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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20230086</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230086</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Heart Failure After Acute Myocardial Infarction: A New Phenotype of Acute Heart Failure?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Campos</surname>
						<given-names>Claudia Carolina Mendonça</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Rezende</surname>
						<given-names>Caio Cezar Gomes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Bárbara Mariana dos Santos</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-0454-2941</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Fraga</surname>
						<given-names>Felipe José de Oliveira</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-5387-9449</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Suassuna</surname>
						<given-names>Diogo Coutinho</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8441-7337</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Montenegro</surname>
						<given-names>Carlos Eduardo Lucena</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Cardiomiopatias e Transplante cardíaco</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Unidade de Insuficiência</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Unidade de Insuficiência cardíaca, Cardiomiopatias e Transplante cardíaco da Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Esperança Recife</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Esperança Recife, Rede D'Or, Recife, PE – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Carlos Eduardo Lucena Montenegro •</bold> Universidade de Pernambuco - Miocardiopatias/ Transplante cardíaco - Rua dos Palmares, S/N. Postal Code <postal-code>50100-010</postal-code>, Recife, PE - Brazil E-mail: <email>ce_montenegro@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold></p>
					<p>Dr. Carlos Eduardo Lucena Montenegro – Speaker for companies: Novartis, Astrazeneca, Boehringer, Merck and Bayer.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>31</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>3</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230086</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>15</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>17</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>17</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Myocardial Infarction</kwd>
				<kwd>Coronary Artery Disease</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="76"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>Coronary artery disease (CAD) and heart failure (HF) are among the most common causes of hospitalization and death worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Although the etiology of HF varies greatly around the world, in the main registries from Western and developed countries, CAD and systemic arterial hypertension are the predominant factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) complicated with HF (post-MI HF) is quite common in clinical practice its incidence among patients hospitalized for AMI varies between 14% and 36%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> In the GRACE registry (Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events), among 13,707 patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome hospitalized from 1999 to 2001, 13% had HF on admission, and another 5.6% developed HF during hospitalization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
		<p>In addition to the great association between such pathologies, heart failure is also an important predictor of mortality among patients with AMI, with implications for treatment and prognosis. One of the factors that stands out most among the complications of ACS is cardiogenic shock; however, even less severe profiles in the HF spectrum are more common, also having a negative prognostic impact.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
		<p>Post-MI HF has peculiarities in its pathophysiological mechanisms that differentiate it from other HF etiologies, also leading to different clinical consequences and therapeutic possibilities, both in pharmacological treatment and in the indication of ventricular assistance devices and surgical approaches. These differences make HF after AMI a nosological entity that still requires better clarification regarding its approach. In this context, some questions from HF specialists have been raised, such as: What are the risk factors for the development of HF after an ACS? In the case of acute HF, which medications can be started first, which increases the patient's survival? Why have certain pharmacological treatments not had a good response in this situation, even though they have been shown to be useful in chronic HF? At what point does post-MI HF &quot;turn&quot; into chronic HF? When is the right time to recommend a ventricular assist device in this type of patient, and is there any difference with other etiologies? What is the role of myocardial revascularization? Would the indication and timing of a heart transplant be different?</p>
		<p>This review article proposes to clarify some of these doubts, detailing the processes that are behind ventricular dysfunction resulting from acute myocardial infarction, as well as addressing the main studies that support the current treatment of this disease and future possibilities that could reduce the morbidity and mortality from such a serious disease.</p>
		<sec>
			<title>Pathophysiology</title>
			<p>Over the last few decades, much has been discovered about the pathophysiological processes of chronic HF, especially myocardial remodeling, signaling important pharmacological targets that have proven to impact clinical outcomes. In the scenario of post-infarction HF, some peculiarities in these processes have been better understood, helping to understand specific characteristics of this clinical phenotype of HF and enabling a more targeted approach in this scenario.</p>
			<p>Initially, ischemia leads to loss of contractile function and consequently enlarges the ventricular cavity, which culminates in increased filling pressures and oxygen demand. Over time, cardiac work increases in an attempt to compensate for the increased pre- and post-load (due to all the hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> in addition, pressure overloads and volume induce molecular pathways that determine ventricular hypertrophy, without an adequate proportion of myocardial thickness and volume, without concomitant adequate vascularization and with the emergence of fibrosis (resulting from the deposition of excess collagen in the extracellular matrix).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Acute myocardial infarction triggers an inflammatory response characterized especially by cellular necrosis, releasing intracellular components that activate the immune system and recruit cells to initiate a corrective response that induces the formation of scar tissue (fibrotic). Even after this stage, a state of chronic activation of cytokines and myocardial infiltration of inflammatory cells remains.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Concomitantly with this entire process, there is also metabolic remodeling that also participates in aggravating the development and progression of post-infarction ventricular remodeling<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup>. This is a complex process that ranges from a cascade of gene regulation altering the main energy supply pathway of the myocardium to carbohydrates (fetal pattern) to an imbalance in mitochondrial calcium, leading to suboptimal energy production.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The aforementioned sustained hyperactivation of the renin-angiotensin system and the sympathetic system also participates in this process and, therefore, preventing its deleterious effects has been the basis of the current pharmacological treatment of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The big issue in this phenotype is that, unlike chronic HF, some of these pathophysiological changes occur extremely suddenly, mainly the decrease in contractile function and the increase in left heart filling pressures. These changes are not accompanied by vascular remodeling or changes in pre- and post-load as agile as they should be to minimize the clinical effects of this moment, leading to symptoms disproportionate to ventricular remodeling and, perhaps, to different therapeutic targets.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>Risk factors</title>
