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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20230056</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230056</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Original Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Post-COVID-19 Syndrome and the Autonomic Repercussions on Cardiovascular Variables</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6435-6506</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Davanço</surname><given-names>Giulia Yuni</given-names></name><role>Acquisition of data</role><role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role><role>Obtaining financing</role><role>Writing of the manuscript</role><role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-6288-4209</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Torres</surname><given-names>Matheus Figueiredo</given-names></name><role>Acquisition of data</role><role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role><role>Obtaining financing</role><role>Writing of the manuscript</role><role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3478-8644</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Murad</surname><given-names>Neif</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role><role>Acquisition of data</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6097-2341</contrib-id>
<name><surname>da Veiga</surname><given-names>Glaucia Luciano</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role><role>Acquisition of data</role><role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role><role>Statistical analysis</role><role>Writing of the manuscript</role><role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1248-815X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Reis</surname><given-names>Pedro Henrique Alves</given-names></name><role>Acquisition of data</role><role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0412-752X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Barbosa</surname><given-names>Juliana de Vasconcellos</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9930-7747</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Alves</surname><given-names>Beatriz da Costa Aguiar</given-names></name><role>Writing of the manuscript</role><role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Gascón</surname><given-names>Thaís Moura</given-names></name><role>Writing of the manuscript</role><role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3043-0728</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Raimundo</surname><given-names>Rodrigo Daminello</given-names></name><role>Acquisition of data</role><role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role><role>Writing of the manuscript</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1223-1589</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fonseca</surname><given-names>Fernando Luiz Affonso</given-names></name><role>Conception and design of the research</role><role>Acquisition of data</role><role>Obtaining financing</role><role>Writing of the manuscript</role><role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universitário FMABC</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Santo André</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Centro Universitário FMABC, Santo André, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de São Paulo</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Diadema</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas da Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Diadema, SP – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Glaucia Luciano da Veiga •</bold> Faculdade de Medicina do ABC – Av. Lauro Gomes, 2000. Postal Code <postal-code>09060-650</postal-code>, Santo André, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>grlveiga@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>31</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<volume>3</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<elocation-id>e20230056</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>23</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>22</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>23</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<sec>
<title>Background:</title>
<p>The SARS-CoV-2 virus is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Several adverse effects on the cardiovascular system were observed in patients hospitalized for COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 infection added another possible arrhythmia-causing agent due to increased cytokines. It is believed that patients who have had COVID-19 are more prone to develop cardiovascular disease after infection. Heart rate variability (HRV) is an important marker of heart health, with lower values indicating a decrease in vagal heart rate control.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Objectives:</title>
<p>To analyze the autonomic modulation of the heart rate of patients with Post-COVID-19 Syndrome.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Methods:</title>
<p>Our study assessed 50 patients, of both sexes, with at least six months of recovery from COVID-19 and who were attended to in a cardiology outpatient clinic. The recording of RR intervals was performed with a portable heart rate monitor.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Results:</title>
<p>The values of the Root Mean Square of the Successive Differences (RMSSD) (36.3±35.7 ms, p=0.0363) and high frequency (HF) (446.3±632.2 ms<sup>2</sup>, p=0.0394) were higher in the post-COVID group when compared to the control group. In addition, TINN values (228.0±120.9 ms, p=0.009), LF/HF (3.8±3.8 a.u., p=0.1020), SD2 (40.1±19.3 a.u., p=0.005), and SD1/SD2 (2.2±1.0 a.u., p&lt;0.0001) were lower in the post-COVID group.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Conclusion:</title>
<p>The present study showed an increase in parameters related to parasympathetic autonomic activity and its modulation. In addition, lower heart rate variability was observed in patients during a post-recovery period of COVID-19 when compared to a group that had not contracted the disease.</p>
</sec>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>Coronavirus</kwd>
<kwd>Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiovascular System</kwd>
<kwd>Autonomic Nervous System</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<award-group>
<funding-source>FAPESP</funding-source>
<award-id>2021/15162-2.</award-id>
</award-group>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="8"/>
<table-count count="4"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="20"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f1">
