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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230047</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Uncompacted Myocardium: A Disease or a Phenotype?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Correia</surname>
						<given-names>Vinícius Machado</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Statistical analysis</role>
					<role>Obtaining financing</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1116-6554</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Madrini</surname>
						<given-names>Vagner</given-names>
						<suffix>Junior</suffix>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Statistical analysis</role>
					<role>Obtaining financing</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2437-2485</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Ramires</surname>
						<given-names>Félix José Alvarez</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Statistical analysis</role>
					<role>Obtaining financing</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Clínicas</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Sírio Libânes</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Sírio Libânes, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Samaritano Paulista</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Samaritano Paulista, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Vagner Madrini Junior • Sala de miocardiopatias – Av. Dr. Enéas Carvalho de Aguiar, 44, bloco 2 Abc. Postal Code 05403-900, Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP – Brazil e-mail: <email>vagner.madrini@fm.usp.br</email>
					<email>vagner.junior@einstein.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>19</day>
				<month>09</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>09</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>3</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230047</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>30</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>30</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>30</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Miocardiopatias</kwd>
				<kwd>Miocárdio não Compactado</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="55"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Non-compacted myocardium (NCM) remains controversial between those who consider it a genetic cardiomyopathy<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> and those who believe that excessive trabeculation is a characteristic morphological condition shared by distinct pathological processes and, therefore, not a single disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The hallmark of this phenotype is the presence of prominent trabeculae in the left ventricle (LV) and deep intertrabecular recesses, continuous with the LV cavity and separated from the epicardial coronary arteries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Such abnormalities are identified through imaging exams and may affect the LV, the right ventricle (RV), or both, and do not by themselves define cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The prevalence of this phenotype varies greatly according to the imaging criteria applied, ranging from 0.56% in cohorts that used Jenni’s echocardiographic criteria to 20% in cohorts that applied Petersen’s magnetic resonance criteria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In this review article, we will bring the most current evidence on excessive LV trabeculation and its association with cardiomyopathies.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Definition</title>
				<p>Several criteria based on imaging methods have been proposed to define excessive LV trabeculation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>). The most typical location of trabeculations is in the mid-lateral, apical, and mid-inferior segments of the LV and is presumed to be in the absence of pre-existing cardiac abnormalities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Different definitions of excessive left ventricular trabeculation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
							</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th colspan="4">Echocardiogram</th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Criterion</th>
									<th>Description</th>
									<th>Method</th>
									<th>Accuracy</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Chin et al.</td>
									<td align="center">Distance (X) from the deepest trabecular recess to the epicardial surface Distance (Y) from the highest trabeculation to the epicardial surface X/Y&lt;0.5 = excessive trabeculation</td>
									<td align="center">Telediastole, parasternal long-axis, or apical 4-chamber windows</td>
									<td align="center">S=79-100%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Stollberg et al.</td>
									<td align="center">Ratio of non-compacted (NC) to compacted (C) myocardium ≥ 2 at end-diastole &gt;3 trabeculations in the LV wall distal to the papillary muscles Perfusion of the intertrabecular recesses through the ventricular cavity Trabeculations must have the same echogenicity as the myocardium while moving in sync with ventricular contractions</td>
									<td align="center">Telediastole, 4-chamber apical windows</td>
									<td align="center">S= 79-80% E= 79-93%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Jenni et al.</td>
									<td align="center">Ratio NC/C ≥2 Absence of coexisting cardiac abnormalities Numerous prominent trabeculations and deep intertrabecular recesses Intertrabecular spaces filled by direct blood flow from the ventricular cavity</td>
									<td align="center">Telesystole, short axis parasternal window</td>
									<td align="center">Little sensitive</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" colspan="4"><bold>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Criterion</bold></td>
									<td align="center"><bold>Description</bold></td>
									<td align="center"><bold>Method</bold></td>
									<td align="center"><bold>Accuracy</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Petersen et al.</td>
									<td align="center">NC/C&gt;2.3 in diastole</td>
									<td align="center">Telediastole, long apical axis (4 chambers, 3 chambers, and 2 chambers)</td>
									<td align="center">S=86% E=99%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Jacquier et al.</td>
									<td align="center">Total trabecular mass compared to total LV mass NC ventricular mass&gt;20% of total LV mass</td>
									<td align="center">Telediastole, short-axis cine imaging</td>
									<td align="center">S=93.7% E=93.7%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Grothoff et al.</td>
									<td align="center">Total NC mass index of 15 g/m2 of the overall LV mass VC mass&gt;25% of global LV mass</td>
									<td align="center">Telediastole, short-axis cine imaging</td>
