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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230074</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20230074</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Is Right Ventricular Cardiogenic Shock Important To You?</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6599-5702</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Andrade</surname><given-names>Marcus Vinícius Santos</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8904-8486</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Aragão</surname><given-names>Carlos Aurélio Santos</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-8360-4070</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Figueiredo</surname><given-names>Renato Moraes Pereira</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5922-7742</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Almeida</surname><given-names>Breno Macedo de</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-4689-1998</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rocha</surname><given-names>Lucas Guimarães da</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Izabel</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Saúde Pública</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Saúde Pública, Salvador, BA – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Fundação Beneficência Hospital Cirurgia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Insuficiência Cardíaca e Transplante</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Fundação Beneficência Hospital Cirurgia – Insuficiência Cardíaca e Transplante, Aracaju, SE – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Tiradentes</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Tiradentes, Aracaju, SE – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Carlos Aurélio Santos Aragão •</bold> Fundação Beneficência Hospital Cirurgia – Insuficiência Cardíaca e Transplante – Avenida Desembargador Maynard, 174. Postal Code <postal-code>49055-000</postal-code>, Aracaju, SE – Brazil E-mail: <email>carlosaureliosantosaragao@yahoo.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>31</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<volume>3</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<elocation-id>e20230074</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received"><day>12</day><month>10</month><year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd"><day>26</day><month>10</month><year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>26</day><month>10</month><year>2023</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Cardiogenic Shock</kwd>
<kwd>Diagnosis</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Ventricles</kwd>
<kwd>Therapeutics</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="2"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="41"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f1">
<p>CVP: Central Venous Pressure; C.I.: Cardiac Index; R.V.: Right Ventricle; L.V.: Left Ventricle; NOi: Nitrous Oxide Inhalation; ECMO: extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.</p>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230074-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>In the scenario of cardiogenic shock, attention was almost exclusively focused on the left ventricle (LV). Currently the concept that the circulatory system involves the interdependence between the LV and the right ventricle (RV) has been reinforced, and researchers seek to achieve a clearer understanding of the role of the right ventricle in cardiogenic shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>In the 1940s, in search of a more in-depth understanding of the role of the RV, the American doctor and researcher Isaac Starr and his team carried out a series of experiments on animals, in which they caused severe damage to the right ventricle. Observing only a small increase in peripheral venous congestion, they concluded that “<italic>the weakness on the right side of the heart… appears to be less important</italic>” in the establishment of heart failure (HF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>These concepts have perhaps placed the RV on the margins of research for many years. However, today, it is well-known that it plays an extremely relevant role in the pathophysiological context of cardiogenic shock. This leads to the need to better understand the behavior of RV disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<p>In this context, reaching an early etiological recognition and diagnosis is crucial, as clinical therapy can range from the mechanical or pharmacological removal of obstructive thrombi, to the need for the use of vasodilators, inotropes, myocardial revascularization or even ventricular assist devices (VADs).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Pathophysiology</title>
