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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20230078</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230078</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Hypertonic Saline Solution: How, Why, and for Whom?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8667-5276</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Murad</surname>
						<given-names>Ciro Mancilha</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2533-5638</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Marcondes-Braga</surname>
						<given-names>Fabiana Goulart</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Coração</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração, Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Fabiana Goulart Marcondes-Braga •</bold> Universidade de São Paulo Instituto do Coração – Av. Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. Postal Code <postal-code>05403-000</postal-code>, São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>fgmarcondes@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold></p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>31</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>3</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230078</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>14</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>14</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>The administration of hypertonic saline (HS) in decompensated heart failure (HF) seems counterintuitive, given the concept that sodium is universally harmful for these patients. However, increasingly, strict sodium restrictions have been questioned due to the lack of proven benefits. On the other hand, we know that in acute HF complicated with diuretic resistance, there is hyperactivation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), resulting in a state of excessive increase in renal avidity for sodium, hindering the action of loop diuretics. In this sense, HS would have the potential to attenuate the hyperactivation of RAAS and provide a supply of sodium to the renal tubules, enabling the action of loop diuretics. Several studies have consistently demonstrated that the association of HS with loop diuretics results in greater diuresis, weight loss, and possibly improved renal function. Therefore, despite being underused, we believe that HS is an effective, low-cost, and widely available strategy whose mechanism of action addresses one of the central points in the pathophysiology of diuretic resistance.</p>
			</abstract>
			<abstract abstract-type="graphical">
				<p>
					<fig id="f1">
						<caption>
							<title>Representation of nephron segments, mechanisms of diuretic resistance and mechanisms of action of HS. The panel below demonstrates apical membrane of tubular cells of the thick ascending portion of Loop of Henle. A: under physiological conditions, the NKCC2 cotransporter is responsible for reabsorption of up to 25% of filtered sodium. Loop diuretics block this receptor, resulting in natriuretic effect. B: in situations of high diuretic resistance, there is an increase in sodium reabsorption in different segments of the nephron, resulting in lower concentration of this ion in the tubular lumen of Loop of Henle. Therefore, despite the use of loop diuretics, the result is less sodium excretion in urine and consequently less diuretic effect. C: with the use of HS, there is an increase in sodium concentration in the tubular lumen, which associated with loop diuretics, results in increased natriuresis, reversing diuretic resistance. HS: hypertonic saline.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230078-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Diuretics</kwd>
				<kwd>Acute Kidney Injury</kwd>
				<kwd>Hyponatremia</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="10"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>According to the conventional paradigm for managing heart failure (HF), sodium is seen as harmful because it is associated with fluid retention, symptoms of congestion, and, consequently, a greater risk of hospitalizations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> From this view, administration of hypertonic saline (HS) to patients presenting with decompensated HF with signs of hypervolemia seems counterintuitive. However, strict dietary sodium restrictions have been increasingly questioned, with some studies even demonstrating worse outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Recently, the Randomized trial SODIUM-HF failed to demonstrate a reduction in death or cardiovascular hospitalizations in patients with HF receiving a sodium-restricted diet (&lt;1500mg/day).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> On the other hand, we know that in decompensated HF, hyperactivation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), resistance to diuretics, progressive worsening of renal function, and hyponatremia can occur, which can be attenuated by HS.</p>
			<p>We will describe here the mechanism and rationale behind the use of HS in acute HF, the clinical evidence that supports its use, and how to prescribe it in clinical practice.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Diuretic resistance mechanisms</title>