<caption><title>Created on BioRender.com</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-03-e20230056-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>COVID-19, caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Virus (Sars-CoV-2), is a respiratory disease that received its current name in February 2020, but it was first reported in Wuhan,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> capital of the Chinese province of Hubei, on December 31, 2019. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) has been established as the functional host cell receptor for Sars-CoV-2, enabling its viral infection. ACE2 is a membrane protein which plays a pivotal role in blood pressure regulation and vasculature through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> which is expressed more specifically in type II pneumocytes, but it is also expressed in the heart, intestine, kidneys, oral mucosal cells, and tongue. Studies show that the main cardiovascular complications of the disease are: hypertension, myocardial injury and heart failure, myocarditis, and myocardial arrhythmia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>The most probable causes of arrhythmia, based on data obtained from SARS-CoV cases in 2002, include: a) hypoxia generated by lung injury caused by infection, leading to an electrical instability (atrial fibrillation); b) SARS-CoV-2 direct injury in myocardial tissue and/or in the cardiac electrical conduction system; c) aggravated SARS-CoV2 due to pre-existing cardiac and/or conduction disturbances; d) anxiety, leading to increased endogenous catecholamine release. In SARS-CoV-2 infection, another possible arrhythmia-causing event was added: a cytokine storm triggered by an imbalanced response of type 1 and type 2 T-CD4 cells, an intense interferon-mediated event that damages the myocardial wall.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>The cardiovascular damage has not yet been well described in the literature, a limitation due to the reduced time for conclusive results regarding long-term sequelae; however, some assumptions are possible, in accordance with pathophysiological analyses of similar diseases. Among the sequelae not yet known, many may be subclinical, such as type 2 myocardial infarction caused by the difference between supply and demand. Analyzing patients with fibrosis and/or myocarditis due to inflammatory processes caused by viral infections similar to SARS-CoV-2, an increase in the prevalence of cardiac arrest,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> ventricular and/or atrial arrhythmias, and fibrillations and heart failure<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> were observed in these patients. Studies also indicate a possible reduction in ventricular ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> We hypothesized that there is an imbalance of cardiac autonomic modulation in patients with post-COVID-19 Syndrome when compared with uninfected individuals. Therefore, the present study aimed to analyze the autonomic modulation of heart rate among patients with post-COVID-19 Syndrome and compare it with a population that did not contract the infection.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="methods">
<title>Methods</title>
<p>This was a cross-sectional study, following the STROBE guidelines, conducted from February 2021 to October 2021 with patients from the Hospital Estadual Mário Covas [<italic>Mário Covas State Hospital</italic>] and the Specialties Outpatient Clinic of the Centro Universitário da Faculdade de Medicina do ABC [<italic>University Center of ABC&apos;s Medical School</italic>] (Brazil). All participants signed the Informed Consent Form (ICF) to confirm that they agreed to enroll in the study. This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Centro Universitário FMABC (# 4,875,433) in accordance with resolution 466/12.</p>
<sec>
<title>Participants</title>
<p>Our study included individuals of both sexes, aged over 18 years and under 80 years, who consented to participate in the research after signing the ICF. The present study was conducted in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations/ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.</p>
<p>One hundred patients were included in this analysis. The patients were divided into two groups: the inclusion criteria for the COVID-19 group (SG— 50 patients) were: having tested positive for COVID-19, having recovered from the disease for more than 6 months, and not having been vaccinated during the period of infection. The inclusion criteria for the control group (CG— 50 patients, all healthy individuals) was: being over 18 years and under 80 years and not presenting any cardiovascular or metabolic dysfunction. All patients were assessed by a pediatric cardiologist. Patients with neurological diseases, smokers, and alcoholics were not included in the control group. The control group consisted of individuals who had no known comorbidities, were non-smokers, abstained from alcohol consumption, engaged in regular physical activity, and had no previous documented cases of cardiovascular diseases. These individuals were recruited from a fitness center that they regularly attended, and none of them had a history of COVID-19 infection before the data collection period.</p>
<p>Participants with autoimmune diseases, HIV, hepatitis B and C, and cancer patients were excluded from the study.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Assessment of Heart Rate Variability</title>
<p>The recording of RR intervals was performed with a portable heart rate monitor RS800CX (Polar Electro, Finland), a validated equipment for portable use, along with a sampling rate of 1kHz. The data were analyzed by the Polar Precision Performance SW software itself, and only series with heart rates of more than 95% were included. The collected data is transferred to the Kubios plotting software and interpreted. Data collection was performed in a room with a temperature between 21°C and 25°C and humidity between 50% and 60%. Volunteers were instructed not to drink alcoholic beverages and caffeine in the 24 hours prior to the assessment. The collection was performed individually, from 6am to 9am in order to standardize the interference of the circadian rhythm. For the collection of HRV data, the volunteers remained seated, at rest, for 10 minutes.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Variables</title>