				<p>The incidence of in-hospital HF is three times higher in patients aged 75 to 85 years when compared to those aged 25 to 54 years, as well as at discharge, where the incidence is six times higher in the older age group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> In some studies, female sex was independently associated with a higher risk of HF, ranging from 15% to 34%. This can be explained by several reasons, such as the presentation of AMI in women occurs in older patients, with more associated comorbidities, worse functional status, and admittedly less aggressive hospital care, including revascularization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The number of affected vessels and the location of the infarction also influence. The multivessel disease reflects a greater atherosclerotic burden, associated with greater endothelial dysfunction and more systemic inflammation, and is also commonly associated with other comorbidities. Anterior wall infarction is associated with a higher risk of adverse remodeling and IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Other factors that increase the risk of HF are high blood pressure, diabetes, atrial fibrillation, higher heart rate, chronic kidney disease, and the presence of previous angina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Biomarkers</title>
				<p>Cardiac troponin is the marker of choice in AMI, and its values in the peak phase (48 to 72 h after the onset of symptoms) are associated with the extent of the infarction determined by cardiac resonance. Several studies have demonstrated the association of troponin with MACE, including IC;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> however, its association with the troponin peak was not observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Along with troponin, natriuretic peptides are associated with infarct size and cardiac dysfunction, not just its degree of elevation but also its standard of presentation. There is a monophasic pattern with a peak within 16 hours of admission and a biphasic pattern with a second peak at 5 days, and the latter pattern presented a greater risk of LV remodeling and IC20.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Furthermore, natriuretic peptides appear to have a protective effect in relation to the development of ventricular dysfunction, inhibiting angiotensin II and endothelin-1 signaling. Type A natriuretic peptide (ANP) inhibits collagen synthesis, a major source of myocardial fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> A study evaluating the infusion of recombinant human BNP before coronary angioplasty appeared to lead to some degree of myocardial protection, reinforcing this theory of BNP-mediated heart muscle protection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The prolongation of the post-infarction inflammatory response significantly contributes to LV remodeling and the development of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Several methods for quantifying the inflammatory response show promise for predicting HF, such as levels of C-reactive protein, the neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio, interleukin 6, and interleukin 32, among others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is also an independent factor associated with the risk of HF after AMI. Fox et al. demonstrated a risk of HF attributable to renal dysfunction ranging from 30% to 90%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Similar results were observed in the VALIANT study, where the risk of HF increased by 10% for each 10 ml/min/1.72m² decrease in GFR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Some fibrosis biomarkers used as risk predictors in HF are recommended by the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association, such as the soluble form of Tumorogenesis Suppressor (sST2) and Galectin-3. However, there is little evidence that evaluates them as predictive value after AMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Other biomarkers, such as Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs), Clusterin, Lactic Dehydrogenase, and others, have shown an association with left ventricular remodeling, but there is still a lack of evidence in the post-MI context. Overall, studies have shown that combined biomarker analysis is superior to either of these individually. Much more important than choosing the best biomarker is the timing of measurement after AMI in predicting the risk of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Therapeutic options</title>
			<p>Currently, the therapies we have available aim to improve mechanics and hemodynamics (cardiac output, pre- and post-load) and adjust the molecular mechanisms of remodeling. Even so, the primary and most important intervention to prevent or stop the development of ventricular dysfunction and myocardial remodeling in a patient suffering from an ischemic process is coronary reperfusion, when indicated.</p>
			<p>As already mentioned, the change in contractility is the first change that leads to a progressive increase in volume and intracavitary pressure, intensifying parietal stress and workload to compensate for pre- and post-load, culminating in greater oxygen consumption and stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and RAAS. This neurohormonal stimulus maintains cardiovascular balance in the initial phase, but over time, it becomes harmful, promoting cell death, fibrosis, and adverse remodeling. The degree of activation of these systems correlates with the severity of the dysfunction and is a predictor of poor prognosis. Preventing the harmful effects of SNS and RAAS is the basis of current pharmacological treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Tests on murine models carried out in the 1980s had already demonstrated the benefit of using captopril post-MI, with reduced filling and remodeling pressures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> The SAVE clinical trial reinforced its benefit in post-AMI, showing a reduction in mortality and incidence of cardiovascular events in patients with asymptomatic ventricular dysfunction (EF &lt; 40%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Subsequently, the AIRE and TRACE studies confirmed the benefit of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) in this context. The AIRE showed a reduction of approximately 27% in all-cause mortality and a 19% reduction in cardiovascular events with the use of Ramipril in patients with symptomatic ventricular dysfunction in the first 30 days after AMI, and the TRACE study showed a 25% reduction in mortality, as well as a reduction in sudden death and progression to severe HF with the use of Trandolapril starting 3 to 7 days after AMI. In the latest Brazilian HF guideline (2018), it is recommendation I, with a level of evidence A, the use of ACE inhibitors for patients with symptomatic LV dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) in post-MI HF were initially analyzed in 2002 in the study OPTIMAAL that compared losartan 50mg/day with captopril 50mg three times a day in more than 5000 patients with ventricular dysfunction (EF &lt;40%) after AMI. This clinical trial showed no statistically significant difference in morbidity and mortality between the two medications over 2.7 years of follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Likewise, the VALIANT clinical trial demonstrated that the use of the ARB, Valsartan, in the first 10 days after AMI in patients who developed HF with reduced ejection fraction was as effective as captopril in reducing mortality. However, the combination of these two medications increased the prevalence of adverse effects without improving outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> ARBs have, therefore, become an effective alternative when there is intolerance to ACE inhibitors.</p>