				<p>The treatment of congestion in HF and in other states of hypervolemia, is fundamentally based on the use of loop diuretics, which prototype is furosemide. This class of medications works by blocking the sodium-potassium-chloride co-transporter (NKCC2) in the thick ascending portion of the Loop of Henle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> This co-transporter is responsible for the reabsorption of up to 25% of sodium chloride present in the renal tubules, explaining the natriuretic effect of furosemide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> However, a subgroup of patients may develop resistance to diuretics, characterized by low urinary volume and low urine sodium concentration despite increasing doses of furosemide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> This situation is often associated with progressive renal dysfunction (cardiorenal syndrome) and presents high mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The central mechanism that explains diuretic resistance is the increase in renal sodium reabsorption capacity after chronic use of high doses of loop diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> This process occurs through a series of complex cell signaling pathways that generate nephron adaptations. As an example, we can mention the hypertrophy of the distal segments of the nephron, resulting in an increase in its sodium reabsorption capacity. Loop diuretics also stimulate the release of renin in the afferent arteriole, resulting in greater activation of the RAAS and consequently also increasing the capacity for sodium and water reabsorption by the renal tubules.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Due to the pathophysiology of decompensated HF, there is a strong activation of the RAAS, which is then potentiated by the use of increasing doses of loop diuretics, inducing a state of enormous &quot;avidity&quot; for sodium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Finally, there is also an increase in the sodium reabsorption capacity in the proximal tubules, which results in the arrival of less sodium load in the Loop of Henle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Considering that loop diuretics depend on the presence of sodium in the renal tubules to exert their effect by blocking the NKCC2 co-transporter, this results in lower diuretic efficiency.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The alternatives commonly used to overcome diuretic resistance are: escalating the dose of loop diuretics, sequential nephron blockade, i.e., use of multiple classes of diuretics in combination, or ultrafiltration. However, none of these alternatives is capable of attenuating the excessive increase in sodium avidity that occurs in decompensated HF complicated with diuretic resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action of HS</title>
				<p>HS solutions have been studied in various pathological conditions for over 100 years with several proposed mechanisms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> In decompensated HF, one of the most plausible mechanisms is the increased sodium supply in the renal tubules, facilitating the pharmacological action of loop diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> This mechanism becomes particularly relevant when there is a high degree of diuretic resistance, which results in an excessive increase in renal sodium reabsorption capacity and hyperactivation of the RAAS. Still, in this sense, sodium load would have the theoretical potential to attenuate the hyperactivation of the RAAS. Furthermore, due to its high osmolarity, HS has the ability to quickly move fluids from the interstitial space to the intravascular space, enabling the maintenance of adequate venous return and renal perfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Finally, a possible positive inotropic mechanism induced by hypertonicity has also been proposed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Central Illustration demonstrate mechanisms of diuretic resistance and mechanisms of action of HS.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Evidence</title>
				<p>Although the use of HS is still restricted to few centers, a series of studies have already been carried out evaluating its effectiveness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> In 2021, Liu et al. published a meta-analysis of randomized studies evaluating the role of HS associated with furosemide in decompensated HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Eleven studies with a total of 2,987 patients were included. One study was multicenter with 1,927 patients, and the others were single-center with less than 100 patients. Overall, the risk of bias was considered moderate to high. HS concentrations between 1.4 and 7.5% were used, and no major adverse events were observed. The use of HS associated with furosemide was associated with greater diuresis, weight loss, serum sodium level, and natriuresis. Regarding clinical outcomes, HS was related to lower mortality, hospital readmission rates, and length of hospital stay.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A possible limitation of the meta-analysis is that of the 11 studies evaluated, 6 of them were carried out by the same group, raising the possibility of data duplication. However, a sensitivity analysis was carried out to remove these works, and the result was maintained. Regarding the clinical outcomes of mortality and hospital readmissions, the study with the greatest weight in the meta-analysis was published by Paterna et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> In this study, the patients were randomized to receive 250 mg furosemide associated with HS and moderate sodium restriction (120 mmol/day) versus 250 mg furosemide and strict sodium restriction (80 mmol/day). Both groups had fluid restrictions of 1000 mL/day, and after hospital discharge, patients maintained their respective sodium restrictions (120 versus 80 mmol/day). The mortality and re-hospitalization outcomes were assessed after an average of 57 months of follow-up, making it unlikely that they could be attributed solely to interventions carried out during the hospitalization period. Therefore, we view with some caution the impact of HS on the outcomes of reducing mortality and readmissions and believe that further confirmatory studies are necessary.</p>