<p>RV function is influenced by preload and postload, myocardial contractility, and factors such as pericardial conformity and conditions that alter chest pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>In chronic increases in pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR), the RV has the ability to hypertrophy and dilate. This adaptation serves to reestablish ventricular-vascular coupling in the short term, but can lead to dilation, tricuspid regurgitation, RV hypertrophy, and ischemia. In the acute state of RV failure, these adaptations do not occur and the RV response is more blunted, leading to RV cardiogenic shock, which is a hemodynamic problem caused by a compromised function of the ventricle, valves, or vasculature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Therefore, it is understood that the management of RV cardiogenic shock not only requires an understanding of the anatomical and physiological particularities of the RV, but also a rapid identification and treatment of the underlying causes and related pathophysiological disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Primary mechanisms of RV cardiogenic shock include: contractile failure secondary to ischemic or inflammatory myocardial damage, volume overload due to right-sided valve insufficiency, increased venous return, pressure overload resulting from left HF, worsening of the PVR, or acute pulmonary embolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Although isolated RV infarction is relatively rare, RV ischemic involvement has been observed in 40-50% of all patients with inferior infarction, and these have a higher risk of cardiogenic shock, arrhythmia, and death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Diagnosis</title>
<p>Making the diagnosis of RV cardiogenic shock remains a major challenge in clinical practice. Patients with RV cardiogenic shock show signs of hypoperfusion, hypotension, and cold extremities. In etiologies involving chronic RV heart failure (HF), these manifestations may be associated with symptoms of systemic congestion, characterized as: hepatomegaly, abdominal distension, ascites, and peripheral edema.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>The mechanism to explain the clinical exuberance is that the right heart dilates and can displace the interventricular septum to the left, thus compromising LV filling, reducing its performance and causing hypoperfusion and systemic congestion, resulting in a marked increase in transaminases and circulating lactic acids, triggering the pathophysiological mechanisms of shock. In the laboratory, the measurement of atrial natriuretic peptide (BNP) is quite sensitive, but not very specific for the diagnosis of RV insufficiency and can be useful as evidence of RV impairment, particularly when there is no associated LV dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Causes of right ventricular failure and related etiologies</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA;">
<th valign="middle" align="left">Parameters</th>
<th valign="middle" align="left">Acute Insufficiency</th>
<th valign="middle" align="left">Chronic Dysfunction</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Preload</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Acute Kidney Injury<break/> Acute Valvular Insufficiency<break/> Patent foramen ovale</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Atrial septal defect<break/> Tricuspid or pulmonary insufficiency<break/> Ventricular septal defect<break/> High Output Heart Failure<break/> Fisenmenger syndrome</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Postload</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Pulmonary thromboembolism<break/> Hypoxia of pulmonary origin (Pneumonia, ARDS)<break/> Pressure ventilation Positive</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Pulmonary valve stenosis<break/> Pulmonary artery stenosis</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Contractility</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">RV infarction<break/> Myocarditis<break/> Supraventricular or ventricular tachycardia</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Arrhythmogenic RV Dysplasia</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>RV: right ventricle; ARDS: acute respiratory distress syndrome.</p>
</fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Recently, an analysis of Culprit-Shock generated a score with good prediction of mortality from shock related to acute myocardial infarction. This score, however, uses markers that are not widely available, such as cystatin C and interleukin-6, among others that are more easily accessible, such as NT-proBNP and lactate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Echocardiography is the most useful non-invasive tool to evaluate RV anatomy and function, cardiac output, inferior vena cava, and valvular heart disease. However, it has limitations because it depends on good imaging quality and the performance of the operator. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) of the heart are less useful in bedside management.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recently, with the greater availability of bedside USG devices, Point-of-care-ultrasound (POCUS) is a useful tool in RV assessment. To evaluate RV preload and postload, the following parameters can be used: relative size of the RV in relation to the LV; shape of the interventricular septum and investigation of McConnell's sign. When evaluating the contractile function, the displacement of the tricuspid annulus in relation to the RV apex during systole (TAPSE) is measured. It is important to highlight, however, that visual impression is the most widely used parameter to evaluate RV systolic function when using POCUS. The accuracy of visual estimation depends on the examiner's experience.