			<p>Following the neurohormonal rationale of RAAS inhibition, one of the first studies that demonstrated clinical benefit from the use of mineralocorticoid antagonists in HF was RALES, showing a reduction in mortality, hospitalization, and symptoms related to HF with the use of spironolactone in patients with HFrEF. NYHA functional class III-IV, whose etiology was mostly ischemic (more than 50% of patients) but not necessarily post-AMI,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> with EMPHASIS increasing the indication for functional class II HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> However, it was the EPHESUS study that evaluated patients with HF after AMI and also found a benefit from the use of eplerenone in reducing total mortality, sudden death, and the combined outcome of cardiovascular mortality or hospitalization for HF. A post hoc analysis of this study showed that early initiation of eplerenone (between the third and seventh day of AMI) reduced the risk of death from all causes by 31%, the risk of cardiovascular death and hospitalization by 24%, and of sudden death by 34% when compared to placebo. On the other hand, starting this drug 7 days after AMI did not show a statistically significant difference between the groups, demonstrating the benefit of starting this medication early.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In the same period, studies with beta-blockers in HF were developed, showing an important reduction in morbidity and mortality in patients with HFrEF regardless of the etiology. A meta-analysis published in 1999 with 31 randomized trials that included approximately 25,000 patients with a history of AMI showed that long-term use of beta-blockers reduced the risk of reinfarction and death during an average of 2 years of follow-up but highlighted that this drug class was still very underused at the time.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> As the neurohormonal pathophysiological concept of HF gained strength, other studies began to be designed. At the end of the 90s, several studies with beta-blockers were published, such as US carvedilol, MERIT-HF, CIBIS II, and COPERNICUS, showing a reduction in mortality from all causes and a reduction in sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> These randomized trials were truncated due to the significant benefits compared to placebo. The long-term efficacy of carvedilol in patients with ventricular dysfunction (EF ≤40%) after AMI was evaluated in the CAPRICORN study (2001), which showed a reduction in all-cause mortality as well as cardiovascular mortality, non-fatal AMI and cardiovascular mortality or non-fatal AMI compared to placebo, but without statistical difference in relation to the primary outcome of all-cause mortality or hospitalizations for cardiovascular causes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> The COMMIT-CCS2 study (2005), which randomized more than 45,000 patients with AMI in multiple centers in China to the use of Metoprolol (up to 15 mg, IV followed by 200 mg/day, PO) or placebo, showed no beneficial effect on the established primary outcomes of death, reinfarction or cardiac arrest and death from any cause, but reducing reinfarction and ventricular arrhythmias in isolation, a benefit that was counterbalanced by the increase in cardiogenic shocks in the metoprolol group, especially when used on the first day of admission. Around 20% of patients were in Killip II at the time of randomization, and 5% in Killip III. The latter were more likely to progress to cardiogenic shock, showing that the early use of high intravenous doses of Metoprolol appears to be harmful for patients who present with HF in the presence of acute coronary syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Due to the considerable evidence of reduced morbidity and mortality and cardiac remodeling in post-MI with drugs that block the RAAS and after proving the efficacy of sacubitril-valsartan in comparison with enalapril in patients with HFrEF in the PARADIGM-HF study, subsequent studies sought to evaluate the potential of this new drug in patients with HFrEF after AMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> The benefit of sacubitril/valsartan on cardiac remodeling was tested in patients with asymptomatic ventricular dysfunction (EF ≤ 40%) in the late phase after AMI (≥ 3 months), comparing it with valsartan alone, showing no statistically significant difference between the two groups in the primary outcome of reduction in LV stroke volume measured by MRI at the 52nd week.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> The PARADISE-MI study, published in the same year, compared sacubitril/valsartan with Ramipril in patients with ventricular dysfunction and at risk of developing HF in the first 7 days after AMI and also showed no statistically significant difference between the two groups in relation to the primary outcome of cardiovascular death and worsening HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
			<p>After the success of ISGLT2 in reducing the cardiovascular outcomes of death and hospitalization due to HF, regardless of the presence of diabetes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> other studies were designed to investigate the potential of these medications in cardiac remodeling. A study with non-diabetic pigs after induced AMI demonstrated an improvement in cardiac remodeling after 2 months of using empagliflozin compared to placebo. This study also found that empagliflozin changed the energy consumption of the myocyte, replacing glucose with free fatty acids, ketone bodies, and branched-chain amino acids, thus improving the metabolic profile of the myocardium after AMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Two large studies aim to evaluate this class of drugs post-MI. EMPACT-MI, not yet published, compares empagliflozin with placebo in patients with LVEF &lt; 45% or congestive signs and symptoms in the first 14 days after AMI and will evaluate the composite outcome of all-cause mortality or time to first hospitalization for HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> The recently published DAPA–MI compared dapagliflozin versus placebo in patients hospitalized for AMI and with some evidence of global or segmental left ventricular dysfunction, or if assessment of left ventricular function was not available, with the presence of pathological Q in the electrocardiogram. The study did not demonstrate the benefit of this drug in relation to the primary outcome of death, hospitalization for HF, non-fatal AMI, atrial fibrillation or flutter event, new diagnosis of type 2 diabetes, improvement in NYHA functional class and weight loss, despite was a safe strategy with good cardiometabolic effects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Since ischemia is the predominant etiology in the genesis of HF, multiple other therapies have been evaluated. Trimetazidine, for example, alters the energy metabolism of myocytes, providing a cytoprotective action, but it is still unclear whether this provides benefit against cardiac remodeling after AMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Statins showed improvements in cardiac remodeling when compared to placebo in a study with rats with extensive induced AMI. This benefit was associated with a reduction in the expression of fetal genes in the myocardium as well as collagen and an increase in endothelial NO.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> The CORONA and GISSI-HF studies were carried out to evaluate the efficacy and safety of rosuvastatin in patients with HFrEF over 60 and 18 years of age, respectively. In both studies, rosuvastatin did not show a reduction in primary outcomes but was shown to be safe in this group of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Since Ivabradine reduces HR by inhibiting the <italic>If</italic> currents of the sinoatrial node, reducing cellular energy expenditure, it was tested in comparison with a placebo in patients with chronic CAD and ventricular dysfunction (EF &lt;40%) in the study BEAUTIFUL, published in 2008. In this study, Ivabradine did not show superiority over placebo in the combined primary outcome of cardiovascular death or hospitalization for AMI or HF but reduced secondary outcomes of hospitalization for fatal and non-fatal AMI and coronary revascularization in patients with FC above 70.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>Invasive treatment</title>
				<p>Several surgical procedures, such as implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) implantation, cardiac resynchronization therapy, and revascularization, have demonstrated significant benefits in reducing mortality and hospitalizations in patients optimized in relation to drug therapy for HF of ischemic etiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Old studies, such as CASS in the 1980s and more recent studies, such as STICH and STICHES, have shown positive results when revascularizing patients with ischemic heart failure and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) less than 35%. These studies demonstrated a 28% reduction in all-cause mortality or hospitalization due to HF over a 10-year follow-up period. Currently, the main guidelines around the world recommend myocardial revascularization in patients with multiple arterial lesions, significant obstruction of the left anterior descending artery, and LVEF below 35%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