				<p>In a Brazilian randomized study, 34 patients hospitalized for decompensated HF were randomized to receive 100 mL of 7.5% HS twice a day for three days versus placebo. HS was associated with a lower incidence of renal dysfunction (defined as an elevation in creatinine of at least 0.3 mg/dL), lower cystatin C levels, and improvements in markers of tubular function. The result suggests the potential of HS to attenuate or prevent the occurrence of kidney injury during HF decompensation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>More recently, the experience of an American academic center with the use of HS in acute refractory decompensated HF was also published.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Fifty patients were retrospectively evaluated, showing resistance to diuretics, a tendency to hyponatremia, and worsening renal function. The use of HS 3% associated with loop diuretics was related to increased urinary volume, weight loss, improved kidney function, and increased serum sodium levels. No respiratory or neurological adverse effects were detected.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>How to prescribe HS</title>
				<p>In our practice, we use HS in hospitalized patients with decompensated HF, presenting diuretic resistance. The patient profile that probably have the greatest benefit is: severe hypervolemia refractory to high doses of loop diuretics, tending to hyponatremia and already presenting renal dysfunction (cardiorenal syndrome). A practical approach is to dilute 20 mL of 20% sodium chloride in 130 mL of 0.9% sodium chloride, resulting in a final concentration of approximately 3.5%. The solution is administered intravenously over 30-60 minutes, twice a day, followed by bolus intravenous furosemide. There is no pre defined dose of furosemide to be applied after HS. We usually calculate it based on the previous dose of loop diuretics which the patient was using before starting HS. Kidney function, electrolytes, weight, and urine output should be monitored at least once a day.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>In short, HS has already been tested in several studies, demonstrating an adequate safety and tolerability profile, with no major adverse effects reported. Furthermore, the results of these studies are quite consistent demonstrating that the use of HS associated with loop diuretics increases urinary volume and weight loss and reduces creatinine values, outcomes of great relevance for patients with decompensated HF complicated with resistance to diuretics and cardiorenal syndrome. Therefore, despite being underused, HS is an elegant, low-cost, and widely available strategy whose mechanism of action addresses one of the central points in the pathophysiology of diuretic resistance.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<p><bold>Sources of funding</bold></p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<p><bold>Study association</bold></p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Solução Salina Hipertônica: Como, Para Que e Para Quem?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8667-5276</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Murad</surname>
						<given-names>Ciro Mancilha</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2533-5638</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Marcondes-Braga</surname>
						<given-names>Fabiana Goulart</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff3">
					<label>3</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff4">
					<label>4</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração, Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Fabiana Goulart Marcondes-Braga •</bold> Universidade de São Paulo Instituto do Coração – Av. Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. CEP <postal-code>05403-000</postal-code>, São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: <email>fgmarcondes@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A administração de solução salina hipertônica (SSH) na insuficiência cardíaca (IC) descompensada parece contraintuitiva pelo conceito de que o sódio é universalmente deletério para estes pacientes. Todavia, cada vez mais, restrições de sódio rigorosas têm sido questionadas pela ausência de benefício comprovado. Por outro lado, sabemos que na IC aguda complicada com resistência a diuréticos ocorre hiperativação do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA) resultando num estado de aumento excessivo da avidez renal por sódio, dificultando a ação dos diuréticos de alça. Nesse sentido, a SSH teria o potencial de atenuar a hiperativação do SRAA e fornecer um aporte de sódio aos túbulos renais viabilizando a ação dos diuréticos de alça. Diversos estudos já demonstraram de maneira consistente que a associação de SSH aos diuréticos de alça resulta em maior diurese, perda de peso e possivelmente melhora da função renal. Portanto, apesar de ser subutilizada, percebemos que a SSH é uma estratégia eficaz, de baixo custo e ampla disponibilidade, cujo mecanismo de ação aborda um dos pontos centrais da fisiopatologia da resistência a diuréticos.</p>
			</abstract>
			<abstract abstract-type="graphical">
				<p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<caption>
							<title>Representação dos segmentos do néfron, mecanismos de resistência a diuréticos e mecanismos de ação da SSH. O painel abaixo demonstra a membrana apical das células tubulares da porção ascendente espessa da Alça de Henle. A: em condições fisiológicas o co-transportador NKCC2 é responsável pela reabsorção de até 25% do sódio filtrado. Os diuréticos de alça atuam bloqueando este receptor, resultando em efeito natriurético. B: em situações de elevada resistência a diuréticos, ocorre aumento da reabsorção de sódio em diversos segmentos do néfron, resultando em menor concentração deste íon no lúmen tubular na Alça de Henle. Por isso, apesar do uso dos diuréticos de alça, o resultado é uma menor excreção de sódio na urina e consequentemente menor efeito diurético. C: com o uso da SSH ocorre aumento da concentração de sódio no lúmem tubular, o que associado aos diuréticos de alça, resultado em aumento da natriurese, revertendo a resistência a diuréticos de alça. SSH: solução salina hipertônica.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230078-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Insuficiência cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Diuréticos</kwd>
