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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &amp; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20230073</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230073</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Point-of-Care Ultrasound in Acute Heart Failure: Basic Concepts for Clinical Practice</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2537-6074</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Kunst</surname><given-names>Leticia</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
<role>Conception</role>
<role>design of the research</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5774-2780</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Danzmann</surname><given-names>Luiz Claudio</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>Conception</role>
<role>design of the research</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3119-5691</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cuchinski</surname><given-names>Keslly Krauspenhar</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6134-8789</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Zimmer</surname><given-names>João Ricardo Cambruzzi</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Luterana do Brasil</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Canoas</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Luterana do Brasil (ULBRA), Canoas, RS – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Porto Alegre</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Centro de Insuficiência Cardíaca</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Porto Alegre – Centro de Insuficiência Cardíaca, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Leticia Kunst</bold> • Universidade Luterana do Brasil (ULBRA) – Avenida Farroupilha, 8001. Postal Code <postal-code>92425-900</postal-code>, Canoas, RS – Brazil E-mail: <email>leticiakunst3@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>31</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<volume>3</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<elocation-id>e20230073</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>06</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>12</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>12</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Ultrasonography</kwd>
<kwd>Practice Guideline</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="12"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="16"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<fig id="f6">
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome that promotes a system of poor tissue perfusion in conditions of low cardiac output and elevated filling pressures, resulting in circulatory congestion and hypoperfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The exacerbation of this condition is responsible for 40% of consultations due to dyspnea in emergency rooms,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> and the main cause is worsening congestion due to poor medication adherence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In in-hospital clinical assessment, the most prevalent HF profiles are B (warm and wet) and C (cold and wet), both of which are characterized by circulatory congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Although it causes great demand in the emergency room, it is sometimes difficult to identify signs of hypervolemia in acute decompensated HF in the context of differential diagnosis with other determining syndromes of dyspnea and hypoperfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Clinical findings are fundamental for the initial investigation, but objective and rapid confirmation of diagnosis reduces door-to-furosemide time, which is directly related to in-hospital mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Natriuretic peptides are tools with high negative predictive value for congestion; however, moderately elevated serum levels represent a diagnostic gray area, as the increase in this marker is related to several diseases that are independent of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The use of bedside point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has emerged as an excellent tool for comprehensive assessment of this condition, with analysis of cardiac structure and function, the pulmonary interstitium, and some venous vessels. It also offers a rapid, non-invasive, and low-cost opportunity, with greater accuracy than conventional assessment methods for detecting circulatory congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>POCUS</title>
<p>POCUS is a diagnostic tool that makes it possible to view ultrasound images immediately and dynamically. Used at the bedside, it provides additional clinical information during physical examination for a specific procedure or disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The practicality and speed of obtaining images have made it widely used in the hospital environment for patients with severe illness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> POCUS is being used in several medical specialties, especially in pulmonary and cardiac ultrasound.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Lung ultrasound</title>