<p>HRV was captured beat-by-beat during the period of highest signal stability. In the time domain (TD), the statistical indices Root Mean Square of the Successive Differences (RMSSD), Percent of successive RR intervals differing by more than 50 milliseconds (pNN50), as well as the Standard Deviation of NN intervals (SDNN) to predict morbidity and mortality in patients undergoing surgical myocardial revascularization,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> were used for analysis of heart rate variability. The RMSSD index is defined as the root mean of the square of the differences between adjacent normal RR intervals in a time interval predominantly reflecting the vagal tone. The pNN50 index indicates the activity of the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system, defined as the percentage of successive differences of the RR interval, whose absolute value exceeds 50ms. The SDNN, which reflects the participation of both branches of the ANS, represents the standard deviation of the mean of all normal RR intervals, expressed in milliseconds.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>The triangular index (RRtri) was calculated from the construction of a density histogram of the normal RR intervals, which shows, on the horizontal axis (x axis), the length of the RR intervals and, on the vertical axis (y axis), the frequency with which each of them occurred. The junction of the points of the histogram columns forms a triangle-shaped figure, while the width of the base of the triangle expresses the variability of RR intervals. The TINN consists of the baseline width of the distribution measured as the base of a triangle, approximating the distribution of all RR intervals, and the minimum square difference was used to determine the triangle.</p>
<p>The Poincaré plot allows each RR interval to be represented as a function of the previous interval. For quantitative analysis of the graph, the following indices were calculated: SD1 standard deviation of instantaneous beat-to-beat variability), SD2 (long-term standard deviation of continuous RR intervals), and the SD1/SD2 ratio. For HRV analysis in the frequency domain –low frequency (LF) and high frequency (HF) spectral components in milliseconds squared (ms2) – were used, and the ratio between these components (LF/HF), which represents the relative value of each spectral component in relation to the total power, minus the extremely low frequency (VLF) components. For this analysis, the frequency ranges used were: LF between 0.04 to 0.15 Hz and HF ranging from 0.15 to 0.4 Hz. Spectral analysis was calculated using the fast Fourier transform algorithm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Sample size</title>
<p>The sample size was selected based on a pilot test, in which the online software provided by the website www.lee.dante.br was used. Based on an alpha risk of 5% and beta risk of 80%, the defined sample size was of at least 40 individuals per group.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Statistical analysis</title>
<p>The Excel software was used to prepare the database and the GraphPad Prism<sup>®</sup>, version 9.4.0 software was used for statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics were made by measures of central tendency and dispersion. The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to test the normality of the data. The the Mann-Whitney test was used to compare the groups. Differences in these tests were considered statistically significant when the &quot;p&quot; value was less than 0.05</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="results">
<title>Results</title>
<p>This study assessed 45 CTL participants, 27 men (60%), with a mean age of 44±11 years, and 18 women (40%), with a mean age of 47±11 years. From the post-COVID-19 group, 50 participants were evaluated, 33 women (66%), with a mean age of 45±14 years, and 17 men (34%), with a mean age of 47±11 years (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). The data on the characterization of the groups and on the hospitalization of participants infected with SARS-CoV-2 are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">2</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Description of the characterization of the studied groups (CTL and post-COVID-19)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="center" valign="middle">CTL (n=45)</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">post-COVID-19 (n=50)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Age (mean±SD); years</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">44±11</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">47±11</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Men (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">27 (60)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">17 (34)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Women (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">18 (40)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">33 (66)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<td align="left" valign="top" colspan="3"><bold>Self-identified race/ethnicity</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">White (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">27 (60)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">34 (68)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Brown (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">18 (40)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">12 (24)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Black (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">4 (8)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<td align="left" valign="top" colspan="3"><bold>Pre-existing comorbidities</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"/>
<td align="center" valign="top">Without known comorbidities</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Without known comorbidities</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><p>Data expressed in absolute values (n) and relative (%).</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption><title>Descriptive data on hospitalization information for participants infected with SARS-CoV-2</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
<td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2"><bold>COVID-19 hospitalization data</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Without hospitalization (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">31 (62)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Hospitalized (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">19 (38)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Field hospital (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1 (3,3)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Private hospital (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">2 (8.3)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Municipal hospital (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">5 (25)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Field hospital and Municipal hospital (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1 (3.3)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<td align="left" valign="top" colspan="2"><bold>Severity of infection</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Mild</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">30 (60)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Moderate</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">9 (18)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Severe</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">11 (22)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2"><p>Data expressed in absolute values (n) and relative (%).