				<kwd>Injúria Renal Aguda</kwd>
				<kwd>Hiponatremia</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>De acordo com o paradigma convencional de manejo da insuficiência cardíaca (IC), o sódio é visto como deletério por estar associado a retenção de fluídos, sintomas de congestão e consequentemente maior risco de hospitalizações.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Por esta visão, a administração de solução salina hipertônica (SSH) para pacientes apresentando IC descompensada com sinais de hipervolemia parece contraintuitiva. Todavia, restrições dietéticas rigorosas de sódio vem sendo cada vez mais questionadas, com alguns estudos demonstrando inclusive piora de desfechos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Recentemente o estudo randomizado SODIUM-HF falhou em demonstrar redução de morte ou hospitalizações cardiovasculares em pacientes portadores de IC recebendo uma dieta restrita em sódio (&lt;1500mg/dia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Por outro lado, sabemos que na IC descompensada pode ocorrer hiperativação do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA), resistência a diuréticos, piora progressiva da função renal e hiponatremia, fatores que, como veremos, podem ser atenuados pela SSH.</p>
				<p>Descreveremos aqui o mecanismo e o racional do uso da SSH na IC aguda, a evidência clínica que sustenta sua utilização e como prescrevê-la na prática clínica.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismos de resistência a diurético</title>
					<p>O tratamento da congestão na IC, e mesmo de outros estados de hipervolemia, é baseado fundamentalmente no uso de diuréticos de alça, cujo protótipo é a furosemida. Essa classe de medicações atua bloqueando o co-transportador de sódio-potássio-cloreto (NKCC2) na porção ascendente espessa da alça de Henle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Esse co-transportador é responsável pela reabsorção de até 25% do cloreto de sódio presente nos túbulos renais, explicando o efeito natriurético da furosemida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Todavia, um subgrupo de pacientes pode desenvolver resistência a diuréticos, caracterizada por baixo volume urinário e baixa concentração de sódio na urina a despeito de doses crescentes de furosemida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Essa situação é frequentemente associada a disfunção renal progressiva (síndrome cardiorrenal) e apresenta elevada mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> O mecanismo central que explica a resistência a diuréticos é o aumento da capacidade renal de reabsorção de sódio após o uso crônico e de altas doses de diuréticos de alça.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Esse processo ocorre através de uma série de vias complexas de sinalização celular que geram adaptações do néfron. Como exemplo, podemos citar a hipertrofia dos segmentos distais do néfron resultando no aumento de sua capacidade de reabsorção de sódio. Os diuréticos de alça também estimulam a liberação de renina na arteríola aferente, resultando em maior ativação do SRAA, e consequentemente também aumentando a capacidade de reabsorção de sódio e água pelos túbulos renais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Pela própria fisiopatologia da IC descompensada ocorre forte ativação do SRAA, sendo então potencializada pelo uso de doses crescentes de diuréticos de alça, induzindo um estado de enorme &quot;avidez&quot; por sódio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Por fim, também ocorre aumento da capacidade de reabsorção de sódio nos túbulos proximais, o que resulta na chegada de menor carga de sódio na Alça de Henle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Considerando que os diuréticos de alça dependem da presença de sódio nos túbulos renais para exercer seu efeito através do bloqueio do co-transportador NKCC2, isso resulta em menor eficiência diurética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> As alternativas habitualmente usadas para contornar a resistência a diuréticos são: escalonamento da dose de diurético de alça; bloqueio sequencial do néfron, ou seja, uso de múltiplas classes de diuréticos associadas ou ultrafiltração. Todavia, nenhuma dessas alternativas é capaz de atenuar o aumento excessivo da avidez por sódio que ocorre na IC descompensada complicada com resistência a diuréticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação da solução salina hipertônica</title>
					<p>Soluções salinas hipertônicas têm sido estudadas em diversas condições patológicas há mais de 100 anos com diversos mecanismos propostos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Na IC descompensada, um dos mecanismos mais plausíveis é o maior aporte de sódio nos túbulos renais facilitando a ação farmacológica dos diuréticos de alça.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Esse mecanismo se torna particularmente relevante quando há elevado grau de resistência a diuréticos, que resulta em aumento excessivo da capacidade renal de reabsorção de sódio e hiperativação do SRAA. Ainda nesse sentido, o aporte de sódio teria o potencial teórico de atenuar a hiperativação do SRAA. Além disso, devido a sua elevada osmolaridade, a SSH tem a capacidade de rapidamente mover fluídos do espaço intersticial para o intravascular possibilitando manutenção de um retorno venoso e perfusão renal adequados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Finalmente um possível mecanismo inotrópico positivo induzido pela hipertonicidade também já foi proposto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A figura central relaciona os principais mecanismos de resistência a diuréticos com potenciais mecanismos da SSH para suplantá-los. Também demonstra de maneira esquemática a ação da SSH nos túbulos renais.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Evidência</title>
