril-valsartana, enquanto homens não.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Tal achado reforça a necessidade de estudos adicionais para esclarecer a interação entre características sexuais e resposta terapêutica às drogas no tratamento da ICFEp, objetivando melhores resultados com menores doses. Estudos prospectivos para avaliar diferenças entre os sexos são necessários. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4</xref> mostra as principais diferenças da IC entre os sexos.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f05002">
							<label>Figura 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– <italic>Principais diferenças entre os sexos na insuficiência cardíaca. IC: insuficiência cardíaca; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; TRC: terapia de ressincronização cardíaca.</italic></title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-004-01-e20240012-gf05-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Mulheres têm cardiopatia isquêmica não obstrutiva como etiologia de ICFEp e, como resposta ao remodelamento, menos fibrose e menor taxa de arritmias ventriculares, resultando em menos mortes súbitas cardíacas. Entretanto, mesmo após ajuste para idade e comorbidades, o sexo feminino apresentou menor probabilidade de receber um dispositivo cardíaco implantável em comparação ao sexo masculino. Vale notar que mulheres apresentam maiores taxas de complicações relacionadas à implantação do dispositivo, como pneumotórax, infecção, sangramento e tamponamento. No entanto, devido ao perfil menos fibrótico e até as características estruturais e anatômicas, estudos sugeriram que as mulheres respondam mais favoravelmente à terapia de ressincronização cardíaca, que melhora sintomas, qualidade de vida, FEVE e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Com o envelhecimento populacional, maior incidência de ICFEp em mulheres e as poucas opções terapêuticas com comprovada eficácia até o momento, comorbidades com risco mais significativo, como obesidade, diabetes e hipertensão, devem ser adequadamente tratadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estudos adicionais são necessários para esclarecer as características ligadas ao sexo feminino que impactam o tratamento da ICFEp. Além disso, registros multicêntricos prospectivos poderiam fornecer evidência mais precisa na população feminina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Prognóstico das mulheres com ICFEp</title>
					<p>Além de maiores mortalidade e hospitalizações, pacientes com ICFEp têm qualidade de vida significativamente reduzida, à semelhança do que ocorre na ICFEr.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A ICFEp acha-se associada a múltiplas comorbidades, com até 50% dos pacientes apresentando cinco ou mais comorbidades significativas. Fibrilação atrial e doença renal crônica são fatores que pioram o prognóstico das mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Cerca de 60% das mortes na ICFEp são devidas às condições cardiovasculares, como morte súbita, insuficiência ventricular direita e acidente vascular cerebral, tendo as mulheres menor risco de morte súbita. Um estudo mostrou a presença de hipertensão pulmonar em 73% dos pacientes, a maioria mulheres, levando a disfunção ventricular direita em 20-50%, o que piora o prognóstico e aumenta a mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup>Além disso, classe funcional da NYHA alta associou-se a menor sobrevida, hospitalização prévia, além de níveis mais altos de peptídeos natriuréticos e de troponina de alta sensibilidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Diagnóstico, tratamento e medidas profiláticas precoces, como controle de fatores de risco na ICFEp, são essenciais para fornecer um melhor prognóstico para essa patologia grave e prevalente. Além de diminuir mortalidade, é necessário reconhecer que a redução de hospitalização e a melhora de sintomas e capacidade funcional são objetivos críticos centrados no paciente para tratar ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A melhor maneira de prevenir a progressão para ICFEp avançada é a instituição de estratégias de prevenção cardiovascular e tratamento adequados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Perspectivas para mulheres com ICFEp</title>
					<p>O conhecimento sobre ICFEp em mulheres vem evoluindo recentemente. Compreender sua fisiopatologia auxiliou no entendimento do comportamento da doença. Entretanto, pouco ainda se sabe e estudos adicionais são necessários, inclusive sobre a contribuição dos hormônios sexuais, assim como de sua deficiência, para a identificação de novos tratamentos preventivos e modificadores para ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Seria interessante revisar e criar pontos de corte diagnósticos na fração de ejeção específicos para os sexos, assim como identificar novos biomarcadores circulantes relacionados a remodelamento dos tecidos, inflamação e regulação neuro-hormonal para refinar a predição de risco em mulheres com ICFEp, além de melhor entendimento das cascatas inflamatórias específicas dos sexos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Há evidência de que redes de micro RNA relacionadas ao sexo feminino possam mediar a relação entre ativação inflamatória induzida por comorbidade e patogênese da ICFEp em mulheres. Pesquisa futura sobre mecanismos induzidos por micro RNA pode vir a esclarecer as vias exclusivas que contribuem para o desenvolvimento de ICFEp em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Abordagens inovadoras para o tratamento da IC, usando inteligência artificial para um diagnóstico adequado e conduta otimizada ainda não consideram as diferenças entre os sexos. Tal cuidado precisa ser considerado para evitar comportamentos errôneos e tratamento fútil. Deve-se adotar uma estratégia para reduzir a crescente incidência e prevalência de ICFEp em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Algoritmo proposto para o melhor diagnóstico e cuidado de mulheres com ICFEp</title>
					<p>Os algoritmos mais utilizados para diagnosticar ICFEp são H2FPEF (proposto por Reddy <italic>et al.</italic>) e HFA-PEFF (proposto pela Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia), que incluem parâmetros clínicos, ecocardiográficos e laboratoriais. Em 2023, a Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia sugeriu uma abordagem simplificada para a ICFEp usando três critérios básicos: 1. presença de sintomas e/ou sinais de IC; 2. FEVE ≥ 50%; 3. evidência objetiva de anormalidades estruturais e/ou funcionais cardíacas consistentes com a presença de disfunção diastólica de VE/pressões de enchimento de VE elevadas, incluindo peptídeos natriuréticos elevados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura Central</xref>, propomos um algoritmo para facilitar o manejo da ICFEp, resumindo os dados da literatura atualmente disponíveis.</p>
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