</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>From the data obtained by the HR variability analysis method, it was found that the mean RR of the participants in the post-COVID-19 group showed a decrease when compared to the CTL participants (CTL: 840.2±118.8 ms vs post-COVID-19: 743.0 ±124.7* ms, p=0.001). The mean HR showed that there was an increase in this parameter among post-COVID-19 participants in relation to CTLs (73.2±10.8 bpm vs 82.9±13.8* bpm, p=0.0002). Similarly, there was an increase in RMSSD in post-COVID-19 (36.3±35.7* ms, p=0.0363) when compared to CTLs (24.6±20.4 ms). An increase in TINN was identified in the participants who had the infection, as compared to the uninfected (CTL: 156.6± 74.9 ms vs Post-Covid-19: 228.0±120.9* ms). There was no statistical difference between the groups for the variables pNN50 (CTL: 6.2±9.0% vs Post-Covid-19: 10.4±14.9%) and RR triangular index (CTL: 8.7±4.3 sec vs post-COVID-19: 8.2±3.8 sec) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Comparison of heart rate variability parameters in the time domain between the control group and the post-COVID-19 group. (A) Mean of RR interval (Mean RR), (B) Mean of heart rate (Mean HR), (C) root mean square of successive differences between normal cycles (RMSSD), (D) percentage of successive cycles with duration difference with more than 50ms (pNN50), (E) triangular interpolation of RR intervals (TINN), and (F) triangular index (RR triangular index). Mann-Whitney test, *p&lt;0.05 vs CTL).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-03-e20230056-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Among the data obtained regarding high and low frequency (HF and LF), the following values were obtained: LF (CTL: 404.4±594.1 ms<sup>2</sup> vs Post-Covid-19 664.6± 741.0 ms<sup>2</sup>*, *p=0.0005); HF (CTL: 253.2± 429.9 ms<sup>2</sup> vs Post-Covid-19 447.3±632.2 ms<sup>2</sup>*, *p=0.0394) and LF/HF ratio (CTL: 2.6± 2.2 a.u. vs post-COVID-19 3.8±3.8 a.u., p= 0.1020) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>Comparison of Low Frequency (LF), High Frequency (HF) and LF/HF Ratio values between CTLs and post-COVID-19 participants. Mann-Whitney test, *p&lt;0.05 vs CTL).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-03-e20230056-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>From the data obtained from the evaluation of standard deviations (SD1, SD2, and SD1/SD2 ratio) between the studied groups, the following data were found: SD1 (CTL: 18.2±14.1 a.u. vs post-COVID-19: 25.7±25.3 a.u. p=0.782), SD2 (CTL: 61.6±35.0 a.u. vs post-COVID-19: 40.1±19.3* a.u., *p=0.0005) and SD1/SD2 ratio (CTL: 4.9±4.2 a.u. vs post-COVID-19: 2.2±1.0 a.u., p&lt;0.0001) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><title>Comparison of SD1, SD2, and SD1/SD2 Ratio values between CTLs and post-COVID-19 participants. Mann-Whitney test, *p&lt;0.05 vs CTL).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-03-e20230056-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion">
<title>Discussion</title>
<p>This study analyzed the autonomic modulation of the heart rate of patients with post-COVID-19 Syndrome. The RMSSD and HF values were higher in the post-COVID group when compared to the control group, showing a higher parasympathetic autonomic modulation activity in post-COVID patients. In addition, TINN, LF/HF, SD2, and SD1/SD2 values were lower in the post-COVID group, showing a lower heart rate variability in these patients. A study conducted by Mol et al. showed that the greater the heart rate variability (HRV), the greater the chances of survival; this protective role was observed only in elderly patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Bourdillon et al. (2020) showed improvement in parasympathetic activity (RMSSD, HF) during the lockdown period, the authors associated this improvement with subjective well-being responses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> However, the data collected in this study aim to analyze possible changes in heart variability that may be related to the disease in a post-recovery moment, and not to the lockdown period and its implications.</p>
<p>Solinski et al. (2022) assessed young male patients during a recovery period, from 4 to 6 weeks after having been cured from the disease, and also found an increase in parasympathetic activity, associating it with a risk of asystole. Their study also describes an increase in the mean respiratory rhythm, hypothesizing the cause as being the increase in pulmonary peripheral vascular resistance, which leads to an impairment in the coupling between respiratory and cardiac frequencies, important in metabolic homeostasis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<p>Dani et al. (2020) reviewed the possible relationships between dysfunctions of the autonomic nervous system and COVID-19. It seems that the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines results in sympathetic activation. By contrast, vagal stimulation was also observed, resulting in anti-inflammatory responses. This is in accordance with our results, as shown by the values of RMSSD, HF, and SD2, but it is still speculated that there is an autoimmune component in infected individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Shouman et al. (2021) showed abnormalities in the autonomic tests, such as orthostatic intolerance, but without hemodynamic alterations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nonspecific systemic conditions, physical deconditioning, hypoxia, and heart disease may be causes of autonomic dysfunctions in post-COVID patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>The main limitation of this study was the small number of patients analyzed. This limitation is due to the difficulty in recruiting patients during the period of restrictions imposed by the pandemic.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusions</title>
<p>In conclusion this study shows that there was an increase in parameters related to the control of the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system and its modulation for the cardiovascular system. In addition, lower heart rate variability was also observed in patients during post-recovery from the COVID-19 period when compared to a group that had not contracted the disease.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><p><bold>Sources of funding</bold></p>
<p>This study was partially funded by FAPESP, process number: 2021/15162-2.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><p><bold>Study association</bold></p>
<p>This article is part of the scientific research submitted by Giulia Yuni Davanço e Matheus Torres, from Centro Universitário Faculdade de Medicina do ABC.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Centro Universitário Faculdade de Medicina do ABC under the protocol number 4.875.433. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ack>
