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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230091</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20230091</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Is Salt Restriction Really Necessary in Patients with Acute Decompensated Heart Failure?</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5702-210X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Beck-da-Silva</surname><given-names>Luís</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Butzke</surname><given-names>Maurício</given-names></name>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Medicina Interna</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina Interna da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Cardiovasculares – UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Serviço de Cardiologia do Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Serviço de Cardiologia do Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Luís Beck-da-Silva •</bold> Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre – Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, 2° andar. Postal Code <postal-code>90440-050</postal-code>, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil E-mail: <email>lbneto@hcpa.edu.br</email>, <email>luisbeckdasilva@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>31</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<volume>3</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<elocation-id>e20230091</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received"><day>23</day><month>11</month><year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd"><day>15</day><month>12</month><year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>15</day><month>12</month><year>2023</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Salt Restriction</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Treatment</kwd>
<kwd>Salt</kwd>
<kwd>Randomized Clinical Trials</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="2"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="16"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Heart failure (HF) syndrome was first described as an emerging epidemic almost 30 years ago. Due to population growth and aging, the total number of patients with HF has increased over the past years. Acute decompensated HF (ADHF) is estimated to be the leading cause of hospitalization, based on data available from 50% of the South American population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>The standard treatment for patients with ADHF includes diuretics, vasodilators, and sodium restriction.</p>
<p>The recommendation of sodium restriction has been historically and heuristically based on sodium-related fluid retention and, in a patient with congestive HF, one would expectedly avoid anything that promotes fluid retention.</p>
<p>Therefore, sodium restriction has undoubtedly been the most frequently recommended self-care strategy for patients with ADHF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>However, with the contemporary understanding of the pathophysiology of HF, in which treatments involve inhibition or activation of neuroendocrine systems, sodium restriction could have a negative effect on patients due to the activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), heart rate increase, and reduction in energy and protein intake, leading to cachexia.</p>
<p>This review aims to analyze the existing literature including both randomized and nonrandomized clinical trials on the effects of sodium restriction in ADHF.</p>
<sec>
<title>Why may sodium restriction not be beneficial?</title>
<p>We, <italic>homo sapiens</italic>, have been “designed” to retain sodium. Our kidneys have long serpentines, the loop of Henle, which has a complex and efficient mechanism of sodium retention. And thanks to this sodium retention capacity, particularly considering the mammals in the scale of evolution, we, human beings can live out of the water. Amphibians, for example, are not completely terrestrial as they have kidneys with a smaller loop, and hence a lower sodium retention capacity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Our sodium retention capacity is also due to the evolutionary development of the AARS. This system is particularly activated in situations that cause renal hypoperfusion, including dehydration, bleeding, burns, and as we know, HF. Today, thanks to four decades of advances in the understanding of HF, it is known that interventions that inhibit the RAAS are proven to be beneficial. These include angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors (ACEI),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> aldosterone inhibitors (spironolactone and eplerenone),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> betablockers (indirectly),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> and angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor (ARNi).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>On the other hand, situations that activate the RAAS are proven to be harmful to HF patients. These include severe hypovolemia, hypotension, erythropoietin,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> adrenaline (indirectly),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> and furosemide.</p>
<p>In this balance between benefits and harms, we must consider that sodium restriction acts as an activating factor of the RAAS, whereas sodium administration acts as an inhibitor factor of the system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Thus, in an era in which HF treatment is based on neurohormonal systems, interventions that activate the RAAS, such as sodium restriction, may be deleterious (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Factors that lead to inhibition or activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in patients with acute decompensated heart failure. ACEI: angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors; ARB: angiotensin receptor blockers; ARNi: angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230091-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Analysis of the best available evidence</title>
<p>We selected studies that evaluated the effect of interventions for sodium intake (<italic>e,g</italic>, low sodium intake) for patients aged ≥ 18 years, admitted for treatment of ADHF.</p>
<p>Studies that evaluated sodium intake as a continuous exposure (i.e., not prescribed), studies conducted in the emergency department (without admission) and those without a control group were not included. We searched for peer-reviewed articles in Medline (via PubMed), Embase, ClinicalTrials.gov, CINAHL and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews until August 2023. Using these criteria, five clinical trials were analyzed and compared (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Summary of the results of the mains studies on dietary sodium restriction in patients with acute heart failure available until August 2023</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="16%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA;">