<p>Lung ultrasound is a widely used tool in the examination of patients with dyspnea in the emergency room, making it possible to access lung tissue and interstitial free water, which is the main sign associated with pulmonary congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Medical societies have progressively adhered to the technique. The European Society of Cardiology recommends performing bedside lung ultrasound in patients with dyspnea within the first hours of admission.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> This strategy allows for highly accurate assessment to detect pulmonary edema and rule out differential diagnoses. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Flowchart for diagnosis of acute heart failure in the context of time. ACS: acute coronary syndrome; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; FoCUS: focused cardiac ultrasound; PCTA: pulmonary computed tomography angiography; PTE: pulmonary thromboembolism; STE: ST-segment elevation.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Lung ultrasound findings are relatively easy to apply in clinical practice, seeing that training is relatively quick, and high levels of agreement have been found from training. In a pioneering manner, the Bedside Lung Ultrasound in Emergency (BLUE) protocol, using 3 lung zones in each hemithorax, was designed as a means of systematizing the use of lung POCUS in patients with acute respiratory failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> This systematization has made it possible to assess the main causes of dyspnea in emergency practice dynamically and in a few minutes. Other protocols are currently used. The most common in practice is performed in 4 lung zones in each hemithorax, with the patient in the supine position (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). Based on the image generated, the presence of pulmonary artifacts, pleural sliding, the presence of pleural effusion, and inferior vena cava caliber and compressibility are investigated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption><title>Method of obtaining chest ultrasound images. Arrangement in 4 lung zones in each hemithorax, obtained from the intercostal spaces. Zones 1 and 2 should be obtained from the anterior, upper, and lower chest between the midclavicular lines and the sternum, respectively. Zones 3 and 4 should be obtained from the upper and lower lateral thorax between the midclavicular and posterior axillary lines, respectively. Images of the inferior vena cava are complementary and are obtained from the subxiphoid region, between the chest and abdomen.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Artifacts occur due to the interaction between air and higher density structures, such as liquid. The A-lines, which are also present in healthy individuals, are reverberation artifacts, as they are a repetition of the pleural line, and they appear as equidistant parallel horizontal lines (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> On the other hand, the B-lines, which indicate the presence of echogenic borders between the alveolar spaces, appear vertically, and they accompany lung movements (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). The presence of up to 2 B-lines per zone can be considered normal, whereas 3 or more B-lines between the ribs indicate a pathological process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption><title>A-lines on lung ultrasound. Equidistant horizontal lines represented by white arrows correspond to reverberation of the pleural line.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption><title>B-lines on lung ultrasound. Vertical lines indicate echogenic borders in the interalveolar spaces.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>It is possible to quantify B-lines based on their sum in an intercostal space per zone or a scoring system (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). These methods can be useful in the assessment of pulmonary edema in emergency practice, where a score ≥ 2, that is, the presence of at least 2 zones per hemithorax with 3 or more B-lines defines the diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption><title>Quantification of B-lines in the assessment of 8 zones of the anterior and lateral thorax</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Method</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Quantification of B-lines</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Count</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Sum of B-lines in all zones</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Score</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">0 points: &lt; 3 B-lines per zone</td></tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">1 point: ≥ 3 B-lines per zone</td></tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Score = number of points</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</table-wrap>