<title>Acknowledgements</title>
<p>The authors would like to thank the financial support from the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo - FAPESP (protocol number 2021/15162-2), received on behalf of Giulia Yuni Davanço.</p>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo Original</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Síndrome Pós-COVID-19 e as Repercussões Autonômicas nas Variáveis Cardiovasculares</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6435-6506</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Davanço</surname><given-names>Giulia Yuni</given-names></name><role>Obtenção de dados</role><role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role><role>Obtenção de financiamento</role><role>Redação do manuscrito</role><role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-6288-4209</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Torres</surname><given-names>Matheus Figueiredo</given-names></name><role>Obtenção de dados</role><role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role><role>Obtenção de financiamento</role><role>Redação do manuscrito</role><role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3478-8644</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Murad</surname><given-names>Neif</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role><role>Obtenção de dados</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6097-2341</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Veiga</surname><given-names>Glaucia Luciano da</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role><role>Obtenção de dados</role><role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role><role>Análise estatística</role><role>Redação do manuscrito</role><role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1248-815X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Reis</surname><given-names>Pedro Henrique Alves</given-names></name><role>Obtenção de dados</role><role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0412-752X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Barbosa</surname><given-names>Juliana de Vasconcellos</given-names></name><role>Obtenção de dados</role><role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9930-7747</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Alves</surname><given-names>Beatriz da Costa Aguiar</given-names></name><role>Redação do manuscrito</role><role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Gascón</surname><given-names>Thaís Moura</given-names></name><role>Redação do manuscrito</role><role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3043-0728</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Raimundo</surname><given-names>Rodrigo Daminello</given-names></name><role>Obtenção de dados</role><role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role><role>Redação do manuscrito</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1223-1589</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fonseca</surname><given-names>Fernando Luiz Affonso</given-names></name><role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role><role>Obtenção de dados</role><role>Obtenção de financiamento</role><role>Redação do manuscrito</role><role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Santo André</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Centro Universitário FMABC, Santo André, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Diadema</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas da Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Diadema, SP – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Glaucia Luciano da Veiga •</bold> Faculdade de Medicina do ABC – Av. Lauro Gomes, 2000. CEP  <postal-code>09060-650</postal-code>, Santo André, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>grlveiga@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<sec>
<title>Fundamento:</title>
<p>O vírus SARS-CoV-2 é responsável pela pandemia de COVID-19. Foram observados vários efeitos adversos no sistema cardiovascular em pacientes hospitalizados por COVID-19. A infecção pelo SARS-CoV-2 adicionou outro possível agente causador de arritmia devido ao aumento de citocinas. Acredita-se que pacientes que tiveram COVID-19 são mais propensos a desenvolver doenças cardiovasculares após a infecção. A variabilidade da frequência cardíaca (VFC) é um marcador importante da saúde do coração, com os valores mais baixos indicando redução do controle de frequência cardíaca vagal.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Objetivos:</title>
<p>Analisar a modulação autonômica da frequência cardíaca de pacientes com síndrome pós-COVID-19.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Métodos:</title>
<p>Foram avaliados 50 pacientes de ambos os sexos com pelo menos 6 meses de recuperação da COVID-19 atendidos em um ambulatório de cardiologia. O registro de intervalos RR foi realizado com um cardiofrequencímetro portátil.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Resultados:</title>
<p>Os valores de RMSSD (Root Mean Square of the Successive Differences) (36,3±35,7 ms, p=0,0363) e HF (alta frequência) (446,3±632,2 ms<sup>2</sup>, p=0,0394) foram mais altos no grupo pós-Covid em comparação com o grupo de controle. Além disso, os valores de TINN (228,0±120,9 ms, p=0,009), LF/HF (3,8±3,8 a.u., p=0,1020), DP2 (40,1±19,3 a.u., p=0,005) e DP1/DP2 (2,2±1,0 a.u., p&lt;0,0001) foram mais baixos no grupo pós-Covid.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Conclusão:</title>
<p>O estudo mostrou aumento de parâmetros relacionados à atividade autonômica parassimpática e sua modulação. Além disso, foi observada menor variabilidade da frequência cardíaca em pacientes em período pós-recuperação da COVID-19 quando comparados a um grupo que não contraiu a doença.</p>
</sec>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
<kwd>Coronavirus</kwd>
<kwd>Síndrome Pós-COVID-19 Aguda</kwd>
<kwd>Sistema cardiovascular</kwd>
<kwd>Sistema nervoso autônomo</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f5">