									<td align="center">High S and E</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Stacey et al.</td>
									<td align="center">NC/C&gt;2 at the end of systole</td>
									<td align="center">Telesystole, short-axis statistical images</td>
									<td align="center">-</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Captur et al.</td>
									<td align="center">Fractal analysis used to quantify CN surge along the cardiac apex Maximum apical fractal dimension ≥1.392</td>
									<td align="center">Telediastole, short-axis cine imaging</td>
									<td align="center">-</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p>C: compacted or trabeculated myocardium; E: specificity; NC: non-compacted or non-trabeculated myocardium; S: sensitivity; LV: left ventricle.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Schematic drawing of the main diagnostic imaging criteria that define excessive left ventricular trabeculation. C: compacted or trabeculated myocardium; NC: non-compacted or non-trabeculated myocardium; LV: left ventricle</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230047-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Sensitivity and specificity vary according to the imaging method adopted to define excessive LV trabeculation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Some criteria were developed based on the echocardiogram, but cardiac magnetic resonance imaging seems to have greater resolution and better differentiation between muscle and blood, allowing more precise identification of LV trabeculations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As we have different criteria with very variable accuracies, such definitions can be very simplistic and limited, and there are still important gaps in recognizing this phenotype.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pathophysiology</title>
				<p>Initially, it was thought that excessive trabeculations originated from the embryological arrest of normal endomyocardial morphogenesis, but this theory is currently being questioned.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<p>During normal embryogenesis, at the beginning of pregnancy, the ratio between trabecular and non-trabeculated myocardium is high, and as pregnancy progresses, this ratio decreases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Previously, this ratio was thought to decrease throughout pregnancy due to compaction of the trabecular myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> However, what is currently known is that the trabecular and non-trabecular myocardium grow independently. In early pregnancy, the growth rate of the trabecular myocardium is higher than that of the non-trabecular myocardium. As the pregnancy progresses, this relationship is reversed (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Different growth rate ratios between trabecular and non-trabecular myocardium during pregnancy. Image adapted from Ishiwata et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref>
							</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230047-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>For several reasons, the ratio between trabecular and non-trabecular myocardium may remain high in late pregnancy. However, the more appropriate term for this phenomenon would be excessive trabeculation rather than non-compaction of the myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Several factors have already been identified in the pathophysiology of this phenotype. The first is genetics, which has been increasingly studied in these patients. The pathogenic variants responsible for this phenotype belong to a wide range of proteins involved in the sarcomere, cytoskeleton, mitochondria, desmosome, storage, and ion channels, which are implicated in various heart diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In about one-third of cases, a related pathogenic variant is identified, with the majority being autosomal dominant.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The most commonly related genes are MYH7, MYBPC3, ACTC1, and TTN, and the most specific ones seem to be MYH7, ACTN2, and PRDM16.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Variants in the LMNA and RBM20 genes are associated with an increased risk of sudden arrhythmic death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>However, the genetic test only helps if we find any evidence of cardiomyopathy, keeping in mind that this phenotype can be a variant of normality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> It was demonstrated that 52% of the cases of cardiomyopathy associated with excessive LV trabeculation were sporadic, 32% with factors associated with genetics, and 16% had affected family members even with a negative genetic test. However, they did not always present the same phenotype as the proband (e.g., some had dilated, hypertrophic or sudden death phenotypes).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Another factor related to excessive LV trabeculation is neuromuscular diseases, as we found this phenotype in diseases such as Barth syndrome, mitochondrial disorders, myotonic dystrophy, nuclear envelopathies, and Becker and Duchenne dystrophies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Of patients with excessive trabeculation according to the echocardiographic criteria of Stöllberg, 80% had some neuromuscular disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Furthermore, 20 to 30% of patients with Becker or Duchenne muscular dystrophies have cardiomyopathy with excessive LV trabeculation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Several factors that are related to increased ventricular preload can lead to the hypertrabeculation phenotype, such as pregnancy (more common in black women and tends to resolve after 12 weeks of delivery), frequent and intense physical exercise, and hemoglobinopathies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Some case series have described the relationship between the phenotype and polycystic kidney disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> It is still unknown how to explain this relationship with certainty, but it is admitted that there is a genetic background in common for both entities or that hypervolemia caused by chronic kidney disease leads to increased preload, contributing to excessive LV trabeculation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Chemotherapy-related cardiotoxicity has also been associated with this phenotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> It is not known with certainty what is the cause or consequence, but some studies demonstrate the association of cardiomyopathy associated with excessive LV trabeculation in response to chemotherapy, being related to the gene TTN in some cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Therefore, based on what we know today, we can conclude that the LV excessive trabeculation phenotype already begins to develop in intrauterine life, has a multifactorial etiology with a relevant genetic component, and does not always culminate in cardiomyopathy.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Clinical condition</title>