				<p>It is important to highlight that the use of devices such as the ICD for secondary prevention of sudden death is already well founded, with a class I recommendation for patients who have had aborted sudden death, ventricular tachycardia with hemodynamic instability, or ventricular fibrillation documented in electrophysiological studies. The SCD-HEFT and MADIT II studies demonstrated significant benefits when implanting ICDs in patients with HF of ischemic etiology after myocardial infarction, with the latter showing a reduction in the absolute risk of death by 6%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The recommendation for cardiac resynchronization therapy in patients with post-infarction HF follows the same guidelines as for patients with HF of non-ischemic etiology. Although large studies, such as MADIT-CRT, were not specifically designed for post-infarction patients, ischemic etiology was one of the most common causes, and these studies also showed benefits in reducing mortality and hospitalizations due to HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In the context of acute post-AMI HF, mechanical complications also occur, such as rupture of the free wall, rupture of the interventricular septum, and acute mitral insufficiency. The incidence of these complications has decreased with the advent of myocardial reperfusion and easier access to early revascularization, but they remain serious complications with very high mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The rupture of the left ventricular free wall may occur in less than 1% of patients during the first week after a transmural infarction, manifesting with sudden pain and/or cardiogenic shock. Factors such as advanced age, lack of reperfusion, or delayed fibrinolysis appear to be associated with an increased incidence of cardiac rupture. Progression to hemopericardium and cardiac tamponade, leading to a shock, is usually fatal. Mortality rates range from 20% to 75%, depending on the patient's condition and the size and morphology of the rupture. Indeterminedpatients, cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) can complement the diagnosis, identifying the contained cardiac rupture and its anatomical characteristics to guide surgical intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Post-MI interventricular communication typically presents as rapid clinical deterioration with acute heart failure or cardiogenic shock. It can occur within 24 hours to several days after AMI, with equal frequency in anterior and posterolateral wall AMIs. The diagnosis is confirmed by echocardiography and Doppler, which differentiate this condition from acute mitral regurgitation, define the rupture and its size, and quantify the shunt. The use of a Swan-Ganz catheter can more accurately confirm the shunt. In some selected cases, the intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) can stabilize patients in preparation for angiography and surgery. Early surgery is associated with a high mortality rate, reported at 20-40%, and a high risk of recurrence of ventricular rupture, while late surgery allows for easier repair of the septum into scar tissue but increases the risk of extension of rupture and death while awaiting surgery. For this reason, early surgery should be performed in all patients with severe heart failure who do not respond quickly to therapy, but late elective surgical repair may be considered in patients who respond well to heart failure treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Acute mitral regurgitation typically occurs 2 to 7 days after AMI due to rupture of the papillary muscle or chordae tendineae. Rupture may be complete or involve one or more of the heads of the papillary muscle, being up to 6 to 12 times more common in the posteromedial papillary muscle due to its unique blood supply from the right coronary artery. Papillary muscle rupture usually manifests as rapid hemodynamic deterioration with acute dyspnea, acute pulmonary edema, and/or cardiogenic shock. In this context, immediate treatment is based on reducing afterload to reduce the volume of regurgitation and pulmonary congestion. The use of intravenous diuretics, vasodilators/inotropes, and IABP can stabilize patients in preparation for angiography and surgery. Emergency surgery is the treatment of choice, although it carries a high operative mortality (20-25%). Mitral valve replacement is often necessary, but cases of successful papillary muscle suture repair have been increasingly reported and appear to be a better option in experienced hands (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Timeline of post-MI HF trials.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230086-gf01.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Prognosis</title>
				<p>The correct identification and treatment of HF in post-AMI patients is crucial to guarantee survival and quality of life for patients, given the size of the impact that heart failure can have on individuals. In the SOLVD treatment study, patients with LVEF ≤ 35% and a previous infarction had two times more hospitalizations for decompensated HF and four times more mortality compared to those without previous AMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> The SAVE trial found in patients with ventricular dysfunction a 70% increase in the risk of cardiovascular death and increased LV as a result of a previous heart attack compared to patients without a previous heart attack.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> Data from the Canadian registry<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> and the GRACE4 registry showed that the presence of HF on admission increased the chances of hospital mortality between 1.87 and 2.2 times, while a French registry showed that these patients, in relation to those who do not develop HF in this scenario has a significantly increased risk of death during hospitalization (12.2% x 3%) and at one-year follow-up (26.6% 5.2%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> For patients affected by an acute ischemic event, one way to achieve prognosis is by applying the Killip classification. In the GRACE risk score, this classification was the most important predictor of mortality when compared to the absence of HF during the presentation of AMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A large population-based cohort in Minnesota analyzed 2,596 patients over a mean follow-up of 7.6 years after a first episode of AMI and found that in this setting, HF strongly increases the risk of death from all causes, cardiovascular death and non-cardiovascular death. as well as showing that patients with HFrEF and HFpEF share a similar prognosis, while HF that develops &gt; 3 days after AMI confers a worse prognosis than HF occurring concomitantly with the ischemic event or in the first 72 hours. One explanation for this last finding is that early post-MI HF reflects extensive myocardial damage and is thus related to the characteristics of the infarction (location, size, and reperfusion time), whereas &quot;late-onset&quot; HF has been associated with other mechanisms, such as progressive remodeling, recurrent myocardial infarction, and even subclinical ischemia. Despite this, the definition of whether the event is early or late (&gt;3 days) was absolutely arbitrary.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Another American cohort that simultaneously analyzed patients hospitalized with AMI without concomitant or previous HF showed that almost 1 in 5 patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction and without a history of HF develop a subsequent diagnosis of HF within 5 years (18.8%) and Appropriate medical therapy with aspirin, P2Y12 inhibitor and statin at hospital discharge from infarction was associated with reduced incidence of future HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>Post-MI HF has significant nuances within the spectrum of acute HF presentations, appearing to be an intermediate phenotype between acute HF and chronic HF. In this scenario, there are well-established risk factors that should draw the clinician's attention regarding the chance of its development, which should motivate an active search for its diagnosis in order to initiate appropriate treatment at the correct time. The pathophysiological understanding of this entire process, but mainly the acute installation of the entire cascade of mechanisms that attack the myocardium, explains the peculiarities of this presentation of HF. Drugs such as ACE inhibitors, beta-blockers, and mineralocorticoid antagonists have a well-established role in the therapy of these patients and should be started at the right time and never neglected. Post-AMI mechanical complications also need to be observed due to their high short-term lethality. More studies need to be carried out targeting this entity in order to minimize its negative prognostic impact.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<p><bold>Sources of funding</bold></p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<p><bold>Study association</bold></p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Insuficiência Cardíaca Pós Infarto Agudo do Miocárdio: Um Novo Fenótipo de Insuficiência Cardíaca Aguda?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Campos</surname>