					<p>Apesar da utilização da SSH ainda ser restrita a poucos centros, uma série de trabalhos já foram realizados avaliando sua eficácia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Em 2021, Liu et al. publicaram uma metanálise de estudos randomizados avaliando o papel da SSH associada a furosemida na IC descompensada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Foram incluídos 11 estudos com um total de 2.987 pacientes. Um estudo foi multicêntrico com 1.927 pacientes e os demais unicêntricos com menos de 100 pacientes. No geral o risco de viés foi considerado moderado a alto. Foram utilizadas concentrações de SSH entre 1,4 e 7,5% e não foram observados eventos adversos maiores. O uso de SSH associado a furosemida foi associado a maior diurese, perda de peso, nível sérico de sódio e natriurese. Em relação a desfechos clínicos, a SSH foi relacionada a menor mortalidade, taxas de readmissões hospitalares e tempo de permanência hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Uma possível limitação da metanálise é que dos 11 estudos avaliados, 6 deles foram realizados pelo mesmo grupo, levantando a possibilidade de duplicação de dados. Todavia, foi realizada análise de sensibilidade removendo estes trabalhos e o resultado foi mantido. Em relação aos desfechos clínicos de mortalidade e readmissões hospitalares, o estudo de maior peso na metanálise foi publicado por Paterna et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Neste estudo, os pacientes foram randomizados para receberem 250 mg de furosemida associada à SSH e um restrição de sódio moderada (120 mmol/dia) versus 250 mg de furosemida e uma restrição de sódio rigorosa (80 mmol/dia). Ambos os grupos tiveram restrições de líquido em 1000 mL/dia e após a alta hospitalar os pacientes mantiveram as respectivas restrições de sódio (120 versus 80 mmol/dia). Os desfechos de mortalidade e re-hospitalizações foram avaliados após uma média de 57 meses de seguimento, sendo pouco plausível que sejam atribuídos apenas às intervenções realizadas no período de internação. Portanto, vemos com certa cautela o impacto da SSH nos desfechos de redução de mortalidade e reinternações e acreditamos que mais estudos confirmatórios são necessários.</p>
					<p>Em um estudo randomizado brasileiro, 34 pacientes hospitalizados por IC descompensada foram randomizados para receberem 100 mL de SSH 7,5% duas vezes por dia durante três dias versus placebo. A SSH foi associada a menor incidência de disfunção renal (definida como uma elevação da creatinina de pelo menos 0,3 mg/dL), menores níveis de cistatina C e melhora nos marcadores de função tubular. O resultado sugere um potencial da SSH de atenuar ou prevenir a ocorrência de injúria renal durante as descompensações de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Mais recentemente, também foi publicada a experiência de um centro acadêmico estadunidense com uso da SSH em IC aguda descompensada refratária.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Foram avaliados retrospectivamente 50 pacientes, apresentando resistência a diuréticos, tendência a hiponatremia e piora da função renal. O uso da SSH 3% associada ao diurético de alça foi relacionado a aumento de volume urinário, perda de peso, melhora da função renal e elevação dos níveis séricos de sódio. Não foram detectados efeitos adversos respiratórios ou neurológicos.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Como prescrever a SSH</title>
					<p>Em nossa prática, habitualmente empregamos a SSH em pacientes hospitalizados com IC descompensada, apresentando resistência a diuréticos. O perfil de pacientes que possivelmente apresenta maior potencial de benefício é o de pacientes com hipervolemia refratária a doses elevadas de diuréticos de alça, tendendo a hiponatremia e já com disfunção renal (síndrome cardiorrenal). Uma abordagem prática é a diluição de 20 mL de cloreto de sódio 20% em 130 mL de cloreto de sódio 0,9%, resultando em uma concentração final de aproximadamente 3,5%. A solução é administrada de forma endovenosa em 30-60 minutos, duas vezes ao dia, seguida de furosemida endovenosa em <italic>bolus</italic>. Não há uma dose pré-definida de furosemida a ser aplicada logo após a SSH; para o cálculo desta dose devemos nos basear nas doses que estavam sendo administradas antes da decisão pela SSH. Função renal, eletrólitos, peso e diurese devem ser monitorizados pelo menos uma vez por dia.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>Em suma, a SSH já foi testada em diversos trabalhos demonstrando um perfil de segurança e tolerabilidade adequados, sem efeitos adversos maiores relatados. Além disso, os resultados destes estudos são bastante consistentes em demonstrar que o uso da SSH associada a diuréticos de alça aumenta volume urinário, perda de peso e reduz valores de creatinina, desfecho de grande relevância para pacientes com IC descompensada complicada com resistência a diuréticos e síndrome cardiorrenal. Portanto, apesar de ser subutilizada, a SSH é uma estratégia elegante, de baixo custo e ampla disponibilidade, cujo mecanismo de ação aborda um dos pontos centrais da fisiopatologia da resistência a diuréticos.</p>
			</sec>
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			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4">
					<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
					<p><bold>Vinculação acadêmica</bold></p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<p><bold>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</bold></p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>