				<p>Data on the prevalence of clinical findings, natural history, and prognosis of cardiomyopathy associated with excessive LV trabeculation or “non-compact cardiomyopathy” (NCM) are full of biases because, as we will see later, diagnostic methods are still very divergent, and even today we do not have a gold-standard method.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Classically, NCM is represented by the triad of heart failure, arrhythmias, and thromboembolic events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> A meta-analysis showed that heart failure is present in 43% of cases<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> and may occur due to systolic or diastolic dysfunction even with a pattern of restriction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> In the same meta-analysis, 20% of patients had sustained or non-sustained ventricular arrhythmias, mostly monomorphic, and 9% had thromboembolic events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Trabeculations are involved in developing the His-Purkinje system; therefore, any change in this system can cause conduction disorders and arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Diagnosis</title>
				<p>On the electrocardiogram (ECG), several findings were described in NCM, such as delay in intraventricular conduction (31%), bundle branch blocks (19%), voltage criteria for LV hypertrophy (38%), and changes in repolarization (72%), including ST segment changes (61%), T wave inversion (41%) and QTc prolongation (52%). There is no specific ECG pattern for NCM; the ECG is normal in 13% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> In addition to ventricular arrhythmias, we can find supraventricular arrhythmias, such as atrial fibrillation, in 17% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Ventricular tachycardia and Wolf’s syndrome -Parkinson-White (WPW) seem more frequent in children with NCM, whereas other ventricular arrhythmias and atrial fibrillation are more common in adults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup>The etiology of the WPW syndrome remains controversial, but some authors suggest a developmental disorder of the <italic>annulus fibrosus</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Despite more than 30 years since the first description of NCM occurred in 1990, we still do not have a gold-standard method for diagnosing this entity. Developments in imaging technology and increased access to cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) have improved the visualization of trabeculae and previously overlooked endocardial details.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The consistent finding across multiple cohorts is that CMR methods generate a 12-fold higher prevalence of NCM than echocardiography. On the other hand, this improved detection resulted in the “overdiagnosis” of MNC, as many patients with excessive LV trabeculation without associated heart disease were labeled as NCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Thus, the real prevalence of NCM is impossible to calculate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> On cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, several patterns of delayed enhancement have already been described, ischemic (subendocardial or transmural) or not. The most common non-ischemic pattern is in the middle septum and right ventricular insertion points. It is noteworthy that delayed enhancement can affect both areas of trabecular and non-trabeculated myocardium and may even predominate in areas far from sites with greater trabeculation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>There are several diagnostic criteria for excessive LV trabeculation, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>, with different sensitivities and specificities. Computed tomography, not represented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>, can also be used to diagnose excessive LV trabeculation. However, it does not evaluate myocardial fibrosis like magnetic resonance imaging, which is an important prognostic factor, in addition to adding significant exposure to radiation to the patient. Thus, it is rarely used in clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Mendelez-Ramirez et al. described the only tomographic criteria as excessive trabeculation, the ratio between non-trabeculated myocardium (NC) and trabecular myocardium (C) greater than 2.2 in 2 or more segments.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The role of endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) in diagnosing NCM is much questioned. However, the findings are very nonspecific<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> and there are no significant differences in the area oftrabecular myocardium between patients with NCM and those with secondary causes of excessive LV trabeculation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> The role of EMB resides mainly in neuromuscular diseases associated with this phenotype since it can bring about more specific changes in these diseases, such as mitochondrial diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Therefore, EMB must be individualized and indicated for the minority of cases.</p>
				<p>However, in the absence of a gold-standard method, in order to arrive at a more accurate diagnosis of NCM, we must add various information, such as a detailed anamnesis, family history, and physical examination, in addition to the integration of several complementary tests, such as ECG, echocardiogram, CMR and, if there is suspicion of cardiomyopathy associated with excessive LV trabeculation, we must proceed with additional tests, such as genetic testing, 24-hour Holter monitoring, exercise testing, in addition to work-up aimed at ruling out differential diagnoses. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref>)</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Proposed diagnostic algorithm for excessive left ventricular trabeculation. Image adapted from D’Silva e Jensen.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref>
							</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230047-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Genetic testing can help in cases where we cannot conclusively exclude the presence of associated cardiomyopathy and where there is still a suspicion that excessive LV trabeculation is not physiological.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Besides helping with diagnostic confirmation, different sarcomeric mutations can cause different phenotypes among family members, influencing potential therapies and genetic counseling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment</title>