<p>Some current follow-up protocols for acute HF recommend daily assessment of signs and symptoms of systemic congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The use of lung ultrasound has shown to be effective in directly assessing the presence of pulmonary congestion, guiding the treatment of patients hospitalized for HF, with a reduction in outcomes during the vulnerable phase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>The Brazilian Heart Failure Guidelines recommend bedside transthoracic ultrasound as an objective and complementary assessment to be performed early in order to confirm the clinical history and guide therapy (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Central Illustration</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Direct assessment of pulmonary congestion by means of pulmonary B-lines has shown superior diagnostic accuracy compared to other methods of observing interstitial extravasation, such as chest radiography. Furthermore, it adds agility to the diagnostic process to guide acute HF treatment, even in places without available resources.</p>
<p>Hemodynamic parameters can be continuously monitored based on diuretic treatment optimization, in order to directly and individually assess the patient&apos;s response to therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Targeted therapy has greater diagnostic accuracy and can facilitate faster reduction of congestion, guiding therapy according to B-line variation. The BLUSHED-AHF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> and LUS-HF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> studies provided evidence that diuretic treatment with guided ultrasound showed a significant improvement in all parameters related to congestion, resulting in shorter hospital stays and promoting significantly better post-discharge prognosis in relation to all-cause mortality within 6 months and hospitalization due to HF decompensation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Patients who present with residual pulmonary congestion after stabilization of acute HF have higher rates of readmission and mortality within 12 months. Platz et al. analyzed the association of B-lines with prognosis, based on the 4-zone lung ultrasound method. The study demonstrated that patients who had a greater number of B-lines in at least 1 zone had more readmissions or death between 90 and 100 days after discharge.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The use of B-line variation as a dynamic marker has shown to be superior to assessment of natriuretic peptide as a prognostic marker.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Rivas-Lasarte et al. showed that patients who were guided by lung ultrasound had a lower risk rate for the primary outcome of congestion and/or death after hospital discharge (0.518; 95% confidence interval: 0.268 to 0.998; p = 0.049). They also received more loop diuretics (p = 0.02) and significantly improved the distance covered on the 6-minute walk test compared to the control group (60 m [interquartile range: 29 to 125 m] versus 37 m [interquartile range: 5 to 70 m]; p = 0.023).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Cardiac ultrasound</title>
<p>Bedside focused cardiac ultrasound (FoCUS) should be performed together with lung ultrasound in the initial approach to patients with acute HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The basic examination allows rapid detection of systolic or diastolic dysfunction and structural changes, assisting in determination of the type of shock and guiding initial treatment. The assessment of left ventricular dimension and function is extremely important in patients who are unstable, not only because it makes it possible to guide treatment with inotropic support and/or volume adjustment, but also because it serves as a prognostic marker, seeing that the presence of compromised contractility, whether global or regional, is a strong indication of poor prognosis in cardiogenic shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Since the publication of the SHOCK Trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> it has been known that the rapid definition of ventricular dysfunction and the presence of mitral insufficiency are associated with worse 1-year mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Two-dimensional FoCUS is the first-line exam to assess the categories of concentric or eccentric ventricular remodeling, and adequate endocardial assessment is complementary. Based on the estimation of left ventricular outflow tract diameter and the measurement of the time–velocity integral, stroke volume and cardiac output can be estimated. Time–velocity integral &lt; 15 cm is an indication of low flow and, consequently, reduced left ventricular stroke volume and reduced cardiac output and, thus, of patients susceptible to hypotension and heart pump failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>After patient stabilization, it is recommended that a complete &quot;comprehensive&quot; echocardiogram be performed before discharge, preferably within 48 hours of admission.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> In this case, it must be performed by an echocardiographer with specific training to conduct this examination.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Venous ultrasound</title>