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>Hemodynamic assessment through pulmonary artery catheterization, Swan-Ganz, continues to be the gold standard in the diagnosis of RV cardiogenic shock. Indicated in RV shocks with pulmonary artery hypertension, in cases where the echocardiogram windows are inadequate, this helps to define the components of vasoplegia versus the pump deficit.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Although several formulas for evaluating pulmonary hemodynamics have been developed to quantify RV postload, including RV dysfunction, diastolic and transpulmonary gradient, pulmonary artery elasticity, compliance, or impedance, none of these formulas alone characterizes RV failure. It is also essential to define the severity of the cardiogenic shock while these hemodynamic measurements are performed to contextualize the data obtained.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Treatment</title>
<p>As noted in the central figure, treatment of RV cardiogenic shock should seek to address the underlying cause of RV dysfunction and improve blood flow to the lungs and body. The objective should be to stabilize and provide hemodynamic support to the patient and carry out specific measures based on the etiological diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>1) Volume optimization</title>
<p>Even considering that patients with predominant RV shock are dependent on preload, it is important to highlight that most RV failure is caused, associated, or worsened by volume overload. These patients will often be congested, with distended myocardial fibers. A fluid removal strategy reduces the distension of myocardial fibers, resulting in an improvement in coronary perfusion and more effective ventricular contraction, less pulmonary congestion, and, consequently, less hypoxia. Therefore, essential components to preload management are the optimization of central venous pressure, the prevention of ventricular distension, as well as the management of circulating volume status.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>In patients with RV insufficiency and signs of venous congestion, diuretics are often the first option to optimize volume status. The elevated renal venous pressure often found in these patients contributes to decreased renal blood flow and reduces perfusion pressure, which decreases the effectiveness of the diuretic. Therefore, in patients with RV cardiogenic shock with significant renal congestion, adequate doses of diuretics are crucial to achieve the desired effect and maintain renal perfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>A continuous infusion of loop diuretics is often necessary to maintain the decongestive effect. If decongestion is insufficient, rapid intensification of the dose of loop diuretics should be considered, combining diuretics with different mechanisms of action or the use of ultrafiltration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>2) Vasopressors</title>
<p>In cardiogenic shock, the use of vasopressors has proven benefits, mainly indicated to restore blood pressure (MAP target of ≥65 mmHg) and improve coronary and systemic perfusion. In RV cardiogenic shock, vasopressin can be considered the first choice, as it has little interference with peripheral vascular resistance, and some experimental studies suggest that it may have a pulmonary vasodilation effect, which leads to a decrease in RV postload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>In cases of refractory cardiogenic shock, one should not use the combination of noradrenaline and vasopressin, given that the latter does not have a positive chronotropic effect. After this association, one should consider a ventricular assist device.</p>
<p>Rationally, it should be used for the shortest possible time and in the lowest possible dose, since vasoconstrictors in general increase left ventricular postload, reduce cardiac output, increase myocardial oxygen consumption, and can induce arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>3) Inotropes</title>
<p>If cardiac output is unsatisfactory, inotropes can be considered with the aim of increasing output and improving renal perfusion. However, the risk of arrhythmia and cardiac ischemia must be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>In this context, dobutamine, levosimendan, and milrinone can be used for management. It is important to note that levosimendan and milrinone have an inodilatory action, especially for those who have pulmonary hypertension due to LV involvement, as they promote inotropism and pulmonary vasodilation, reducing RV postload. However, particular care must be taken in patients with RV infarction, since these medications increase oxygen consumption through the cardiomyocyte and may predispose to arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>In a meta-analysis published in 2018, there was an increase in mortality in the group that used epinephrine in cardiogenic shock, possibly due to the arrhythmogenic potential of this drug.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
<p>There is a lack of robust evidence regarding the best drug in the management of RV shock. Dobutamine and Milrinone were recently compared in the context of cardiogenic shock, and no difference was found in primary or secondary outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>4) Devices</title>