				<p>There is a paucity of scientific evidence regarding the specific treatment of NCM, which is mainly aimed at preventing the main complications of the disease (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f04">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Proposed treatment for non-compaction cardiomyopathy. AA: aldosterone antagonist; BB: beta-blocker; LBBB: left bundle branch block; AF: atrial fibrillation; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; ACEI/ARB: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor/angiotensin receptor blocker; INRA: neprilysin and angiotensin-neprilysin receptor inhibitor; HF: feart failure; ICD: implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; ISGLT2: sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor; WPW: Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome; VAT: reentrant atrioventricular tachycardia; NRT: nodal reentry tachycardia; VT: ventricular tachycardia.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230047-gf04.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The first discussion is about anticoagulation since we already know that thromboembolic events are one of the concerns in these patients. In addition to arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation, the numerous intertrabecular recesses are thought to contribute to the formation of intracardiac thrombi.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> However, in a cohort of over 10,000 Danish citizens, trabecular mass was not significantly related to the incidence of stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> The most established recommendations for anticoagulation in these patients are the presence of intracardiac thrombus, atrial fibrillation, or previous thromboembolic events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> However, other indications, such as ventricular dysfunction guided by the CHADS2 score (in sinus rhythm), are more debatable. Some authors advocate anticoagulation when the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) is below 40%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> but such patients have the same risk of stroke as those without excessive trabeculation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> The WARCEF clinical trial included 2305 patients with other cardiomyopathies with LVEF≤35% and sinus rhythm randomized to warfarin versus ASA 325mg daily. There was no difference in the primary composite endpoint of ischemic stroke, hemorrhagic stroke, and death from any cause. Although warfarin was associated with lower rates of ischemic stroke, at the expense of more major bleeding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Other authors also recommend anticoagulation in these patients if CHADS2 score ≥2 in the presence of sinus rhythm, but based on a small retrospective study, which did not evaluate bleeding and long-term events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Regarding the choice of anticoagulant, the initial studies were with warfarin, but there is already evidence to use direct oral anticoagulants (DOACS) in the indication for AF, as well as for intracardiac thrombus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Another important point is the indication of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD). In the current ESC guidelines for heart failure (HF) treatment, there is no specific indication for NCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Following the same general indications for HF, the ICD is recommended as secondary prophylaxis after an aborted sudden death and primary prophylaxis in LVEF≤35% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Some cohorts observed higher risks of sudden death in some subgroups of patients with NCM, such as syncope of arrhythmic origin and symptomatic and/or refractory ventricular arrhythmias to ablation, suggesting the ICD implant.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The drug treatment of HF should follow the recommendations of current guidelines, with medications that act in the natural history of HF and those that are symptomatic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> The device implantation should be considered in patients with NCM and advanced HF who meet the general criteria for resynchronization therapy (CRT).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> It was also observed that patients with more extensive areas of non-trabeculated myocardium had better responses to CRT, with greater chances of reverse remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Heart transplantation should be considered for patients refractory to drug therapy for HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> An analysis of the United Network of Organ Sharing (UNOS) database compared patients who underwent heart transplantation between 2000-2013 for NCM and for idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Survival rates between groups were similar, but the incidence of surgical wound infection was higher in the NCM group, probably due to a greater need for ventricular assist devices in the peritransplantation period.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Ablation is another important discussion in patients with NCM, as they have more frequent arrhythmias and conduction disorders. Thus, radiofrequency ablation may benefit patients with WPW syndrome, atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia, nodal reentry tachycardia, and monomorphic ventricular tachycardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> However, the procedure may also be necessary on the epicardial surface and the standard endocardial approach, as areas of arrhythmias were found in the fibrotic myocardial tissue present in trabecular and non-trabecular myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In line with ESC recommendations for participation in competitive sports, athletes with excessive trabeculations revealed on any imaging method, without</p>
				<p>impaired LV systolic function, ventricular arrhythmias, or thromboembolic events, are unrestricted in competitive sports. Athletes diagnosed with NCM are stratified according to LV systolic function. Those with normal LV function can participate in all competitive sports (except for those in which syncope can cause death or serious injury) if they are asymptomatic, have no history of unexplained syncope, and have no ventricular arrhythmia on Holter and exercise testing. Athletes with compromised LV systolic function and/or ventricular arrhythmia should be advised to refrain from participating in competitive sports and to remain under regular clinical follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Prognosis</title>