<p>In order to complement bedside ultrasound assessment, the VExUS protocol has emerged as an extension to assess peripheral organ dysfunction provoked by high filling pressures in the venous system resulting from increased right atrial pressure. The VExUS score is based on a combined assessment of ultrasound and pulsed wave Doppler of the inferior vena cava, hepatic vein, portal vein, and renal veins, in order to constitute a useful tool to overcome the limitations of assessments of these vessels individually.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> The protocol is based on verifying the diameter of the inferior vena cava and, if it is greater than 2 cm in diameter, the hepatic, portal, and intrarenal veins are assessed with pulsed wave Doppler (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>). The protocol provides a score for the findings, ranging from no congestion to severe congestion, which should be related to clinical findings. The protocol has become useful for assessing, in addition to critical patients, fluid infusion limitation in patients with venous congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption><title>VExUS and venous congestion. The degree of venous congestion, when the diameter of the inferior vena cava is &gt; 2 cm, can be assessed based on the severity of the changes in the venous Doppler waves. Legend: D: diastolic wave; IVC: inferior vena cava; S: systolic wave. Figure adapted from: Turk M, Robertson T, Koratala A. Point-of-care ultrasound in diagnosis and management of congestive nephropathy. World J Crit Care Med. 2023 Mar 9;12(2):53-62. doi: 10.5492/wjccm.v12.i2.53. PMID: 37034023; PMCID: PMC10075049.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>The use of POCUS is currently a reality in the assessment of patients with acute HF, as it provides speed in the diagnosis and follow-up of pulmonary and systemic congestion with a good degree of evidence of diagnostic accuracy. Furthermore, we already have robust studies that support the quality of this tool in estimating prognosis in terms of robust outcomes, mainly in the period known as the &quot;vulnerable phase&quot; of HF. We can, therefore, conclude that it is imperative to add this method to contemporary protocols for the treatment of acute decompensated HF.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1"><p><bold>Sources of funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><p><bold>Study association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>POCUS na Insuficiência Cardíaca Aguda: Conceitos Básicos para a Prática Clínica</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2537-6074</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Kunst</surname><given-names>Leticia</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
<role>Concepção</role>
<role>desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5774-2780</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Danzmann</surname><given-names>Luiz Claudio</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>Concepção</role>
<role>desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3119-5691</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cuchinski</surname><given-names>Keslly Krauspenhar</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6134-8789</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Zimmer</surname><given-names>João Ricardo Cambruzzi</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Canoas</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Luterana do Brasil (ULBRA), Canoas, RS – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Porto Alegre – Centro de Insuficiência Cardíaca, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Leticia Kunst</bold> • Universidade Luterana do Brasil (ULBRA) – Avenida Farroupilha, 8001. CEP <postal-code>92425-900</postal-code>, Canoas, RS – Brasil E-mail: <email>leticiakunst3@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A descompensação da insuficiência cardíaca é uma das principais causas de dispneia na emergência, chegando a cerca de 40% dos casos. A insuficiência cardíaca aguda exige cada vez mais ferramentas que permitam agilidade nas diferentes etapas do manejo. Atualmente, a investigação inicial da congestão pulmonar conta com a realização da ultrassonografia pulmonar à beira do leito, que através de uma avaliação rápida permite a exclusão de diagnósticos diferenciais e o direcionamento do tratamento. O uso da ultrassonografia <italic>point-of-care</italic> (POCUS) nas primeiras horas do atendimento e durante as reavaliações está associado a um melhor controle da congestão pulmonar e a um prognóstico mais favorável quando comparado com métodos tradicionais.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
<kwd>Ultrassonografia</kwd>
<kwd>Guia de Prática Clínica</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f7">