<p>Recognizing the patient who is deteriorating, even despite pharmacological treatment, and who requires mechanical circulatory support (MCS), is essential for good results, as premature implantations of these devices can expose patients to unnecessary therapies and risks of related complications, since the delay in its installation may not be able to reverse the shock in more advanced stages.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>Auxiliary propaedeutic measures can help determine the appropriate time to start MCS, based on the careful monitoring of hemodynamic and metabolic parameters. If hemometabolic parameters do not improve, despite optimized pharmacological management over a few hours, SCM is recommended. Although the use of a hemodynamic device, such as the Swan Ganz, has not improved survival in a broad population of patients with HF, observational data have demonstrated a positive association with survival in cardiogenic shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>Ventricular assist device options for RV <italic>cardiogenic</italic> shock include venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO), the TandemHeart flow centrifugal pump, and the axial flow Impella RP catheter. These devices can be categorized according to their mechanism of action as direct RV bypass or indirect RV bypass systems. Impella RP and TandemHeart move blood from the right atrium to the pulmonary artery, directly bypassing the RV. By contrast, ECMO moves and oxygenates blood from the right atrium to the femoral artery, indirectly bypassing the RV. As a result, these systems have different hemodynamic effects depending on whether the patient has isolated RV or biventricular failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
<p>Intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation (IABP) failed to increase cardiac output in patients with advanced HF and RV involvement. For these reasons, IABP is not considered a primary ventricular assist device in RV <italic>cardiogenic</italic> shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>The most recent introduction to the VADs is the Impella RP microaxial flow catheter. Since 2013, several reports have described the successful use of the Impella RP for RV failure in the context of heart surgery. In 2015, the RECOVER RIGHT trial prospectively studied the utility of this device for refractory RV failure, allowing for the weaning of inotropic and vasopressor support. Impella RP has been used to support patients with RV failure associated with malignant ventricular arrhythmias and severe mitral valve regurgitation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>RV cardiogenic shock is a serious medical condition that requires a rapid and accurate diagnosis and treatment. Knowledge and awareness about this condition are essential for an early detection and appropriate intervention in order to improve the prognosis of affected patients. Continuous research and updating of health professionals in this area are essential to advance the treatment and management of RV cardiogenic shock.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1"><p><bold>Sources of funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><p><bold>Study association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8904-8486</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Aragão</surname><given-names>Carlos Aurélio Santos</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>3</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-8360-4070</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Figueiredo</surname><given-names>Renato Moraes Pereira</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5922-7742</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Almeida</surname><given-names>Breno Macedo de</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-4689-1998</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rocha</surname><given-names>Lucas Guimarães da</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Saúde Pública, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Fundação Beneficência Hospital Cirurgia – Insuficiência Cardíaca e Transplante, Aracaju, SE – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Tiradentes, Aracaju, SE – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Carlos Aurélio Santos Aragão •</bold> Fundação Beneficência Hospital Cirurgia – Insuficiência Cardíaca e Transplante – Avenida Desembargador Maynard, 174. CEP <postal-code>49055-000</postal-code>, Aracaju, SE – Brasil E-mail: <email>carlosaureliosantosaragao@yahoo.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Choque Cardiogênico</kwd>
<kwd>Ventrículos do Coração</kwd>
<kwd>Diagnóstico</kwd>
<kwd>Terapêutica</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f2">
<p>PVC: Pressão Venosa Central; I.C.: Índice Cardíaco; V.D.: Ventrículo Direito; V.E.: Ventrículo Esquerdo; NOi: Óxido Nítrico Inalatório. ECMO: oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea.</p>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230074-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>No cenário do choque cardiogênico a atenção era quase que exclusivamente focada no ventrículo esquerdo (VE), porém, atualmente, têm-se reforçado o conceito de que o sistema circulatório envolve a interdependência entre VE e VD, e busca-se entender de forma mais clara e minuciosa papel do VD no choque cardiogênico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na década de 40, em busca de compreender de forma mais profunda o papel do VD, o médico e pesquisador americano Isaac Starr e sua equipe realizaram uma série de experimentos em animais, em que causaram severos danos ao VD. Ao observarem apenas um pequeno aumento da congestão venosa periférica, concluíram que “<italic>a fraqueza do lado direito do coração… parece menos importante</italic>” no estabelecimento da insuficiência cardíaca.²</p>