						<given-names>Claudia Carolina Mendonça</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Rezende</surname>
						<given-names>Caio Cezar Gomes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Bárbara Mariana dos Santos</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-0454-2941</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Fraga</surname>
						<given-names>Felipe José de Oliveira</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-5387-9449</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Suassuna</surname>
						<given-names>Diogo Coutinho</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8441-7337</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Montenegro</surname>
						<given-names>Carlos Eduardo Lucena</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff3">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Unidade de Insuficiência cardíaca, Cardiomiopatias e Transplante cardíaco da Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff4">
					<label>2</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Esperança Recife, Rede D’Or, Recife, PE – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Carlos Eduardo Lucena Montenegro •</bold> Universidade de Pernambuco - Miocardiopatias/ Transplante cardíaco - Rua dos Palmares, S/N. CEP <postal-code>50100-010</postal-code>, Recife, PE - Brasil E-mail: <email>ce_montenegro@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
					<p>Dr. Carlos Eduardo Lucena Montenegro – Palestrante para as empresas: Novartis, Astrazeneca, Boehringer, Merck e Bayer.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Infarto do Miocárdio</kwd>
				<kwd>Doença da Artéria Coronariana</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>Doença arterial coronariana (DAC) e insuficiência cardíaca (IC) estão entre as causas mais comuns de hospitalização e morte em todo o mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Embora a etiologia da IC varie bastante ao redor do mundo, nos principais registros de países ocidentais e desenvolvidos, a DAC e a hipertensão arterial sistêmica são os fatores predominantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> O infarto agudo do miocárdio (IAM) complicado com IC (IC pós-IAM) é bastante comum na prática clínica e sua incidência entre pacientes hospitalizados por IAM varia entre 14% e 36%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> No registro GRACE (<italic>Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events</italic>), entre 13.707 pacientes com Síndrome Coronariana Aguda hospitalizados de 1999 a 2001, 13% apresentavam IC na admissão, e outros 5,6% desenvolveram IC durante a internação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Além da grande associação entre tais patologias, a Insuficiência Cardíaca também é um importante preditor de mortalidade entre os pacientes com IAM, com implicações no tratamento e prognóstico. Um dos fatores que mais se destaca entre as complicações da SCA é o choque cardiogênico, no entanto, mesmo perfis menos graves e mais comuns no espectro da IC são mais comuns também tem impacto prognóstico negativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A IC pós-IAM tem peculiaridades em seus mecanismos fisiopatológicos que a diferencia de outras etiologias da IC, levando também a diferentes consequências clínicas e possibilidades terapêuticas, tanto no tratamento farmacológico, como na indicação de dispositivos de assistência ventricular e abordagens cirúrgicas. Essas diferenças fazem da IC pós IAM, uma entidade nosológica que ainda demanda melhores esclarecimentos a respeito de sua abordagem. Nesse contexto, alguns questionamentos por parte dos especialistas em IC têm sido levantados, tais quais: Quais são os fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento da IC após uma SCA? Em se tratando de uma IC aguda, quais medicamentos podem ser iniciados em um primeiro momento, que aumentem a sobrevida do paciente? Por que certos tratamentos farmacológicos não tiveram boa resposta nessa situação, mesmo tendo se mostrado úteis na IC crônica? Em que momento a IC pós IAM &quot;se transforma&quot; numa IC crônica? Qual o momento de indicar um dispositivo de assistência ventricular nesse tipo de paciente, e existe diferença para com outras etiologias? Qual é o papel da revascularização miocárdica? A indicação e o momento do transplante cardíaco seriam diferentes?</p>
				<p>Esse artigo de revisão tenta esclarecer algumas dessas dúvidas, detalhando os processos que estão por trás da disfunção ventricular resultante do infarto agudo do miocárdio, assim como, abordar os principais estudos que embasam o atual tratamento de tal enfermidade e as possibilidades futuras que poderiam reduzir a morbimortalidade de uma doença tão grave.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Fisiopatologia</title>
				<p>Ao longo das últimas décadas muito se descobriu sobre os processos fisiopatológicos da IC crônica, especialmente o remodelamento miocárdico, sinalizando alvos farmacológicos importantes que comprovadamente impactam nos desfechos clínicos. No cenário da IC pós-infarto, algumas peculiaridades nesses processos vêm sendo melhor compreendidas ajudando na percepção de características específicas deste fenótipo clínico da IC e possibilitando uma abordagem mais direcionada neste cenário.</p>
				<p>Inicialmente, a isquemia leva à perda de função contrátil e consequentemente aumenta a cavidade ventricular, o que culmina com aumento das pressões de enchimento e da demanda de oxigênio. Ao longo do tempo, o trabalho cardíaco aumenta como tentativa de compensar a pré e pós-carga aumentadas (por conta de toda a hiperatividade do sistema nervoso simpático e do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> além disso, as sobrecargas de pressão e volume, induzem vias moleculares que determinam hipertrofia ventricular, sem adequada proporção de espessura e volume miocárdicos, sem concomitante vascularização adequada e com o surgimento de fibrose (resultante da deposição de colágeno em excesso na matriz extracelular).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O infarto agudo do miocárdio desencadeia uma resposta inflamatória caracterizada especialmente por necrose celular, liberando componentes intracelulares que ativam o sistema imune e recrutam células para iniciar uma resposta corretiva que induz formação de tecido cicatricial (fibrótico). Mesmo após esta etapa, permanece um estado de ativação crônica de citocinas e infiltração miocárdica de células inflamatórias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Concomitantemente a todo esse processo, existe ainda um remodelamento metabólico que também participa agravando o desenvolvimento e progressão do remodelamento ventricular pós-infarto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Esse é um processo complexo que envolve desde uma cascata de regulação gênica alterando a via de fornecimento energético principal do miocárdio para carboidratos (padrão fetal) até um desequilíbrio no cálcio mitocondrial, levando à produção de energia abaixo do ideal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Ainda participam desse processo a já citada hiperativação do sistema renina angiotensina e do sistema simpático e, por isto, impedir os efeitos deletérios dela têm sido a base do tratamento farmacológico atual da IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A grande questão nesse fenótipo é que ao contrário da IC crônica, algumas dessas mudanças fisiopatológicas ocorrem de forma extremamente súbita, principalmente a queda de função contrátil e o aumento das pressões de enchimento do coração esquerdo. Mudanças essas, que não são acompanhadas pelo remodelamento vascular ou mudanças de pré e pós-carga tão ágeis quanto deveriam ser para minimizar os efeitos clínicos deste momento, levando a sintomas desproporcionais ao remodelamento ventricular e, talvez, a alvos terapêuticos diferenciados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<sec>
					<title>Fatores de risco</title>
					<p>A incidência de IC intra-hospitalar é três vezes maior em pacientes de 75 a 85 anos, quando comparado com aqueles de 25 a 54 anos, assim como na alta, onde a incidência é seis vezes maior na faixa etária mais avançada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Em alguns estudos, o sexo feminino esteve independentemente associado a um risco mais elevado de IC, variando de 15% a 34%. Isso pode ser explicado por várias razões, como o fato de que a apresentação do IAM em mulheres ocorre em pacientes mais idosas, com mais comorbidades associadas, pior status funcional, e o cuidado hospitalar reconhecidamente menos agressivo, incluindo a revascularização.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A quantidade de vasos acometidos e a localização do infarto também influenciam. A doença multiarterial reflete uma maior carga aterosclerótica, associada a maior disfunção endotelial e mais inflamação sistêmica, e comumente também se associa a outras comorbidades. O infarto de parede anterior está associado a um maior risco de remodelamento adverso e IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Outros fatores que aumentam o risco de IC são a Hipertensão arterial, diabetes, fibrilação atrial, frequência cardíaca mais elevada, doença renal crônica e presença de angina prévia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Biomarcadores</title>