<th valign="middle" align="left"/>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Velloso et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Aliti et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Inuzuka et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Machado d’Almeida et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Fabricio et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><bold>Year</bold></td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">1991</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">2013</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">2016</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">2018</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">2019</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Country</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Brazil</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Brazil</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Japan</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Brazil</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Brazil</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">N</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Intervention: 14<break/> Control: 18</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Intervention: 38<break/> Control: 37</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">207</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Intervention: 30<break/> Control: 23</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Intervention: 22<break/> Control: 22</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Randomized</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Yes</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Yes</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">No</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Yes</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Yes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Centers</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Single-center</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Single-center</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Non-available</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Single-center</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Single-center</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Inclusion criteria</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">NYHA: III - IV</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Boston criteria ≥ 8,<break/> EF ≤ 45%<break/> Less than 36h of hospitalization for randomization Age ≥18 years</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">NYHA: II-IV,<break/> Median BNP = 856 pg/mL</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">EF ≥50%, Age ≥18 years; clinical signs of congestion, dyspnea, orthopnea in the last week, BNP &gt; 100 pg/mL</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Framingham criteria, Age ≥18 years</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Mean age (years)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">54</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">60</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">79</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">72</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">58</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">NYHA</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">III-IV</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">III-IV</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">II-IV</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">II-IV</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Non-available</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">LVEF (mean)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">34,8</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">26</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Not available</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">61</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">29</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Intervention</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sodium-restricted diet (2 g/day)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sodium-restricted (0.8 g/day) and fluid-restricted (800 mL/day) diet</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sodium-restricted diet (6 g/day)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sodium-restricted (0.8 g/day) and fluid-restricted diet (800 mL/day)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sodium-restricted (3 g/day) and fluid-restricted (1000 mL/day)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Control</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Norma-sodium diet (10 g/day)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Diet with no restrictions</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Norma-sodium diet (10 g/day)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Diet with no restrictions</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Norma-sodium (7 g/day), fluid-restricted diet (1000 mL/day)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Intervention duration</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">7,5 days (median) for the intervention group and 6.6 days(median) for the control group</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">6 days (median)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Not available</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">5 days (median)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">7 days</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Follow-up duration</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Not available</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">30 days</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Not available</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">7 days for the primary outcome and 30 days for the secondary outcomes</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">7 days</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Primary outcome</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Clinical improvement (recovery to NYHA I or II)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Weight loss and clinical stability in three days, thirst sensation, hospital readmission in 30 days</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Energy intake</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Weight loss</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Difference in serum sodium</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Difference in the primary outcome</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">No</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Increase in thirst sensation</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Low energy intake in the group with sodium restriction</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Lower energy-protein intake in the group with sodium restriction</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Yes</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1"><p>EF: ejection fraction; BNP: brain natriuretic peptide; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusions</title>
<p>To date, five studies (four clinical trials and one nonrandomized), with a total of 411 patients, compared a sodium-restricted diet with a high-sodium diet (unrestricted in four studies) in patients admitted with ADHF. Currently available evidence allows us to conclude that a sodium-restricted diet:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Did not have a significant impact on symptoms (clinical congestion score and HF symptoms), on the dose of diuretics prescribed during hospitalization, on the hospital length of stay, or on readmission within 30 days;</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Did not have a significant impact on intermediate outcomes like serum creatinine, urea, brain natriuretic peptide, diuresis, serum aldosterone or plasma renin activity;</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Caused a significant reduction in energy intake as compared to an unrestricted diet;</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Did not provide enough data to draw conclusions about mortality.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1"><p><bold>Sources of funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><p><bold>Study association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>A Restrição Salina é Realmente Necessária no Paciente com Insuficiência Cardíaca Agudamente Descompensada?</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5702-210X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Beck-da-Silva</surname><given-names>Luís</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Butzke</surname><given-names>Maurício</given-names></name>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina Interna da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Cardiovasculares – UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Serviço de Cardiologia do Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Luís Beck-da-Silva •</bold> Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre – Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350, 2° andar. CEP 90440-050, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil E-mail: <email>lbneto@hcpa.edu.br</email>, <email>luisbeckdasilva@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Restrição Salina</kwd>