				<p>Asymptomatic and healthy patients with excessive trabeculation have a good prognosis. A 9.5-year study showed no differences in LV volume, systolic function, HF, stroke, and cardiovascular outcomes between hypertrabeculated patients versus those with normal trabeculation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Therefore, excessive trabeculation with normal LVEF and without fibrosis does not have a worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Worse results were seen in the presence of delayed enhancement on CMR and reduced LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The risk of major cardiovascular events also appears to be greater in patients with LV systolic dysfunction associated with some pathogenic variant associated with NCM, compared to those with sporadic forms of the disease and also with ventricular dysfunction, suggesting that genetics also play a key role in the prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Other factors associated with a worse prognosis are: atrial fibrillation, left atrial diameter greater than 40mm, advanced age, and neuromuscular diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Mortality varies in the literature; however, a retrospective study estimated mortality of NCM at 5.8% per year, but most patients had ventricular dysfunction and/or atrial fibrillation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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							<surname>Hoedemaekers</surname>
							<given-names>YM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>van Spaendonck-Zwarts</surname>
							<given-names>KY</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Baas</surname>
							<given-names>AF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Boekholdt</surname>
							<given-names>SM</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Genetics, Clinical Features, and Long-Term Outcome of Noncompaction Cardiomyopathy</article-title>
					<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
					<year>2018</year>
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					<issue>7</issue>
					<fpage>711</fpage>
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					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2017.12.019</pub-id>
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				<mixed-citation>55. Stöllberger C, Blazek G, Dobias C, Hanafin A, Wegner C, Finsterer J. Frequency of Stroke and Embolism in Left Ventricular Hypertrabeculation/Noncompaction. Am J Cardiol. 2011;108(7):1021-3. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2011.05.039.</mixed-citation>
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							<surname>Stöllberger</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Blazek</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dobias</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hanafin</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wegner</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Finsterer</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Frequency of Stroke and Embolism in Left Ventricular Hypertrabeculation/Noncompaction</article-title>
					<source>Am J Cardiol</source>
					<year>2011</year>
					<volume>108</volume>
					<issue>7</issue>
					<fpage>1021</fpage>
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				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Miocárdio Não Compactado: Uma Doença ou um Fenótipo?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Correia</surname>
						<given-names>Vinícius Machado</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Análise estatística</role>
					<role>Obtenção de financiamento</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1116-6554</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Madrini</surname>
						<given-names>Vagner</given-names>
						<suffix>Junior</suffix>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Análise estatística</role>
					<role>Obtenção de financiamento</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2437-2485</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Ramires</surname>
						<given-names>Félix José Alvarez</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Análise estatística</role>
					<role>Obtenção de financiamento</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Sírio Libânes, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Samaritano Paulista, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"> Correspondência: Vagner Madrini Junior • Sala de miocardiopatias – Av. Dr. Enéas Carvalho de Aguiar, 44, bloco 2 Abc. CEP 05403-900, Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP – Brasil e-mail: vagner.madrini@fm.usp.br vagner.junior@einstein.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Miocardiopatias</kwd>
				<kwd>Miocárdio não Compactado</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>O miocárdio não compactado (MNC) permanece sendo um assunto polêmico entre aqueles que o consideram como uma cardiomiopatia genética<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> e aqueles que acreditam que a trabeculação excessiva seja uma condição morfológica característica compartilhada por processos patológicos distintos e, portanto, não uma única doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O marco deste fenótipo é a presença de trabéculas proeminentes no ventrículo esquerdo (VE) e recessos intertrabeculares profundos, contínuos com a cavidade do VE e separados das artérias coronárias epicárdicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Tais anormalidades são identificadas por meio de exames de imagem, podendo afetar o VE, o ventrículo direito (VD) ou ambos, e não definem por si só uma miocardiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A prevalência deste fenótipo varia muito de acordo com os critérios de imagem aplicados, sendo 0,56% em coortes que utilizaram os critérios ecocardiográficos de Jenni, até 20% em coortes que aplicaram os critérios da ressonância magnética de Petersen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Neste artigo de revisão, iremos trazer as evidências mais atuais sobre trabeculação excessiva do VE e sua associação com cardiomiopatias.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Definição</title>
					<p>Diversos critérios baseados em métodos de imagem foram propostos para a definição de trabeculação excessiva do VE (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref>). A localização mais típica das trabeculações é nos segmentos médio-lateral, apical e médio-inferior do VE e presume-se a ausência de anormalidades cardíacas pré-existentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Diferentes definições de trabeculação excessiva de ventrículo esquerdo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
								</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th colspan="4">Ecocardiograma</th>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Critério</th>
										<th>Descrição</th>
										<th>Método</th>
										<th>Acurácia</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Chin et al.</td>