<caption><title>Criado no BioRender.com</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-03-e20230056-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A COVID-19, causada pelo vírus da Síndrome Respiratória Aguda Grave (Sars-CoV-2), é uma doença respiratória que ganhou seu nome atual em fevereiro de 2020, mas foi relatada pela primeira vez em Wuhan,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> capital da província chinesa de Hubei em 31 de dezembro de 2019. Estabeleceu-se que a enzima conversora da angiotensina 2 (ECA2) é o receptor funcional da célula hospedeira do Sars-CoV-2, possibilitando sua infecção viral. A ECA2 é uma proteína de membrana que desempenha um papel fundamental na regulação da pressão arterial e na vasculatura pelo sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> sendo expressa mais especificamente em pneumócitos tipo II, mas também expresse no coração, intestino, rins, células da mucosa oral e língua. Estudos mostram que as principais complicações cardiovasculares da doença são: hipertensão, injúria miocárdica e insuficiência cardíaca, miocardite e arritmia miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>Dentre as possíveis causas de arritmia levantadas, com base em dados obtidos com casos de SARS-CoV em 2002, as mais prováveis são: a) hipóxia gerada por lesão pulmonar causada por infecção, levando a uma instabilidade elétrica (fibrilação atrial); b) injúria direta do SARS-CoV-2 no tecido miocárdico e/ou no sistema de condução elétrica cardíaca; c) distúrbios cardíacos e/ou de condução pré-existentes que agravam o SARS-CoV2; d) ansiedade, levando ao aumento da liberação endógena de catecolaminas. Na infecção por SARS-CoV-2, foi adicionado outro possível evento causador de arritmia: uma tempestade de citocinas desencadeada por uma resposta desequilibrada das células T-CD4 tipo 1 e tipo 2, um evento intenso mediado por interferon que danifica a parede miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os danos cardiovasculares ainda não estão bem descritos na literatura, uma limitação devida ao tempo reduzido para resultados conclusivos quanto às sequelas em longo prazo; entretanto, algumas suposições são possíveis de acordo com análises fisiopatológicas de doenças semelhantes. Entre as sequelas ainda desconhecidas, muitas podem ser subclínicas, tais como o infarto do miocárdio tipo 2 causado pela diferença entre oferta e demanda. Analisando pacientes com fibrose e/ou miocardite por processos inflamatórios causados por infecções virais semelhantes ao SARS-CoV-2, observa-se aumento na prevalência de parada cardíaca,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> arritmias e fibrilações ventriculares e/ou atriais e insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Estudos também indicam possível redução da fração de ejeção ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Nossa hipótese é de que existe um desequilíbrio da modulação autonômica cardíaca em pacientes com Síndrome pós-COVID-19, quando comparados com indivíduos não infectados, e, portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi analisar a modulação autonômica da frequência cardíaca de pacientes com Síndrome pós-COVID-19 e compará-la à de uma população que não contraiu a infecção.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="methods">
<title>Métodos</title>
<p>Trata-se de um estudo transversal, seguindo as diretrizes do STROBE, realizado no período de fevereiro de 2021 a outubro de 2021 com pacientes do Hospital Estadual Mário Covas e do Ambulatório de Especialidades do Centro Universitário da Faculdade de Medicina do ABC (Brasil). Todos os participantes assinaram o Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido (TCLE) para confirmar que concordam em participar do estudo. Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa do Centro Universitário FMABC (número 4.875.433) conforme resolução 466/12.</p>
<sec>
<title>Participantes</title>
<p>Foram incluídos indivíduos de ambos os sexos, com idade superior a 18 anos e inferior a 80 anos, que consentiram em participar da pesquisa após assinatura do TCLE. O presente estudo foi conduzido de acordo com as diretrizes e regulamentos/princípios éticos relevantes da Declaração de Helsinque.</p>
<p>Foram incluídos cem pacientes nesta análise. Os pacientes foram divididos em dois grupos: os critérios de inclusão no grupo COVID-19 (GS – 50 pacientes) foram ter tido teste positivo para COVID-19, estar recuperado há mais de 6 meses e não estar vacinado até o momento da infecção. O grupo de controle (GC – 50 pacientes indivíduos saudáveis) teve como critério de inclusão ser maior de 18 anos e menor de 80 anos e não apresentar qualquer disfunção cardiovascular ou metabólica. Todos os pacientes foram avaliados por um cardiologista pediátrico. Pacientes com doenças neurológicas, fumantes e alcoólatras não foram incluídos no grupo de controle. O grupo de controle foi formado por indivíduos que não apresentavam comorbidades conhecidas, não eram fumantes, não consumiam bebidas alcoólicas e praticavam atividade física regular. Eles não tinham casos anteriores documentados de doenças cardiovasculares. Esses indivíduos foram recrutados em uma academia que frequentavam regularmente e nenhum deles apresentava histórico de infecção por COVID-19 antes do período de coleta de dados.</p>
<p>Foram excluídos do estudo participantes com doenças autoimunes, HIV, hepatites B e C e pacientes com câncer.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avaliação da variabilidade da frequência cardíaca</title>
<p>O registro de intervalos RR foi realizado com um cardiofrequencímetro portátil RS800CX (Polar Electro, Finlândia), um equipamento validado para uso portátil e com taxa de amostragem de 1kHz. Os dados foram analisados pelo próprio software Polar Precision Performance SW e foram incluídas apenas séries com mais de 95% da frequência cardíaca. Os dados coletados foram transferidos para o software de plotagem Kubios e interpretados. A coleta de dados foi realizada em sala com temperatura entre 21°C e 25°C e umidade entre 50 e 60% e os voluntários foram orientados a não ingerir bebidas alcoólicas e cafeína nas 24 horas anteriores à avaliação. A coleta foi realizada individualmente, das 6h às 9h para padronizar a interferência do ritmo circadiano. Para a coleta dos dados de VFC, os voluntários permaneceram sentados em repouso por 10 minutos.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Variáveis</title>
<p>A VFC foi capturada batimento a batimento durante o período de estabilidade mais alta do sinal. No domínio do tempo (TD), foram utilizados os índices estatísticos Raiz quadrada da média das diferenças sucessivas (RMSSD), Percentual de intervalos RR sucessivos diferindo em mais de 50 milissegundos (pNN50) e Desvio Padrão dos intervalos NN (SDNN) para predição de morbidade e mortalidade em pacientes submetidos à revascularização cirúrgica do miocárdio,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> para análise da variabilidade da frequência cardíaca. O índice RMSSD é definido como a raiz média do quadrado das diferenças entre intervalos RR normais adjacentes em um intervalo de tempo que reflete predominantemente o tônus vagal. O índice pNN50 indica a atividade do sistema nervoso autônomo parassimpático, definido como a porcentagem de diferenças sucessivas do intervalo RR, cujo valor absoluto ultrapassa 50 ms. O SDNN, que reflete a participação de ambos os ramos do SNA, representa o desvio padrão da média de todos os intervalos RR normais, expresso em milissegundos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>O índice triangular (RRtri) foi calculado a partir da construção de um histograma de densidade dos intervalos RR normais, que mostra, no eixo horizontal (eixo x), o comprimento dos intervalos RR e, no eixo vertical (eixo y), a frequência com que cada um deles ocorreu. A junção dos pontos das colunas do histograma forma uma figura em formato de triângulo e a largura da base do triângulo expressa a variabilidade dos intervalos RR. O TINN consiste na largura da linha de base da distribuição medida como a base de um triângulo, aproximando a distribuição de todos os intervalos RR, e a diferença quadrada mínima foi usada para determinar o triângulo.</p>