					<p>A troponina cardíaca é o marcador de escolha no IAM e seus valores na fase de pico (48 a 72 h após o início dos sintomas) estão associados a extensão do infarto determinado por ressonância cardíaca. Vários estudos demonstraram a associação de troponina com MACE, incluindo IC,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> no entanto, a associação desta com o pico da troponina não foi observada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Juntamente com a troponina, os peptídeos natriuréticos estão associados ao tamanho do infarto e a disfunção cardíaca, não apenas o seu grau de elevação, mas também seu padrão de apresentação. Existe o padrão monofásico com pico em 16 horas da admissão e o bifásico com um segundo pico com 5 dias, e este último padrão apresentou maior risco de remodelamento do VE e IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Além disso, os peptídeos natriuréticos parecem ter efeito protetor em relação ao desenvolvimento de disfunção ventricular, inibindo a angiotensina II e a sinalização da endotelina-1. O peptídeo natriurético do tipo A (ANP) inibe a síntese de colágeno, grande fonte de fibrose miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Um estudo avaliando a infusão de BNP humano recombinante antes de uma angioplastia coronariana pareceu levar a algum grau de proteção miocárdica, reforçando essa teoria de proteção do músculo cardíaco mediada pelo BNP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O prolongamento da resposta inflamatória pós-infarto contribui significativamente no remodelamento do VE e desenvolvimento de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Vários métodos de quantificação da reposta inflamatória mostram-se promissores para predizer IC, como os níveis de proteína C reativa, a relação neutrófilos/linfócitos, a interleucina 6, interleucina 32, entre outros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A taxa de filtração glomerular (TFG) também é fator independente associado ao risco de IC pós IAM. Fox et al. demonstraram um risco de IC atribuível à disfunção renal variando entre 30% a 90%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Resultados semelhantes foram observados no estudo VALIANT, onde o risco de IC aumentou em 10% para cada diminuição de 10 ml/min/1,72m² na TFG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Alguns biomarcadores de fibrose usados como preditores de risco na IC são recomendados pelos <sup>American College of Cardiology / American Heart Association</sup>, a exemplo da forma solúvel do Supressor de tumorogênese (sST2) e da Galectina-3. Porém, poucas são as evidências que os avaliam como valor preditivo no pós IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outros biomarcadores, como as Metalloproteinases de Matriz (MMPs), Clusterina, Desidrogenase lática, e outros mais, mostraram associação com remodelamento do ventrículo esquerdo, porém ainda faltam evidências no contexto do pós-IAM. No geral, os estudos mostraram que a análise combinada de biomarcadores é superior a qualquer um destes individualmente. E muito mais importante que a escolha do melhor biomarcador, é o momento da medição após o IAM na previsão do risco de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Opções terapêuticas</title>
					<p>Atualmente as terapias que dispomos têm o objetivo de melhorar a mecânica e hemodinâmica (débito cardíaco, pré e pós carga) e ajustar os mecanismos moleculares de remodelação. Ainda assim, a intervenção primordial e mais importante para evitar ou frear o desenvolvimento de disfunção ventricular e remodelamento miocárdico num paciente em vigência de processo isquêmico é a reperfusão coronariana precoce, quando indicada.</p>
					<p>Como já citado, a alteração de contratilidade é a primeira alteração que leva ao progressivo aumento de volume e pressão intracavitárias, intensificando o estresse parietal e a carga de trabalho para compensar a pré e pós carga, culminando num maior consumo de oxigênio e estímulo do sistema nervoso simpático e do SRAA. Este estímulo neuro-hormonal mantem o equilíbrio cardiovascular na fase inicial, porém com o tempo se torna deletério, promovendo morte celular, fibrose e remodelamento adverso. O grau de ativação destes sistemas correlaciona-se com a gravidade da disfunção e é preditor de mau prognóstico. Impedir os efeitos deletérios do SNS e SRAA é a base do tratamento farmacológico atual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Testes em modelos murinos realizados na década de 80 já haviam demonstrado benefício do uso do captopril no pós-IAM, com redução das pressões de enchimento e remodelamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Posteriormente o ensaio clínico SAVE reforçou o seu benefício no pós-IAM, mostrando redução de mortalidade e incidência de eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes com disfunção ventricular assintomática (FE &lt; 40%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Os estudos AIRE e TRACE ratificaram o benefício dos inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina (IECA) nesse contexto. O AIRE mostrou redução de cerca de 27% na mortalidade por todas as causas e 19% de eventos cardiovasculares com o uso do Ramipril em pacientes com disfunção ventricular sintomática nos primeiros 30 dias pós IAM e o estudo TRACE mostrou redução de 25% na mortalidade, assim como redução de morte súbita e progressão para IC severa com o uso do Trandolapril de início 3 a 7 dias após IAM. Na última diretriz brasileira de IC (2018) é recomendação I com nível de evidencia A, o uso de IECA para pacientes com disfunção de VE sintomática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina II (BRAs) na IC pós IAM, foram analisados inicialmente em 2002 no estudo OPTIMAAL que comparou a losartana 50mg/dia com o captopril 50mg três vezes ao dia em mais de 5000 pacientes com disfunção ventricular (FE &lt;40%) pós IAM. Este ensaio clínico não mostrou diferença estatisticamente significativa na morbimortalidade entre as duas medicações nos 2,7 anos de seguimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Da mesma forma o ensaio clínico VALIANT demonstrou que o uso do BRA, Valsartana, nos primeiros 10 dias após IAM em pacientes que desenvolveram IC com fração de ejeção reduzida, era tão eficaz quanto o captopril na redução de mortalidade, porém a combinação destas duas medicações aumentou a prevalência de efeitos adversos sem melhorar desfechos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Os BRAs tornaram-se então alternativa eficaz quando há intolerância ao IECA.</p>
					<p>Seguindo o racional neuro-hormonal de inibição do SRAA, um dos primeiros estudos que demostrou benefício clínico do uso dos antagonistas mineralocorticoides na IC foi o RALES, mostrando redução de mortalidade, hospitalização e sintomas relacionados a IC com o uso da espironolactona em pacientes com ICFER classe funcional III- IV da NYHA cuja etiologia era majoritariamente isquêmica (mais de 50% dos pacientes), mas não necessariamente pós-IAM,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> com o EMPHASIS aumentando a indicação para a IC classe funcional II.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Mas foi o estudo EPHESUS, que avaliou os pacientes com IC pós-IAM e que igualmente constatou benefício do uso do eplerenone, na redução de mortalidade total, morte súbita e desfecho combinado de mortalidade cardiovascular ou hospitalização por IC. Uma análise post hoc deste estudo evidenciou que o início precoce do eplerenone (ente o 3° e 7° dia do IAM) reduziu o risco de morte por todas as causas em 31%, o risco de morte cardiovascular e hospitalização em 24% e de morte súbita em 34% quando comparado ao placebo. Em contrapartida, o início desta droga após 7 dias do IAM não mostrou diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos, demonstrando o benefício do início precoce dessa medicação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No mesmo período, estudos com betabloqueadores na IC foram desenvolvidos, mostrando importante redução de morbimortalidade em pacientes com ICFER independente da etiologia. Uma metanálise publicada em 1999 com 31 ensaios randomizados que incluiu aproximadamente 25.000 pacientes com história de IAM, mostrou que o uso de betabloqueadores a longo prazo reduziu o risco de reinfarto e morte durante uma média de 2 anos de acompanhamento, porém ressaltou que esta classe medicamentosa ainda era muito subutilizada na época.