										<td align="center">Distância (X) do recesso trabecular mais profundo até a superfície epicárdica Distância (Y) da trabeculação mais alta até a superfície epicárdica X/Y&lt;0,5 = trabeculação excessiva</td>
										<td align="center">Telediástole, janelas paraesternal eixo longo ou apical 4 câmaras</td>
										<td align="center">S=79-100%</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Stöllberger et al.</td>
										<td align="center">Relação de miocárdio não compactado (NC) para compactado (C) ≥ 2 no final da diástole &gt;3 trabeculações na parede do VE distal aos músculos papilares Perfusão dos recessos intertrabeculares pela cavidade ventricular As trabeculações devem ter a mesma ecogenicidade do miocárdio enquanto se movem em sincronia com as contrações ventriculares</td>
										<td align="center">Telediástole, janelas apical 4 câmaras</td>
										<td align="center">S= 79-80% E= 79-93%</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Jenni et al.</td>
										<td align="center">Relação NC/C≥2 Ausência de anormalidades cardíacas coexistentes Numerosas trabeculações proeminentes e recessos intertrabeculares profundos Espaços intertrabeculares preenchidos por fluxo sanguíneo direto da cavidade ventricular</td>
										<td align="center">Telessístole, janela paraesternal eixo curto</td>
										<td align="center">Pouco sensível</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center" colspan="4"><bold>Ressonância cardíaca magnética</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Critério</bold></td>
										<td align="center"><bold>Descrição</bold></td>
										<td align="center"><bold>Método</bold></td>
										<td align="center"><bold>Acurácia</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Petersen et al.</td>
										<td align="center">NC/C&gt;2,3 na diástole</td>
										<td align="center">Telediástole, apical eixo longo (4 câmaras, 3 câmaras e 2 câmaras)</td>
										<td align="center">S=86% E=99%</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Jacquier et al.</td>
										<td align="center">Massa trabecular total em comparação com a massa total do VE Massa ventricular NC&gt;20% da massa total do VE</td>
										<td align="center">Telediástole, imagens cine de eixo curto</td>
										<td align="center">S=93,7% E=93,7%</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Grothoff et al.</td>
										<td align="center">Índice de massa NC total de 15 g/m<sup>2</sup> da massa global do VE Massa VC&gt;25% da massa global do VE</td>
										<td align="center">Telediástole, imagens cine de eixo curto</td>
										<td align="center">Altas S e E</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Stacey et al.</td>
										<td align="center">NC/C&gt;2 na final da sístole</td>
										<td align="center">Telessístole, imagens estatísticas de eixo curto</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Captur et al.</td>
										<td align="center">Análise fractal usada para quantificar o do NC ao longo do ápice cardíaco Dimensão fractal apical máxima ≥1,392</td>
										<td align="center">Telediástole, imagens cine de eixo curto</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1002">
									<p>C: miocárdio compactado ou trabeculado; E: especificidade; NC: miocárdio não compactado ou não trabeculado; S: sensibilidade; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f01002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Desenho esquemático dos principais critérios diagnósticos por imagem que definem a trabeculação excessiva do ventrículo esquerdo. C: miocárdio compactado ou trabeculado; NC: miocárdio não compactado ou não trabeculado; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230047-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>A sensibilidade e a especificidade variam de acordo com o método de imagem adotado para definição de trabeculação excessiva de VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Alguns critérios foram desenvolvidos baseando-se no ecocardiograma, porém a ressonância magnética cardíaca parece ter maior resolução e melhor diferenciação entre músculo e sangue, permitindo uma identificação mais precisa das trabeculações do VE. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Como temos diferentes critérios com acurácias muito variáveis, tais definições podem ser muito simplórias e limitadas e ainda há lacunas importantes no reconhecimento deste fenótipo.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Fisiopatologia</title>
					<p>Inicialmente, se pensava que as trabeculações excessivas se originavam da parada embriológica da morfogênese endomiocárdica normal, mas atualmente vem se questionando essa teoria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Durante a embriogênese normal, no início da gestação, a relação entre o miocárdio trabeculado e não trabeculado é elevada e, ao passo que a gestação avança, essa relação diminui.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Antes, se achava que esta relação se reduzia ao longo da gestação devido à compactação do miocárdio trabeculado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> No entanto, o que se sabe hoje em dia é que o miocárdio trabeculado e o não trabeculado crescem de maneira independente. No início da gestação, a velocidade de crescimento do miocárdio trabeculado é superior à do não trabeculado. Conforme a gestação evolui, esta relação se inverte (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Diferentes proporções nas velocidades de crescimento entre o miocárdio trabeculado e não trabeculado durante a gestação. Imagem adaptada de Ishiwata et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref>
								</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230047-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Por diversos motivos, a proporção entre miocárdio trabeculado e não trabeculado pode permanecer elevada no final da gestação. Porém, o termo mais adequado para esse fenômeno seria trabeculação excessiva mais que miocárdio não compactado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Vários fatores já foram identificados na fisiopatologia deste fenótipo. O primeiro deles é a genética, que vem sendo cada vez mais estudada nesses pacientes. As variantes patogênicas responsáveis por esse fenótipo pertencem a uma ampla gama de proteínas envolvidas no sarcômero, citoesqueleto, mitocôndrias, desmossoma, armazenamento e canais iônicos, que estão implicados em diversas doenças cardíacas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Em cerca de um terço dos casos, se identifica uma variante patogênica relacionada, sendo a maioria de herança autossômica dominante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Os genes mais comumente relacionados são MYH7, MYBPC3, ACTC1 e TTN e os mais específicos parecem ser MYH7, ACTN2 e PRDM16.