<p>Talvez esses conceitos tenham deixado o VD às margens das pesquisas por muitos anos. Entretanto, nos dias atuais, sabe-se que ele desempenha um papel de extrema relevância no contexto fisiopatológico do choque cardiogênico, o que leva à necessidade de entender melhor o comportamento das afecções do VD.²</p>
<p>Nesse contexto, fazer um reconhecimento e diagnóstico etiológico precoce, é crucial, pois a terapia clínica pode variar desde remoção mecânica ou farmacológica de trombos obstrutivos, à necessidade do uso de vasodilatadores, inotrópicos, revascularização miocárdica ou mesmo de dispositivos de assistência ventricular.³</p>
<sec>
<title>Fisiopatologia</title>
<p>A função do VD é influenciada pela pré e pós-carga, contratilidade miocárdica e fatores, como conformidade pericárdica e afecções que alteram a pressão torácica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nos aumentos crônicos da resistência vascular pulmonar, o VD tem uma capacidade de hipertrofiar e dilatar. Essa adaptação permite reestabelecer o acoplamento ventricular-vascular a curto prazo, mas pode levar a dilatação, regurgitação tricúspide, hipertrofia e isquemia do VD. No estado agudo de insuficiência de VD, essas adaptações não ocorrem e a resposta do VD é mais embotada, levando a choque cardiogênico de VD, de modo que esse é um problema hemodinâmico causado pelo comprometimento da função do ventrículo, das válvulas ou da vasculatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Dessa forma, entende-se que o gerenciamento do choque cardiogênico de VD não requer apenas uma compreensão das particularidades anatômicas e fisiológicas do VD, mas também uma rápida identificação e tratamento das causas subjacentes e distúrbios fisiopatológicos relacionados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os mecanismos primários de choque cardiogênico de VD incluem: insuficiência contrátil secundária a um dano miocárdico isquêmico ou inflamatório, sobrecarga de volume devido a insuficiência valvar do lado direito, aumento do retorno venoso, sobrecarga de pressão resultante de insuficiência cardíaca esquerda, piora da resistência vascular pulmonar (RVP) ou embolia pulmonar aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Embora o infarto isolado do VD seja relativamente raro, o comprometimento isquêmico do VD foi observado em 40-50% dos pacientes com infarto inferior e estes tiveram maior risco de choque cardiogênico, arritmia e morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Diagnóstico</title>
<p>Fazer o diagnóstico do choque cardiogênico de VD continua sendo um grande desafio na prática clínica. Os pacientes com choque cardiogênico de VD apresentam sinais de hipoperfusão, hipotensão, extremidades frias. Nas etiologias que envolvem IC crônica do VD, essas manifestações poderão estar associadas a comemorativos de congestão sistêmica, caracterizados como: hepatomegalia, distensão abdominal, ascite e edema periférico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Causas de disfunção ventricular direita e etiologias relacionadas</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCA;">
<th valign="middle" align="left">Parâmetros</th>
<th valign="middle" align="left">Insuficiência Aguda</th>
<th valign="middle" align="left">Disfunção Crônica</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Pré-Carga</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Lesão Renal Aguda<break/> Insuficiência Valvular Aguda <break/> Forame Oval Patente</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Defeito no septo atrial<break/> Insuficiência tricúspide ou pulmonar<break/> Defeito no septo Ventricular<break/> Insuficiência Cardíaca de Alto Débito<break/> Síndrome de Eisenmenger</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E8CCBF;">
<td valign="middle" align="left">Pós-Carga</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Tromboembolismo Pulmonar<break/> Hipóxia de origem pulmonar<break/> (Pneumonia, SDRA)<break/> Ventilação com pressão<break/> Positiva</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Estenose da valva pulmonar<break/> Estenose da artéria pulmonar</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Contratilidade</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Infarto de VD<break/> Miocardite<break/> Taquicardia supraventricular ou ventricular</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Disfunção arritmogênica de VD</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p>VD: ventrículo direito; SDRA: síndrome do desconforto respiratório agudo.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>O mecanismo para explicar a exuberante clínica é que o coração direito se dilata e pode deslocar o septo interventricular para a esquerda, comprometendo assim o preenchimento do VE, reduzindo o seu desempenho e causando hipoperfusão e congestão sistêmica, resultando em um aumento acentuado das transaminases e ácidos lácticos circulantes, deflagrando os mecanismos fisiopatológicos do choque cardiogênico. Laboratorialmente, a dosagem de peptídeo natriurético atrial (BNP) é muito sensível, porém pouco específica para o diagnóstico de insuficiência de VD, e pode ser útil como evidência de comprometimento de VD, particularmente quando não há disfunção associada do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recentemente, uma análise do Culprit-Shock gerou um escore com boa predição de mortalidade por choque cardiogênico relacionado a infarto agudo do miocárdio. Esse escore, no entanto, utiliza marcadores não amplamente disponíveis como cistatina C e interleucina-6 e outros mais facilmente acessíveis como o NT-proBNP e o lactato.