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> À medida que o conceito fisiopatológico neuro-hormonal da IC ganhava força, outros estudos começaram a ser desenhados. No fim da década de 90 foram publicados vários estudos com betabloqueadores, como o US carvedilol, MERIT-HF, CIBIS II e COPERNICUS, mostrando redução de mortalidade por todas as causas e redução de morte súbita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Estes ensaios randomizados foram truncados devido os significativos benefícios em relação ao placebo. A eficácia a longo prazo do carvedilol em pacientes com disfunção ventricular (FE ≤40%) pós IAM foi avaliada no estudo CAPRICORN (2001), que evidenciou redução de mortalidade por todas as causas assim como de mortalidade cardiovascular, IAM não fatal e mortalidade cardiovascular ou IAM não fatal em comparação ao placebo, porém sem diferença estatística em relação ao desfecho primário de mortalidade por todas as causas ou hospitalizações por causas cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> O estudo COMMIT-CCS2 (2005) que randomizou mais de 45.000 pacientes com IAM em múltiplos centros da China para o uso de Metoprolol (até 15mg, EV seguido de 200mg/dia, VO) ou placebo, mostrou efeito benéfico nos desfechos primários estabelecidos de morte, reinfarto ou parada cardíaca e morte por qualquer causa, porém reduzindo reinfarto e arritmias ventriculares de forma isolada, benefício que foi contrabalanceado pelo aumento de choques cardiogênicos no grupo do metoprolol, sobretudo quando usados no primeiro dia de admissão. Cerca de 20% dos pacientes encontravam-se em Killip II no momento da randomização e 5% em Killip III. Estes últimos tiveram maior probabilidade de evoluir para choque cardiogênico, mostrando que o uso precoce de altas doses intravenosas de metoprolol parece ser nocivo para pacientes que se apresentam com IC em vigência de síndrome coronariana aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Devido à considerável evidência de redução de morbimortalidade e remodelamento cardíaco no-pós IAM com as drogas que bloqueiam o SRAA e após comprovação de eficácia do sacubitril-valsartana em comparação com enalapril em pacientes portadores de ICFER no estudo PARADIGM-HF, estudos subsequentes procuraram avaliar o potencial desta nova droga em pacientes com ICFER pós IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> O benefício do sacubitril/valsartana no remodelamento cardíaco foi testado em pacientes com disfunção ventricular (FE ≤ 40%) assintomática na fase tardia pós IAM (≥ 3 meses), comparando este com valsartana isolada e não mostrou diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os dois grupos no desfecho primário de redução do volume sistólico do VE medido por RM na 52ª semana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Já o estudo PARADISE-MI, publicado no mesmo ano, comparou o sacubitril/valsartana com o ramipril em pacientes com disfunção ventricular e sob risco de desenvolver IC, nos primeiros 7 dias pós IAM, e também não mostrou diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os dois grupos em relação ao desfecho primário de morte cardiovascular e piora da IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Após o êxito dos ISGLT2 na redução dos desfechos cardiovasculares de morte e hospitalização por IC, independentemente da presença da diabetes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> outros estudos foram elaborados para investigar o potencial destes medicamentos no remodelamento cardíaco. Um estudo com porcos não diabéticos pós IAM induzido demonstrou melhora no remodelamento cardíaco após 2 meses do uso da empagliflozina em comparação com placebo. Este estudo constatou também que a empagliflozina alterou o consumo energético do miócito, substituindo glicose por ácidos graxos livre, corpos cetônicos e aminoácidos de cadeia ramificada, melhorando assim o perfil metabólico do miocárdio no pós-IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Dois grandes estudos têm o objetivo de avaliar essa classe de drogas no pós-IAM. O EMPACT- MI, ainda não publicado, compara empagliflozina com placebo em pacientes com FEVE &lt; 45% ou sinais e sintomas congestivos nos primeiros 14 dias pós IAM e avaliará o desfecho composto de mortalidade por todas as causas ou tempo até primeira hospitalização por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> O DAPA – MI, este publicado recentemente, comparou a dapagliflozina <sup>versus</sup> placebo em pacientes hospitalizados por IAM e com alguma evidência de disfunção ventricular esquerda global ou segmentar, ou se a avaliação da função do ventrículo esquerdo não estivesse disponível, com presença de Q patológica no eletrocardiograma. O estudo não demonstrou benefício dessa droga em relação ao desfecho primário de morte, hospitalização por IC, IAM não fatal, evento de fibrilação ou flutter atrial, novo diagnóstico de diabetes tipo 2, melhora de classe funcional de NYHA e perda de peso, apesar de ter sido uma estratégia segura e com bons efeitos cardiometabólicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Visto que a isquemia é a etiologia predominante na gênese da IC, outras múltiplas terapias foram avaliadas. A trimetazidina por exemplo, altera o metabolismo energético do miócito, conferindo ação citoprotetora, porém ainda não é certo se isto confere benefício contra o remodelamento cardíaco pós IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> As estatinas mostraram melhora no remodelamento cardíaco quando comparadas com placebo em um estudo com ratos com extenso IAM induzido. Este benefício foi associado à redução na expressão de genes fetais no miocárdio assim como colágeno e aumento do NO endotelial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Foram realizados os estudos CORONA e GISSI-HF para avaliar a eficácia e segurança da rosuvastatina em pacientes portadores de ICFER maiores de 60 e 18 anos, respectivamente. Em ambos os estudos a rosuvastatina não mostrou redução de desfechos primários, porém mostrou-se segura neste grupo de pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Visto que a Ivabradina reduz a FC ao inibir as correntes <sup>If</sup> do nó sinoatrial, reduzindo o gasto energético celular, esta foi testada em comparação com placebo em pacientes com DAC crônica e disfunção ventricular (FE &lt;40%) no estudo BEAUTIFUL, publicado em 2008. Neste estudo a Ivabradina não mostrou superioridade em relação ao placebo no desfecho primário combinado de morte cardiovascular ou hospitalização por IAM ou IC, porém reduziu desfechos secundários de hospitalização por IAM fatal e não fatal e revascularização coronariana, em pacientes com FC acima de 70.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento invasivo</title>
					<p>Vários procedimentos cirúrgicos, como o implante de cardiodesfibrilador implantável (CDI), terapia de ressincronização cardíaca e a revascularização, demonstraram benefícios significativos na redução da mortalidade e na diminuição das hospitalizações em pacientes otimizados em relação à terapia medicamentosa para a IC de etiologia isquêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estudos antigos, como o CASS na década de 1980, e estudos mais recentes, como o STICH e o STICHES, têm mostrado resultados positivos ao revascularizar pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca isquêmica e fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) inferior a 35%. O STICHES, por exemplo, demonstrou uma redução de 28% na mortalidade por qualquer causa ou hospitalização devido à IC em um período de 10 anos de acompanhamento. Atualmente, as principais diretrizes em todo o mundo recomendam a revascularização miocárdica em pacientes com múltiplas lesões arteriais, obstrução significativa da artéria descendente anterior e FEVE inferior a 35%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