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Variantes nos genes LMNA e RBM20 estão associadas a maior risco de morte súbita arrítmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Entretanto, o teste genético só auxilia se encontrarmos algum indício de cardiomiopatia, lembrando que esse fenótipo pode ser uma variante da normalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Foi demonstrado que 52% dos casos de cardiomiopatia associada a trabeculação excessiva do VE eram esporádicos, 32% com fator genético associado e 16% tendo familiares afetados mesmo com teste genético negativo, embora nem sempre apresentassem o mesmo fenótipo do probando (ex.: alguns possuiam fenótipos de dilatada, hipertrófica ou de morte súbita).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outro fator relacionado à trabeculação excessiva do VE são as doenças neuromusculares, visto que encontramos este fenótipo em doenças como síndrome de Barth, desordens mitocondriais, distrofia miotônica, envelopatias nucleares e distrofias de Becker e de Duchenne.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Dos pacientes com trabeculação excessiva pelos critérios ecocardiográficos de Stöllberg, 80% apresentaram alguma doença neuromuscular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Ademais, 20 a 30% dos pacientes com distrofias musculares de Becker ou de Duchenne apresentam uma cardiomiopatia com trabeculação excessiva de VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Diversos fatores que estão relacionados ao aumento da pré-carga ventricular podem levar ao fenótipo de hipertrabeculação, como gestação (mais comum em mulheres negras e tende a se resolver após 12 semanas do parto), exercício físico frequente e intenso e hemoglobinopatias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Algumas séries de casos vem descrevendo a relação do fenótipo em questão com a doença renal policística.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Ainda não se sabe explicar ao certo tal relação, mas se admite que haja um fundo genético em comum para ambas as entidades ou ainda que a hipervolemia causada pela doença renal crônica leve a um aumento da pré-carga, contribuindo para a trabeculação excessiva do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A cardiotoxicidade relacionada à quimioterapia também vem sendo associada a este fenótipo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Não se sabe com certeza o que é causa ou consequência, mas alguns estudos demonstram a associação da cardiomiopatia associada a trabeculação excessiva do VE, em resposta a quimioterapia, sendo relacionada ao gene da TTN em alguns casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Portanto, pelo que sabemos hoje, podemos concluir que o fenótipo de trabeculação excessiva de VE já começa a se desenvolver na vida intrauterina e apresenta etiologia multifatorial, com componente genético relevante, e nem sempre culmina em uma cardiomiopatia.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Quadro clínico</title>
					<p>Os dados sobre a prevalência de achados clínicos, história natural e prognóstico da cardiomiopatia associada a trabeculação excessiva de VE ou “miocardiopatia não compactada” (MNC) são repletos de vieses, pois como veremos adiante, os métodos diagnósticos ainda são muito divergentes e até hoje não temos um método padrão-ouro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Classicamente, a MNC é representada pela tríade de insuficiência cardíaca, arritmias e eventos tromboembólicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Uma metanálise evidenciou que a insuficiência cardíaca está presente em 43% dos casos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> podendo ocorrer por disfunção sistólica ou diastólica até com padrão de restrição.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Na mesma metanálise, 20% dos pacientes apresentaram arritmias ventriculares sustentadas ou não sustentadas, sendo a maioria monomórfica, e 9% eventos tromboembólicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> As trabeculações estão envolvidas no desenvolvimento do sistema His-Purkinje, portanto qualquer alteração neste sistema pode ocasionar distúrbios de condução e arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
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					<title>Diagnóstico</title>
					<p>No eletrocardiograma (ECG), foram descritos diversos achados na MNC, como atraso na condução intraventricular (31%), bloqueios de ramo (19%), critérios de voltagem para hipertrofia de VE (38%) e alterações da repolarização (72%), incluindo alterações do segmento ST (61%), inversão da onda T (41%) e prolongamento do QTc (52%). Não existe nenhum padrão de ECG específico para MNC e em 13% dos casos o ECG é normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Além de arritmias ventriculares, podemos encontrar arritmias supraventriculares, como fibrilação atrial, em 17% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> A taquicardia ventricular e a síndrome de Wolf-Parkinson-White (WPW) parecem ser mais frequentes em crianças com MNC, ao passo que outras arritmias ventriculares e a fibrilação atrial são mais comuns em adultos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> A etiologia da síndrome de WPW ainda permanece controversa, mas alguns autores sugerem um distúrbio de desenvolvimento do <italic>annulus fibrosus</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Apesar de mais de 30 anos da primeira descrição de MNC, que ocorreu em 1990, ainda não temos um método padrão-ouro para o diagnóstico dessa entidade. Desenvolvimentos em tecnologia de imagem e maior acesso à ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC), melhoraram a visualização das trabéculas e detalhes endocárdicos anteriormente negligenciados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A descoberta consistente em várias coortes é que os métodos de RMC geram uma prevalência 12 vezes maior de MNC do que a ecocardiografia. Por outro lado, essa detecção aprimorada resultou na “overdiagnosis” de MNC, pois muitos pacientes com trabeculação excessiva de VE sem cardiopatia associada foram rotulados como MNC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Dessa forma, a real prevalência na MNC é impossível de calcular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Na ressonância magnética cardíaca, diversos padrões de realce tardio já foram descritos, isquêmicos (subendocárdico ou transmural) ou não. O padrão não-isquêmico mais comum é em septo médio e nos pontos de inserção do ventrículo direito. Vale ressaltar que o realce tardio pode afetar tanto áreas de miocárdio trabeculado, quanto não trabeculado, podendo predominar até mesmo em áreas distantes de locais com maior trabeculação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Há diversos critérios diagnósticos para trabeculação excessiva de VE, como é demonstrado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">tabela 1</xref>, com diferentes sensibilidades e especificidades. A tomografia computadorizada, não representada na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">tabela 1</xref>, também pode