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>O ecocardiograma é a ferramenta não invasiva mais útil para avaliar anatomia e função do VD, o débito cardíaco, veia cava inferior e valvulopatias. Entretanto, tem limitações porque depende da boa qualidade de imagem e do desempenho do operador. A ressonância magnética cardíaca e a tomografia computadorizada do coração são menos úteis no manejo à beira do leito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recentemente, com a maior disponibilidade de aparelhos de USG beira-leito, o Point-of-care-ultrasound (POCUS) é uma ferramenta útil na avaliação do VD. Para avaliação da pré e pós-carga do VD, podem-se utilizar os seguintes parâmetros: tamanho relativo do VD em relação ao VE; formato do septo interventricular, e pesquisa do sinal de McConnell. Ao avaliar a função contrátil, faz-se a medida do deslocamento do anel tricúspide em relação ao ápice do VD durante a sístole (TAPSE). É importante ressaltar, no entanto, que a impressão visual é o parâmetro mais utilizado para avaliar a função sistólica do VD ao utilizar POCUS. A acurácia da estimativa visual depende da experiência do examinador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
<p>A avaliação hemodinâmica através da cateterização da artéria pulmonar, Swan-Ganz, continua sendo padrão-ouro no diagnóstico do choque cardiogênico de VD. Indicado nos choques cardiogênicos de VD com hipertensão de artéria pulmonar, nos casos em que as janelas do ecocardiograma são inadequadas, ajudar definir entre componentes de vasoplegia ou déficit de bomba.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Embora várias fórmulas para avaliar a hemodinâmica pulmonar tenham sido desenvolvidas para quantificar a pós-carga do VD, incluindo disfunção do VD, gradiente diastólico e transpulmonar, elasticidade, complacência ou impedância da artéria pulmonar, nenhuma dessas fórmulas isoladamente caracteriza a falha de VD. É essencial, ainda, definir a gravidade do choque cardiogênico enquanto essas medições hemodinâmicas são realizadas para contextualizar os dados obtidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Tratamento</title>
<p>Como observado na figura central, o tratamento do choque cardiogênico de VD deve visar resolver a causa subjacente da disfunção do VD e melhorar o fluxo sanguíneo para os pulmões e o corpo. O objetivo deve ser estabilizar e prestar suporte hemodinâmico ao paciente e realizar medidas específicas baseadas no diagnóstico etiológico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>1) Otimização de volume</title>
<p>Mesmo considerando que os pacientes com choque cardiogênico predominante do VD são dependentes da pré-carga, é importante ressaltar que uma grande parte da falha do VD é causada, associada ou agravada pela sobrecarga de volume. Muitas vezes esses pacientes estarão congestos, com as fibras miocárdicas distendidas. Uma estratégia de remoção de fluidos reduz a distensão das fibras miocárdicas, levando à melhora na perfusão coronariana e contração ventricular mais efetiva, menos congestão pulmonar e, consequentemente, menos hipóxia. Portanto, a otimização da pressão venosa central, a prevenção da distensão ventricular, além do gerenciamento do status do volume circulante são componentes essenciais para o gerenciamento da pré-carga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em pacientes com insuficiência de VD e sinais de congestão venosa, os diuréticos geralmente são a primeira opção para otimizar o status de volume. A pressão venosa renal elevada frequentemente encontrada nesses pacientes contribui para diminuir o fluxo sanguíneo renal e reduz a pressão de perfusão, o que diminui a eficácia do diurético. Portanto, em pacientes com choque cardiogênico de VD com congestão renal significativa, doses adequadas de diuréticos são cruciais para alcançar o efeito desejado e manter perfusão renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>Muitas vezes, uma infusão contínua de diuréticos de alça é necessária para manter o efeito descongestivo. Se a descongestão for insuficiente, deve ser considerada a rápida intensificação da dose de diuréticos de alça, combinando diuréticos com mecanismos de ação diferentes, ou o uso de ultrafiltração.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>2) Vasopressores</title>
<p>No choque cardiogênico o uso de vasopressores tem benefícios comprovados, e eles são indicados principalmente para restaurar a pressão arterial (alvo PAM de ≥65 mmHg) e melhorar a perfusão coronariana e sistêmica. No choque cardiogênico de VD, a vasopressina pode ser considerada a primeira escolha, pois ela tem pouca interferência na resistência vascular periférica, e alguns estudos experimentais sugerem que possa ter algum efeito de vasodilatação pulmonar, o que levaàa uma redução da pós-carga de VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nos casos de choque cardiogênico refratário, deve-se lançar mão da associação de noradrenalina com vasopressina, levando em consideração que esta última não tem efeito cronotrópico positivo. Após essa associação, deve-se considerar dispositivo de assistência ventricular.</p>