					<p>É importante salientar que a utilização de dispositivos como o CDI para prevenção secundária de morte súbita já está bem fundamentada, com uma recomendação de classe I para pacientes que tiveram morte súbita abortada, taquicardia ventricular com instabilidade hemodinâmica ou fibrilação ventricular documentada em estudos eletrofisiológicos. Os estudos SCD-HEFT e MADIT II demonstraram benefícios significativos ao implantar CDI em pacientes com IC de etiologia isquêmica após infarto do miocárdio, com o último mostrando redução de risco absoluto de morte em 6%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A recomendação para terapia de ressincronização cardíaca em pacientes com IC pós-infarto segue as mesmas diretrizes dos pacientes com IC de etiologia não isquêmica. Embora os grandes estudos, como o MADIT-CRT, não tenham sido especificamente desenhados para pacientes pós-infarto, a etiologia isquêmica era uma das causas mais comuns, e esses estudos também mostraram benefícios na redução da mortalidade e das hospitalizações por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No contexto da IC aguda pós-IAM, também ocorrem complicações mecânicas, como ruptura da parede livre, ruptura do septo interventricular e insuficiência mitral aguda. A incidência dessas complicações tem diminuído com o advento da reperfusão miocárdica e do acesso mais facilitado à revascularização precoce, porém permanecem sendo complicações graves com altíssima mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A ruptura da parede livre do ventrículo esquerdo pode ocorrer em menos de 1% dos pacientes durante a primeira semana após um infarto transmural, manifestando-se com dor súbita e/ou choque cardiogênico. Fatores como idade avançada, falta de reperfusão ou fibrinólise tardia parecem estar associados a um aumento na incidência de ruptura cardíaca. A evolução para hemopericárdio e tamponamento cardíaco, levando a um choque é geralmente fatal. As taxas de mortalidade variam de 20% a 75%, dependendo das condições do paciente e do tamanho e morfologia da ruptura. Em determinados pacientes, a ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) pode complementar o diagnóstico, identificando a ruptura cardíaca contida e suas características anatômicas para orientar a intervenção cirúrgica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A comunicação interventricular pós-IAM geralmente se apresenta como uma rápida deterioração clínica com insuficiência cardíaca aguda ou choque cardiogênico. Pode ocorrer dentro de 24 horas a vários dias após o IAM, com igual frequência em IAM de parede anterior e posterolateral. O diagnóstico é confirmado por ecocardiografia e Doppler, que diferenciam essa condição da regurgitação mitral aguda, definem a ruptura e seu tamanho, e quantificam o shunt. O uso de um cateter de Swan-Ganz pode confirmar com mais precisão o shunt. Em alguns casos selecionados o balão intra-aórtico (BIA) pode estabilizar os pacientes em preparação para angiografia e cirurgia. A cirurgia precoce está associada a uma alta taxa de mortalidade, relatada em 20-40%, e um alto risco de recorrência da ruptura ventricular, enquanto a cirurgia tardia permite uma reparação mais fácil do septo em tecido cicatricial, mas aumenta o risco de extensão da ruptura e morte enquanto aguarda a cirurgia. Por esse motivo, a cirurgia precoce deve ser realizada em todos os pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca grave que não respondem rapidamente à terapia, mas a reparação cirúrgica eletiva tardia pode ser considerada em pacientes que respondem bem ao tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A regurgitação mitral aguda normalmente ocorre de 2 a 7 dias após o IAM devido à ruptura do músculo papilar ou das cordas tendíneas. A ruptura pode ser completa ou envolver uma ou mais das cabeças do músculo papilar, sendo até 6 a 12 vezes mais frequente no músculo papilar póstero-medial devido ao seu suprimento sanguíneo único da artéria coronária direita. A ruptura do músculo papilar geralmente se manifesta como uma rápida deterioração hemodinâmica com dispneia aguda, edema agudo pulmonar e/ou choque cardiogênico. Nesse contexto, o tratamento imediato baseia-se na redução da pós-carga para diminuir o volume de regurgitação e a congestão pulmonar. O uso de diuréticos intravenosos, vasodilatadores/inotrópico e o BIA podem estabilizar os pacientes em preparação para angiografia e cirurgia. A cirurgia de emergência é o tratamento de escolha, embora carregue uma alta mortalidade operatória (20-25%). A substituição da válvula mitral é frequentemente necessária, mas casos de reparo bem-sucedido por sutura do músculo papilar têm sido cada vez mais relatados e parecem ser uma opção melhor nas mãos experientes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Linha do tempo dos trials em IC pós-IAM.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230086-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
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				<sec>
					<title>Prognóstico</title>
					<p>A correta identificação e tratamento da IC em pacientes pós-IAM é crucial para garantir sobrevida e qualidade de vida aos pacientes, dado o tamanho do impacto que a insuficiência cardíaca pode causar nos indivíduos. No estudo SOLVD treatment, pacientes com FEVE ≤ 35% e infarto prévio tiveram duas vezes mais hospitalização por IC descompensada e quatro vezes mais mortalidade em comparação com àqueles sem IAM prévio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Já o ensaio SAVE encontrou em pacientes com disfunção ventricular um aumento de 70% no risco de morte cardiovascular e aumento do VE em decorrência de infarto prévio comparativamente aqueles pacientes sem infarto prévio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> Dados de registro canadense<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> e do registro GRACE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> mostraram que a presença de IC na admissão aumentou as chances de mortalidade hospitalar entre 1,87 e 2,2 vezes, enquanto um registro francês mostrou que esses pacientes, em relação aos que não desenvolvem IC neste cenário tem um risco significativamente aumentado de morte durante o internamento (12,2% x 3%) e no seguimento de um ano (26,6% 5,2%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> Para os pacientes acometidos por evento isquêmico agudo, uma forma de prognosticá-lo é aplicando a classificação de Killip. No escore de risco GRACE, esta classificação foi o preditor mais importante de mortalidade quando comparada com ausência de IC durante apresentação de IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Uma grande coorte de base populacional em Minnesota analisou 2.596 pacientes em um acompanhamento médio de 7,6 anos após primeiro episódio de IAM e constatou que neste cenário a IC aumenta fortemente o risco de morte por todas as causas, morte cardiovascular e morte não cardiovascular, bem como mostrou que pacientes com ICFEr e ICFEp compartilham um prognóstico semelhante, enquanto a IC que se desenvolve &gt; 3 dias após IAM confere pior prognóstico do que a IC que ocorre concomitantemente com o evento isquêmico ou nas primeiras 72h. Uma explicação para este último achado é que a IC pós-IAM precoce reflete um extenso dano miocárdico e, assim, está relacionada às características do infarto (localização, tamanho e tempo de reperfusão), enquanto que a IC de &quot;início tardio&quot; tem sido associada a outros mecanismos, como remodelamento progressivo, infarto do miocárdio recorrente e até isquemia subclínica. Apesar disto, a definição de se o evento é precoce ou tardio (&gt;3 dias) foi absolutamente arbitrária.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outra coorte americana que analisou contemporaneamente pacientes hospitalizados com IAM sem IC concomitante ou prévia, evidenciou que quase 1 em 5 pacientes hospitalizados com infarto agudo do miocárdio e sem antecedentes de IC desenvolve um diagnóstico subsequente de IC dentro 5 anos (18,8%) e a terapia médica apropriada com aspirina, inibidor de P2Y12 e estatina na alta hospitalar do infarto foi associada com incidência reduzida de IC futura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A IC pós-IAM tem nuances significativas dentre o espectro de apresentações de IC aguda, parecendo ser um fenótipo intermediário entre a IC aguda e a IC crônica. Neste cenário, existem fatores de risco bem estabelecidos que devem chamar a atenção do clínico em relação à chance de seu desenvolvimento, o que deve motivar uma busca ativa pelo seu diagnóstico, a fim de iniciar um tratamento adequado e no tempo correto. O entendimento fisiopatológico de todo esse processo, mas principalmente a instalação aguda de toda a cascata de mecanismos agressores ao miocárdio parecem explicar as peculiaridades dessa apresentação de IC. Drogas como os IECA, betabloqueadores e antagonistas mineralocorticoides tem papel bem estabelecido na terapêutica desses pacientes, devendo ser iniciados no momento certo e nunca negligenciados. As complicações mecânicas pós-IAM também precisam ser observadas devido a sua alta letalidade em curto prazo. Mais estudos precisam ser realizados direcionados para essa entidade, a fim de minimizar seu impacto prognóstico negativo.</p>
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				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4">
					<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
					<p><bold>Vinculação acadêmica</bold></p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<p><bold>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</bold></p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
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