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf06-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) é uma síndrome clínica complexa que promove um sistema de má perfusão tecidual em condições de baixo débito cardíaco e elevadas pressões de enchimento, resultando em congestão circulatória e hipoperfusão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A agudização desta condição é responsável por 40% dos atendimentos por dispneia nas salas de emergência,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> sendo a principal causa a piora da congestão devido à má adesão medicamentosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Na avaliação clínica intra-hospitalar os perfis de IC mais prevalentes são o B - quente e úmido e o C - frio e úmido, sendo que ambos são caracterizados por congestão circulatória.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Apesar de ser motivo de grande demanda na sala de emergência, a identificação dos sinais de hipervolemia na IC agudamente descompensada é, por vezes, difícil de ser detectada no contexto de diagnóstico diferencial com outras síndromes determinantes de dispneia e hipoperfusão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Os achados clínicos são cardinais para a investigação inicial, mas a confirmação objetiva e ágil do diagnóstico diminui o tempo &quot;porta-furosemida&quot;, o que relaciona-se diretamente com a mortalidade intra-hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Os peptídeos natriuréticos são ferramentas com elevado valor preditivo negativo para congestão, porém os níveis séricos moderadamente elevados configuram uma área cinzenta diagnóstica, já que o aumento deste marcador está relacionado com várias morbidades independentes da IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A utilização da ultrassonografia à beira leito, ou <italic>point-of-care ultrasound</italic> (POCUS) surgiu como ótima ferramenta para avaliação abrangente da condição, com análise da estrutura e função cardíacas, do interstício pulmonar e de alguns vasos venosos e confere uma oportunidade rápida, não invasiva, de baixo custo e com acurácia superior aos métodos de avaliação convencional para a detecção da congestão circulatória.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>POCUS</title>
<p>A POCUS é uma ferramenta diagnóstica que permite visualizar imagens ultrassonográficas de maneira imediata e dinâmica. Utilizada à beira do leito, possibilita a obtenção de informações clínicas adicionais ao exame físico para uma doença ou procedimento específico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A praticidade e velocidade de obtenção das imagens fazem com que seja muito utilizada no ambiente hospitalar em pacientes graves.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A utilização do POCUS vem sendo feita em diversas especialidades médicas, em especial no ultrassom pulmonar e cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec><title>Ultrassom pulmonar</title>
<p>O ultrassom pulmonar é uma ferramenta amplamente utilizada no exame do paciente com dispneia na sala de emergência, possibilitando um acesso ao tecido pulmonar e à água livre intersticial, que é o principal sinal associado à congestão pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> As sociedades médicas, progressivamente foram aderindo à técnica. A European Society of Cardiology recomenda que seja realizado o ultrassom pulmonar à beira do leito dentro das primeiras horas desde a admissão do paciente com dispneia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Essa estratégia permite uma avaliação com alta acurácia para detecção de edema pulmonar e exclusão de diagnósticos diferenciais. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Fluxograma para o diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca aguda no contexto temporal. Angio TC: angiotomografia pulmonar; eco: ecografia; RM: ressonância magnética; RX: radiografia; SCA: síndrome coronariana aguda; SCA C/ SST: síndrome coronariana aguda com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST; SCA S/ SST: síndrome coronariana aguda sem supradesnível do segmento ST; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; US: ultrassonografia.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Os achados do ultrassom pulmonar são relativamente de fácil aplicação à prática clínica, pois a capacitação é relativamente rápida e valores elevados de concordância são encontrados a partir do treinamento. De maneira pioneira, o protocolo <italic>Bedside Lung Ultrasound in Emergency</italic> (BLUE), utilizando 3 campos pulmonares em cada hemitórax, foi desenhado como uma forma de sistematizar o uso do POCUS pulmonar em pacientes com insuficiência respiratória aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Através desta sistematização foi possível avaliar as principais causas de dispneia na emergência de maneira dinâmica e em poucos minutos. Atualmente outros protocolos são utilizados, sendo que o mais comum na prática é a realização em 4 campos pulmonares em cada hemitórax, com o paciente em posição supina (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 2</xref>). A partir da imagem gerada, são investigados a presença dos artefatos pulmonares, o deslizamento pleural, a presença de derrame pleural e o calibre e compressibilidade da veia cava inferior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption><title>Método de coleta de imagens por ultrassonografia torácica. Disposição em 4 campos pulmonares em cada hemitórax, sendo coletados a partir dos espaços intercostais. Os campos 1 e 2 devem ser coletados a partir do tórax anterior, superior e inferior, respectivamente, entre as linhas hemiclaviculares e o esterno. Os campos 3 e 4 devem ser coletados a partir do tórax lateral superior e inferior, respectivamente, entre as linhas hemiclaviculares e axilar posterior. As imagens da veia cava inferior são complementares e são coletadas a partir da região subxifoide, entre o tórax e o abdome.