<p>De forma racional, deve ser usado no menor tempo necessári, e na menor dose possível, uma vez que vasoconstritores em geral aumentam a pós-carga do VE, reduzem o débito cardíac e aumentam o consumo de oxigênio miocárdico, podendo induzir arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>3) Inotrópicos</title>
<p>Se o débito cardíaco estiver insatisfatório, os inotrópicos podem ser considerados com o intuito de aumentar o débito e melhorar a perfusão renal. No entanto, deve-se colocar na balança o risco de arritmia e isquemia cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nesse contexto, dobutamina, levosimendan e milrinone podem ser utilizados para manejo. É importante observar que levosimendan e milrinone têm ação inodilatadora, sobretudo para aqueles que possuem uma hipertensão pulmonar por comprometimento de VE, uma vez que promovem inotropismo e vasodilatação pulmonar, reduzindo a pós-carga do VD. Todavia, deve-se tomar cuidado especial em pacientes com infarto de VD, já que essas medicações aumentam o consumo de oxigênio pelo cardiomiócito e podem predispor a arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em metanálise publicada em 2018, houve aumento de mortalidade no grupo que usou epinefrina em choque cardiogênico, possivelmente pelo potencial arritmogênico dessa droga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
<p>Faltam evidências robustas de qual é melhor droga no manejo de choque cardiogênico de VD; recentemente foram comparados Dobutamina e Milrinone no contexto de choque cardiogênico e não houve diferença em desfechos primários ou secundários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>4) Dispositivos</title>
<p>Reconhecer o paciente que está se deteriorando, mesmo a despeito do tratamento farmacológico, e requer um suporte circulatório mecânico (SCM) é fundamental para termos bons resultados, pois os implantes prematuros desses dispositivos, podem expor os pacientes a terapias desnecessárias, e riscos de complicações relacionadas, considerando que o atraso na sua instalação, pode não ser capaz de reverter o choque cardiogênico em estágios mais avançados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>Medidas propedêuticas auxiliares podem ajudar a determinar o momento apropriado para iniciar o SCM, a partir de um monitoramento cuidadoso de parâmetros hemodinâmicos e metabólicos. Se os parâmetros hemometabólicos não melhorarem, apesar do manejo farmacológico otimizado, ao longo de algumas horas, o SCM é indicado. Embora o uso do dispositivo hemodinâmico, como o Swan Ganz, não tenha melhorado a sobrevida em uma ampla população de pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca, dados observacionais demonstraram uma associação positiva com sobrevida no choque cardiogênico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>As opções de dispositivos de assistência ventricular no choque cardiogênico de VD, incluem a oxigenação por membrana extracorpórea venoarterial (VA-ECMO), a bomba centrífuga de fluxo TandemHeart e o cateter Impella RP de fluxo axial. Esses dispositivos podem ser categorizados de acordo com seu mecanismo de ação como sistemas de bypass direto do VD ou indireto do VD. O Impella RP e o TandemHeart deslocam o sangue do átrio direito para artéria pulmonar, contornando diretamente o VD. Em contraste, a ECMO desloca e oxigena o sangue do átrio direito para a artéria femoral, contornando indiretamente o VD. Como resultado, esses sistemas têm efeitos hemodinâmicos distintos, dependendo se o paciente apresenta insuficiência isolada do VD ou biventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
<p>O balão de contrapulsação intra-aórtico (BIA), falhou em aumentar o débito cardíaco em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca avançada e comprometimento do VD. Por essas razões, o BIA não é considerado dispositivo primário de assistência ventricular no choque cardiogênico de VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>A mais recente introdução entre os dispositivos de assistência ventricular é o cateter de fluxo microaxial Impella RP. Desde 2013, vários relatos descreveram o uso bem-sucedido do Impella RP, para insuficiência do VD no contexto de cirurgia cardíaca. Em 2015, o estudo RECOVER RIGHT estudou prospectivamente a utilidade desse dispositivo para insuficiência refratária ao VD, permitindo o desmame do inotrópico e suporte vasopressor. O Impella RP tem sido utilizado no suporte a pacientes com falência do VD associada a arritmias ventriculares malignas e insuficiência mitral grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>O choque cardiogênico de VD é uma condição médica grave que requer diagnóstico e tratamento rápidos e precisos. O conhecimento e a conscientização sobre essa condição são essenciais para a detecção precoce e a intervenção adequada, a fim de melhorar o prognóstico dos pacientes afetados. A pesquisa contínua e a atualização dos profissionais de saúde nessa área são fundamentais para avançar no tratamento e no manejo do choque cardiogênico de VD.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4"><p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><p><bold>Vinculação acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