<p>O gráfico de Poincaré permite que cada intervalo RR seja representado em função do intervalo anterior. Para a análise quantitativa do gráfico, os seguintes índices foram calculados: DP1 (desvio padrão da variabilidade instantânea de batimento a batimento), DP2 (desvio padrão de longo prazo de intervalos TR contínuos) e a razão DP1/DP2. Para análise da VFC no domínio da frequência foram utilizados os componentes espectrais de baixa frequência (LF) e alta frequência (HF) em milissegundos quadrados (ms2), e a razão entre esses componentes (LF/HF), que representa o valor relativo de cada componente espectral em relação à potência total, menos os componentes de frequência muito baixa (VLF). Para essa análise, as faixas de frequência utilizadas foram: LF entre 0,04 e 0,15 Hz e HF variando de 0,15 a 0,4 Hz. A análise espectral foi calculada usando o algoritmo de transformada rápida de Fourier.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Tamanho da amostra</title>
<p>O tamanho da amostra foi selecionado a partir de um teste piloto, no qual foi utilizado o software online disponibilizado pelo site www.lee.dante.br. Com base num risco alfa de 5% e risco beta de 80%, o tamanho da amostra determinado foi de pelo menos 40 indivíduos por grupo.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Análise estatística</title>
<p>O software Excel foi utilizado para elaboração do banco de dados e o software GraphPad Prism® versão 9.4.0 foi utilizado para análise estatística. A estatística descritiva foi feita por medidas de tendência central e dispersão. O teste de Shapiro-Wilk foi usado para testar a normalidade dos dados. O teste estatístico para comparação entre grupos foi o de Mann-Whitney. As diferenças nesses testes foram consideradas estatisticamente significativas quando o valor de &quot;p&quot; foi inferior a 0,05.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="results">
<title>Resultados</title>
<p>Foram avaliados 45 participantes do CTL, 27 homens (60%) com idade média de 44±11 anos e 18 mulheres (40%) com idade média de 47±11 anos. Do grupo pós-Covid-19, foram avaliados 50 participantes, 33 mulheres (66%) com média de idade de 45±14 anos e 17 homens (34%) com média de idade de 47±11 anos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref>). Os dados sobre a caracterização dos grupos e sobre a internação dos participantes infectados pelo SARS-CoV-2 estão descritos nas <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabelas 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">2</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Descrição da caracterização dos grupos estudados (CTL e pós-COVID-19)</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
<th align="center" valign="middle">CTL (n=45)</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Pós-Covid-19 (n=50)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Idade (média ± DP); anos</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">44±11</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">47±11</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Homens (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">27 (60)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">17 (34)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Mulheres (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">18 (40)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">33 (66)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<td align="left" valign="top" colspan="3"><bold>Raça/etnia autoidentificada</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Brancos, (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">27 (60)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">34 (68)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Pardos (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">18 (40)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">12 (24)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Negros (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">0</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">4 (8)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<td align="left" valign="top" colspan="3"><bold>Comorbidades pré-existentes</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"/>
<td align="center" valign="top">Sem comorbidades pré-existentes</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">Sem comorbidades conhecidas</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3"><p>Dados expressos em valores absolutos (n) e relativos (%).</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption><title>Dados descritivos sobre informações de hospitalização para participantes infectados com SARS-CoV-2</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA">
<td align="left" valign="top" colspan="2"><bold>Dados de hospitalização por COVID-19</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Sem hospitalização (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">31 (62)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Hospitalizados (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">19 (38)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Hospital de campanha (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1 (3,3)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Hospital particular (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">2 (8,3)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Hospital municipal (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">5 (25)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Hospital de campanha e hospital municipal (n, %)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1 (3,3)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<td align="left" valign="top" colspan="2">