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Os artefatos ocorrem devido à interação entre o ar e estruturas de maior densidade, como o líquido. As linhas A, presentes também em indivíduos saudáveis, são artefatos de reverberação por serem uma repetição da linha pleural e apresentam-se como linhas horizontais paralelas equidistantes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Já as linhas B, que indicam a presença de barreiras ecogênicas entre os espaços alveolares, aparecem verticalmente e acompanham os movimentos pulmonares (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 4</xref>). A presença de até 2 linhas B por campo pode ser considerada normal; a partir de 3 linhas B entre as costelas indica processo patológico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption><title>Linhas A no ultrassom pulmonar. Linhas horizontais equidistantes representadas pelas setas brancas correspondem a reverberação da linha pleural.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption><title>Linhas B no ultrassom pulmonar. Linhas verticais indicativas de barreiras ecogênicas nos espaços interalveolares.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A quantificação das linhas B pode ser feita a partir da soma destas em um espaço intercostal por zona ou a partir de um sistema de escore (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>). Estes métodos podem ser úteis na avaliação do edema pulmonar na emergência, no qual um escore ≥ 2; ou seja, a presença de, pelo menos, 2 zonas por hemitórax com 3 ou mais linhas B, define o diagnóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption><title>Quantificação de linhas B na avaliação de 8 zonas do tórax anterior e lateral</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/>
</colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#97ABC7">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Método</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Quantificação das linhas B</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Contagem</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Soma das linhas B em todoas as zonas</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Escore</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">0 pontos: &lt; 3 linhas B por zona</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">1 ponto: ≥ 3 linhas B por zona</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E5CABE">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Escore = número de pontos</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</table-wrap>
<p>Alguns protocolos atuais de seguimento na IC aguda recomendam que seja feita avaliação diária de sinais e sintomas de congestão sistêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A utilização de ultrassonografia pulmonar mostrou-se eficaz para avaliar de forma direta a presença de congestão pulmonar, orientando o tratamento de pacientes internados por IC com redução de desfechos em fase vulnerável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>A Diretriz Brasileira de Insuficiência Cardíaca sugere a realização de ultrassom transtorácico à beira do leito como avaliação objetiva e complementar a ser realizada de forma precoce a fim de confirmar a história clínica e conduzir a terapêutica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura Central</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A avaliação direta da congestão pulmonar através de linhas B pulmonares mostrou acurácia diagnóstica superior a outros métodos de observação de extravasamento intersticial, como a radiografia torácica. Além disso, agrega agilidade ao processo diagnóstico para guiar o tratamento da IC aguda mesmo em locais sem disponibilidade de recursos.</p>
<p>O monitoramento dos parâmetros hemodinâmicos pode ser realizado de forma contínua a partir da otimização do tratamento diurético, a fim de avaliar de forma direta e individual a resposta do paciente à terapêutica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A terapia dirigida tem maior precisão diagnóstica e pode facilitar uma redução mais rápida da congestão guiando a terapêutica pela variação das linhas B. Os estudos BLUSHED-AHF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> e o LUS-HF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> evidenciaram que o tratamento diurético com ultrassom guiado teve melhora significativa em todos os parâmetros relacionados à congestão, resultando em menor tempo de internação hospitalar e trazendo um prognóstico pós-alta significativamente melhor em relação à mortalidade por todas as causas em 6 meses e hospitalização por descompensação da IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Pacientes que apresentam congestão pulmonar residual após estabilização da IC aguda apresentaram maiores taxas de reinternação e mortalidade em 12 meses. Platz et al. analisaram, a partir da utilização do método de 4 campos pulmonares, a associação das linhas B com o prognóstico. O estudo demonstrou que pacientes que apresentavam maior quantidade de linhas B em pelo menos 1 campo, tiveram mais reinternações ou morte entre 90 e 100 dias após a alta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> A utilização da variação das linhas B como um marcador dinâmico se mostrou superior à avaliação do peptídeo natriurético como marcador prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Rivas-Lasarte et al. evidenciaram que os pacientes que foram guiados por ultrassom pulmonar tiveram menor taxa de risco para o desfecho primário congestivo e/ou morte após a alta hospitalar (0,518; intervalo de confiança de 95%: 0,268 a 0,998; p = 0,049), receberam mais diurético de alça (p = 0,02) e melhoraram significativamente a distância percorrida no teste de caminhada em 6 minutos comparado com o grupo controle (60 m [intervalo interquartil: 29 a 125 m] versus 37 m [intervalo interquartil: 5 a 70 m]; p = 0,023).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec><title>Ultrassom cardíaco</title>