<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
<kwd>Tratamento</kwd>
<kwd>Sal</kwd>
<kwd>Ensaios Clínicos Randomizados</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A síndrome de insuficiência cardíaca (IC) foi descrita pela primeira vez como uma epidemia emergente há cerca de 30 anos. Nos últimos anos, devido ao crescimento e envelhecimento da população, o número total de pacientes com IC continua a aumentar. Estima-se que a IC aguda descompensada (ICAD) seja a principal causa de internação hospitalar, baseado em dados disponíveis de cerca de 50% da população sul-americana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>O tratamento padrão para pacientes hospitalizados por ICAD envolve diuréticos, vasodilatadores e restrição de sódio.</p>
<p>A recomendação de restrição de sódio tem sido baseada, histórica e heuristicamente, no efeito óbvio de retenção de líquidos associada ao sódio e, em um paciente congesto, evitaríamos tudo que promova retenção hídrica. Assim, a restrição de sódio já foi, indiscutivelmente, a medida de autocuidado mais frequentemente recomendada para pacientes com ICAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>No entanto, com o entendimento contemporâneo da fisiopatologia da IC, onde os tratamentos envolvem inibição ou ativação de sistemas neuroendócrinos, a restrição de sódio poderia afetar negativamente os pacientes por ativar o sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA), aumentar a frequência cardíaca, diminuir a ingestão calórico-proteica e promover caquexia.</p>
<p>Esta revisão tem por objetivo revisar ensaios clínicos randomizados ou não randomizados disponíveis que analisam o efeito da restrição de sódio no contexto de ICAD.</p>
<sec>
<title>Por que a restrição de sódio poderia não ser benéfica?</title>
<p>Nós, <italic>homo sapiens</italic>, fomos “desenhados” para reter sódio. Nossos rins são dotados de extensas serpentinas, as alças de Henle, que possuem complexo e eficiente mecanismo de retenção de sódio. Graças à capacidade de reter sódio, particularmente vista a partir dos mamíferos na escala evolutiva, é que nós seres humanos, podemos viver fora da água. Anfíbios possuem rins com alças de Henle menores e, portanto, têm menor capacidade de retenção de sódio e não podem ter uma vida completamente terrestre.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nossa alta capacidade de retenção de sódio deve-se também ao desenvolvimento evolutivo de nosso SRAA. Nosso SRAA é particularmente ativado em situações que gerem hipoperfusão renal como desidratação, sangramento, queimaduras e, como todos sabemos, IC.</p>
<p>Hoje, graças a quatro décadas de progressão do entendimento da IC, sabemos que intervenções que inibem o SRAA são comprovadamente benéficas. A saber, os inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina I em II (IECA),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> os bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina (BRA),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> os inibidores da aldosterona (espironolactona e eplerenona),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> os betabloqueadores (indiretamente)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> e os inibidores dos receptores da angiotensina e neprilisina (IRNA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Por outro lado, sabemos que situações que ativem o SRAA são comprovadamente deletérias para os pacientes com IC. A saber, hipovolemia excessiva, hipotensão, eritropoietina,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> adrenalina (indiretamente),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> e furosemida.</p>
<p>Nesta balança de fatores benéficos e deletérios, devemos considerar que a restrição de sódio entra como um fator ativador do SRAA e que a administração de sódio entra como um fator inibidor do SRAA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Neste sentido, em uma era de tratamento da IC baseado em sistemas neuro-hormonais, medidas que ativem o SRAA, como, por exemplo, a restrição de sódio poderia, sim, ser deletéria (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Fatores que levam à inibição ou à ativação do sistema renina angiotensina aldosterona (SRAA) em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca aguda descompensada. IECA: inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina; BRA: Bloqueadores do Receptor da Angiotensina; INRA: inibidores da neprilisina e receptores da angiotensina.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230091-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Análise da melhor evidência disponível</title>
<p>Selecionamos estudos que avaliaram o efeito de intervenções prescritas de ingestão de sódio (exemplo: ingestão alimentar restrita) para pacientes ≥ 18 anos, hospitalizados e tratados para ICAD.</p>
<p>Foram desconsiderados estudos que avaliaram a ingestão de sódio como uma exposição contínua (ou seja, não prescrito), que foram realizados em serviço de urgência sem admissão hospitalar ou que não incluíram um grupo controle.</p>
<p>Para isto, foram selecionados artigos revisados por pares (“<italic>peer-reviewed</italic>”) nas plataformas Medline (via PubMed), Embase, <italic>ClinicalTrials.gov</italic>, CINAHL e <italic>Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews</italic> até agosto 2023.</p>
<p>Com estes critérios foram selecionados e comparados cinco ensaios clínicos comparados (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Sumário dos achados dos principais estudos em restrição salina da dieta em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca aguda. Disponíveis até agosto de 2023</title></caption>
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<th valign="middle" align="left"/>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Velloso et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Aliti et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Inuzuka et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">d’Almeida et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Fabricio et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></th>
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<td valign="middle" align="left">Ano</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">1991</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">2013</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">2016</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">2018</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">2019</td>
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<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">País</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Brasil</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Brasil</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Japão</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Brasil</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Brasil</td>
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<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">N</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Intervenção: 14<break/> Controle: 18</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Intervenção: 38<break/> Controle: 37</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">207</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Intervenção: 30<break/> Controle: 23</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Intervenção: 22<break/> Controle: 22</td>