<bold>Gravidade da infecção</bold></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Leve</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">30 (60)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="top">Moderada</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">9 (18)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top">Grave</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">11 (22)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4"><p>Dados expressos em valores absolutos (n) e relativos (%).</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>A partir dos dados obtidos pelo método de análise de variabilidade da FC, constatou-se que o RR médio dos participantes do grupo pós-Covid-19 teve redução em relação aos participantes do CTL (CTL: 840,2±118,8 ms vs. pós-Covid-19: 743,0 ±124,7* ms, p=0,001). A média da FC mostrou que houve aumento desse parâmetro nos participantes pós-Covid-19 em relação aos CTLs (73,2±10,8 bpm vs. 82,9±13,8* bpm, p=0,0002). Da mesma forma, houve aumento do RMSSD no pós-Covid-19 (36,3±35,7* ms, p=0,0363) em comparação aos CTLs (24,6±20,4 ms). Foi identificado um aumento no TINN nos participantes que tiveram a infecção, em comparação aos não infectados (CTL: 156,6±74,9 ms vs. pós-Covid-19: 228,0±120,9* ms). Não houve diferença estatística entre os grupos para as variáveis pNN50 (CTL: 6,2±9,0% vs. pós-Covid-19: 10,4±14,9%) e índice triangular RR (CTL: 8,7±4,3 s vs. pós-Covid-19: 8,2±3,8 s) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Comparação dos parâmetros de variabilidade da frequência cardíaca no domínio do tempo entre o grupo de controle e o grupo pós-covid. (A) Média do intervalo RR (RR médio), (B) Média da frequência cardíaca (FC média), (C) raiz quadrada média das diferenças sucessivas entre ciclos normais (RMSSD), (D) porcentagem de ciclos sucessivos com diferença de duração com mais de 50 ms (pNN50), (E) interpolação triangular de intervalos RR (TINN) e (F) índice triangular (índice triangular RR). Teste Mann-Whitney, *p&lt;0,05 vs. CTL).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-03-e20230056-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Dentre os dados obtidos referentes às frequências altas e baixas (HF e LF), foram obtidos os seguintes valores: LF (CTL: 404,4±594,1 ms2 vs. pós-Covid-19 664,6± 741,0 ms2*, *p=0,0005); HF (CTL: 253,2± 429,9 ms2 vs. pós-Covid-19 447,3±632,2 ms2*, *p=0,0394) e razão LF/HF (CTL: 2,6±2,2 a.u. vs. pós-Covid-19 3,8±3,8 a.u., p=0,1020) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>Comparação dos valores de baixa frequência (LF), alta frequência (HF) e razão LF/HF entre CTLs e participantes do grupo pós-Covid-19. Teste Mann-Whitney, *p&lt;0,05 vs. CTL).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-03-e20230056-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A partir dos dados obtidos na avaliação dos desvios-padrão (DP1, DP2 e relação DP1/DP2) entre os grupos estudados, foi encontrado o seguinte: DP1 (CTL: 18,2±14,1 a.u. vs. pós-Covid-19: 25,7±25,3 a.u. p=0,782), DP2 (CTL: 61,6±35,0 a.u. vs. pós-Covid-19: 40,1±19,3* a.u., *p=0,0005) e razão DP1/DP2 (CTL: 4,9±4,2 a.u. vs. pós-Covid-19: 2,2±1,0 a.u., p&lt;0,0001) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption><title>Comparação dos valores de DP1, DP2 e Razão DP1/DP2 entre participantes do CTL de do grupo pós-Covid-19. Teste Mann-Whitney, *p&lt;0,05 vs. CTL).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-03-e20230056-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion">
<title>Discussão</title>
<p>Esta pesquisa analisou a modulação autonômica da frequência cardíaca de pacientes com síndrome pós-COVID-19. Os valores de RMSSD e FC foram maiores no grupo pós-Covid quando comparados ao grupo de controle, mostrando maior atividade de modulação autonômica parassimpática em pacientes pós-Covid. Além disso, os valores de TINN, LF/HF, DP2 e DP1/DP2 foram menores no grupo pós-Covid, mostrando menor variabilidade da frequência cardíaca nesses pacientes. Estudo publicado em 2021 por Mol et al. mostrou que, quanto maior a variabilidade da frequência cardíaca (VFC), maiores as chances de sobrevida. Esse papel protetor foi observado apenas em pacientes idosos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Bourdillon et al. (2020) mostraram melhora na atividade parassimpática (RMSSD, FC) no período de confinamento, e os autores associaram essa melhora a respostas subjetivas de bem-estar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Entretanto, os dados coletados neste estudo visam analisar possíveis alterações na variabilidade cardíaca que possam estar relacionadas à doença num momento pós-recuperação, e não ao período de confinamento e suas implicações.</p>
<p>Solinski et al. (2022) avaliaram pacientes jovens do sexo masculino em período de recuperação, de 4 a 6 semanas após a cura da doença, encontrando também aumento da atividade parassimpática e associando-o ao risco de assistolia. O estudo também descreve aumento do ritmo respiratório médio, tendo como hipótese a causa ser o aumento da resistência vascular periférica pulmonar, o que leva a um prejuízo no acoplamento entre as frequências respiratória e cardíaca, importante na homeostase metabólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<p>Dani et al. (2020) revisaram as possíveis relações entre disfunções do sistema nervoso autônomo e a COVID-19, e parece que a liberação de citocinas pró-inflamatórias resulta em ativação simpática. Por outro lado, há estimulação vagal resultando em respostas anti-inflamatórias. Isso é confirmado pelo nosso resultado mostrado pelos valores de RMSSD, FC e DP2, mas ainda se especula que existe um componente autoimune em indivíduos infectados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Shouman et al. (2021) demonstraram anormalidades nos testes autonômicos como intolerância ortostática, mas sem alterações hemodinâmicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Condições sistêmicas inespecíficas, descondicionamento físico, hipóxia e doenças cardíacas podem ser causas de disfunções autonômicas em pacientes pós-COVID.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>A limitação deste estudo foi o número pequeno de pacientes analisados. Essa limitação se deve à dificuldade em recrutar pacientes durante o período de restrições impostas pela pandemia.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusões</title>
<p>Por fim, o estudo mostrou que houve um aumento de parâmetros relacionados ao controle do sistema nervoso autônomo parassimpático e sua modulação para o sistema cardiovascular. Além disso, foi observada menor variabilidade da frequência cardíaca em pacientes em período pós-recuperação da COVID-19 quando comparados a um grupo que não contraiu a doença.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4"><p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela FAPESP, número do processo: 2021/15162-2.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><p><bold>Vinculação acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo é parte de iniciação científica de Giulia Yuni Davanço e Matheus Torres pelo Centro Universitário Faculdade de Medicina do ABC.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética do Centro Universitário Faculdade de Medicina do ABC sob o número de protocolo 4.875.433. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo estão de acordo com a Declaração de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes incluídos no estudo.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ack>
<title>Agradecimentos</title>
<p>Os autores gostariam de agradecer o apoio financeiro da Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo - FAPESP (número de protocolo 2021/15162-2) recebido em nome de Giulia Yuni Davanço.</p>
</ack>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