<p>O ultrassom cardíaco focado à beira do leito, ou <italic>focused cardiac ultrasound</italic> (FoCUS), deve ser realizado junto com o ultrassom pulmonar na abordagem inicial do paciente com IC aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O exame básico permite a rápida detecção de disfunção sistólica ou diastólica e de alterações estruturais, auxiliando na determinação do tipo de choque e guiando o tratamento inicial. A avaliação da dimensão e função ventricular esquerda é de extrema importância nos pacientes instáveis, não só por permitir guiar o tratamento com suporte inotrópicos e/ou ajuste volêmico, como também por servir como um marcador prognóstico, visto que a presença de contratilidade comprometida, seja global ou regional, é um forte indicativo de mau prognóstico no choque cardiogênico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Desde a publicação do SHOCK Trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> sabe-se que a rápida definição da disfunção ventricular e a presença de insuficiência mitral se associam à piora da mortalidade em 1 ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>A ecografia cardíaca focada bidimensional é o exame de primeira linha para avaliar as categorias de remodelamento concêntrico ou excêntrico ventricular, e uma avaliação adequada do endocárdio é complementar. A partir da estimativa do diâmetro da via de saída do ventrículo esquerdo e a medida VTI (integral velocidade-tempo), o volume sistólico e o débito cardíaco podem ser estimados, sendo a resultante de VTI &lt; 15 cm um indicativo de fluxo baixo e, consequentemente, de um volume sistólico do ventrículo esquerdo e débito cardíaco reduzidos e de pacientes suscetíveis à hipotensão e à falha da bomba cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Após a estabilização do paciente, recomenda-se a realização de um ecocardiograma &quot;compreensivo&quot; completo antes da alta, preferencialmente dentro de 48h após a admissão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Neste caso, o realizador do exame deve ser um ecocardiografista com capacitação específica para sua realização.</p>
</sec>
<sec><title>Ultrassom venoso</title>
<p>A fim de complementar a avaliação ultrassonográfica à beira leito, o protocolo VexUs surge como uma extensão para avaliar a disfunção de órgãos periféricos provocada por altas pressões de enchimento no sistema venoso decorrente do aumento de pressão do átrio direito. O escore VExUS tem como base uma avaliação combinada do ultrassom e Doppler pulsátil (PW) da veia cava inferior, veia hepática, veia porta e veias renais, de modo a se constituir como ferramenta útil para transpassar as limitações das avaliações desses vasos individualmente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> O protocolo baseia-se na verificação do diâmetro da veia cava inferior e, se esta tiver diâmetro maior que 2 cm, prossegue-se com a avaliação das veias hepática, porta, e veias intrarrenais com o PW (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 5</xref>). O protocolo pontua os achados em ausência de congestão até congestão grave, devendo ser relacionada com os achados clínicos. O protocolo torna-se útil para avaliar, além de pacientes críticos, a limitação na infusão de fluidos em pacientes com congestão venosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f12">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption><title>Escore VExUS e congestão venosa. O grau de congestão venosa, quando o diâmetro da veia cava inferior for &gt; 2 cm, pode ser avaliado a partir da severidade das alterações nas ondas do Doppler venoso. Legenda – D: onda diastólica; S: onda sistólica; VCI: veia cava inferior. Figura adaptada de Turk M, Robertson T, Koratala A. Point-of-care ultrasound in diagnosis and management of congestive nephropathy. World J Crit Care Med. 2023 Mar 9;12(2):53-62. doi: 10.5492/wjccm.v12.i2.53. PMID: 37034023; PMCID: PMC10075049.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-02-e20230073-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>A utilização da POCUS é hoje uma realidade na avaliação do paciente com IC aguda, pois concede agilidade no diagnóstico e seguimento da congestão pulmonar e sistêmica com bom grau de evidência de acurácia diagnóstica. Além disso, já temos estudos robustos que embasam a qualidade da ferramenta em estimar prognóstico em termos de desfechos robustos, principalmente no período chamado de &quot;fase vulnerável&quot; da IC. Podemos concluir, portanto, que é imperativo a agregação do método aos protocolos contemporâneos de atendimento da IC agudamente descompensada.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4"><p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><p><bold>Vinculação acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