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<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Randomizado</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sim</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sim</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Não</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sim</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sim</td>
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<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Centros</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Unicêntrico</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Unicêntrico</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Não disponível</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Unicêntrico</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Unicêntrico</td>
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<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Critérios de Inclusão</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">NYHA: III - IV</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Critérios de Boston ≥ 8,<break/> FE ≤ 45%<break/> Menos de 36h de internação para randomização<break/> Idade ≥18 anos</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">NYHA: II-IV, BNP mediana = 856 pg/mL</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">FE ≥50%, Idade ≥18 anos, Sinais clínicos de congestão, dispnéia, ortopnéia na última semana, BNP &gt; 100 pg/mL</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Critérios de Framingham, Idade ≥18 anos</td>
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<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Idade média (anos)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">54</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">60</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">79</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">72</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">58</td>
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<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">NYHA</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">III-IV</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">III-IV</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">II-IV</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">II-IV</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Não disponível</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">FEVE (média)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">34,8</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">26</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Não disponível</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">61</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">29</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Intervenção</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Dieta com restrição de sódio (2 g/dia)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Dieta com restrição de sódio (0,8 g/dia) e líquido (800 mL/dia)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Dieta com restrição de sódio (6 g/dia)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Dieta com restrição de sódio (0,8 g/dia) e líquido (800 mL/dia)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Dieta com restrição de sódio (3 g/dia) e líquido (1000 mL/dia)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Controle</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Dieta sem restrição de sódio (10 g/dia)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Dieta sem restrições</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Dieta sem restrições de sódio (10 g/dia)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Dieta sem restrições</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Dieta sem restrição de sódio (7 g/dia) e com restrição de líquido (1000 mL/dia)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Duração da intervenção</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">7,5 dias (mediana) para o grupo intervenção e 6,6 dias (mediana) para o grupo controle</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">6 dias (mediana)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Não disponível</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">5 dias (mediana)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">7 dias</td>
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<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Tempo de seguimento</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Não disponível</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">30 dias</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Não disponível</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">7 dias para o desfecho primário e 30 dias para os secundários</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">7 dias</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Desfecho primário</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Compensação clínica (retorno para NYHA I ou II)</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Perda de peso e estabilidade clínica em 3 dias, percepção de sede e readmissões hospitalares em 30 dias</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Consumo calórico</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Perda de peso</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Diferença no sódio sérico</td>
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<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Diferença no desfecho primário</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Não</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Aumento na percepção de sede</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Baixo consumo calórico no grupo com restrição de sódio</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Menor ingestão calórico-proteica no grupo com restrição de sódio</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sim.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p><italic>FE: fração de ejeção; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; BNP: peptídeo natriurético cerebral.</italic></p>
</fn>
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</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusões</title>
<p>Até o momento, cinco estudos, (4 ensaios clínicos randomizados e 1 estudo não randomizado) com um total de 411 pacientes incluídos, compararam uma dieta com restrição de sódio com uma dieta rica em sódio (irrestrita em 4 estudos) em pacientes hospitalizados por ICAD. A evidência científica disponível até o momento permite concluir que uma dieta com restrição de sódio:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Não teve impacto relevante em sintomas dos pacientes (escore clínico de congestão e alguns sintomas de IC), ou em dose de diuréticos prescritos na hospitalização, ou em tempo de hospitalização ou em re-admissão em 30 dias;</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Não teve impacto em outros desfechos intermediários como creatinina sérica, uréia, BNP, sódio sérico, diurese, aldosterona sérica ou atividade de renina plasmática;</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Provocou redução significativa da ingesta calórica em relação a uma dieta não restrita.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Não provêm dados suficientes para concluir sobre mortalidade.</p></list-item>
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<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4"><p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><p><bold>Vinculação acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
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