ser utilizada para diagnóstico de trabeculação excessiva de VE, porém não avalia fibrose miocárdica como a ressonância magnética, o que é um fator prognóstico importante, além de agregar importante exposição à radiação ao paciente. Assim, é pouco utilizada na prática clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Mendelez-Ramirez et al. descreveram os únicos critérios tomográficos, definindo como trabeculação excessiva a relação entre miocárdio não trabeculado (NC) pelo miocárdio trabeculado (C) maior do que 2,2 em 2 ou mais segmentos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Muito se questiona o papel da biópsia endomiocárdica (BEM) no diagnóstico de MNC, porém os achados são muito inespecíficos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> e não há diferenças significativas na área de miocárdio trabeculado entre pacientes com MNC e aqueles com causas secundárias de trabeculação excessiva de VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> O papel da BEM reside principalmente nas doenças neuromusculares associadas a este fenótipo, já que pode trazer alterações mais específicas destas doenças, como por exemplo as doenças mitocondriais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Portanto, a BEM deve ser individualizada e indicada para a minoria dos casos.</p>
					<p>No entanto, na ausência de um método padrão-ouro, para chegarmos ao diagnóstico mais preciso de MNC, devemos agregar diversas informações, como anamnese detalhada, história familiar, exame físico, além de integração de diversos exames complementares, como ECG, ecocardiograma, RMC e, caso haja suspeita de miocardiopatia associada a trabeculação excessiva de VE, devemos prosseguir com exames adicionais, como teste genético, holter 24h, teste ergométrico, além de propedêutica voltada a afastar diagnósticos diferenciais. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 3</xref>)</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Algoritmo diagnóstico proposto para trabeculação excessiva do ventrículo esquerdo. Imagem adaptada de D’Silva e Jensen.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref>
								</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230047-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>O teste genético pode auxiliar nos casos em que não conseguimos excluir de maneira contundente a presença de miocardiopatia associada e que ainda exista a suspeita de que a trabeculação excessiva do VE não seja fisiológica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Além de ajudar na confirmação diagnóstica, as diferentes mutações sarcoméricas podem causar fenótipos distintos entre os familiares, além de influenciarem nas terapêuticas potenciais e no aconselhamento genético.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
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					<title>Tratamento</title>
					<p>Há uma paucidade de evidência científica em relação ao tratamento específico da MNC, o qual é voltado principalmente para a prevenção das principais complicações da doença (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04002">
							<label>Figura 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Tratamento proposto para miocardiopatia não compactada. AA: antagonista da aldosterona; BB: betabloqueador; BRE: bloqueio de ramo esquerdo; CDI: cardiodesfibrilador implantável; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; FA: fibrilação atrial; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; IECA/BRA: inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina / bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina; INRA: inibidor da neprilisina e do receptor de angiotensina-neprilisina; ISGLT2: inibidor do cotransportador de sódio-glicose-2; WPW: síndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White; TAV: taquicardia atrioventricular reentrante; TRN: taquicardia por reentrada nodal; TV: taquicardia ventricular.</title>
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							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230047-gf04-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>A primeira discussão é sobre a anticoagulação, uma vez que já sabemos que os eventos tromboembólicos são uma das preocupações nestes pacientes. Além de arritmias como a fibrilação atrial, acredita-se que os numerosos recessos intertrabeculares contribuem para a formação de trombos intracardíacos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> No entanto, em uma coorte de mais de 10.000 cidadãos dinamarqueses, a massa trabecular não foi significativamente relacionada com a incidência de AVC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> As recomendações de anticoagulação mais estabelecidas nesses pacientes são a presença de trombo intracardíaco, de fibrilação atrial ou de eventos tromboembólicos prévios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Entretanto, outras indicações são mais discutíveis, como a disfunção ventricular e guiada pelo escore CHADS2 (em ritmo sinusal). Alguns autores advogam pela anticoagulação quando há fração de ejeção de ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) está abaixo de 40%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> porém tais pacientes apresentam o mesmo risco de AVC do que aqueles sem trabeculação excessiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> O ensaio clínico WARCEF incluiu 2305 pacientes com outras miocardiopatias com FEVE≤35% e rítmo sinusal, que foram randomizados para varfarina versus AAS 325mg por dia. Não houve diferença no desfecho primário composto por AVC isquêmico, AVC hemorrágico e morte por qualquer causa. Porém, a varfarina foi associada a menores taxas de AVC isquêmico, porém às custas de mais sangramentos maiores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Outros autores também recomendam a anticoagulação desses pacientes, se escore CHADS2≥2, na vigência de ritmo sinusal, porém baseando-se em um estudo retrospectivo pequeno, que não avaliou sangramentos e eventos à longo prazo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Quanto à escolha do anticoagulante, os estudos iniciais foram com varfarina, mas já há evidências para se utilizar os anticoagulantes orais diretos (DOACS) na indicação por FA, como também por trombo intracardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outro ponto importante é a indicação de cardiodesfibrilador implantável (CDI). Nos atuais guidelines da ESC para o tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca (IC), não há nenhuma indicação específica para MNC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Seguindo as mesmas indicações gerais da IC, se recomenda o CDI como profilaxia secundária, ou seja, após uma morte súbita abortada, mas também como profilaxia primária nos casos de FEVE≤35%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Algumas coortes observaram maiores riscos de morte súbita em alguns subgrupos de pacientes com MNC, como síncope de origem arrítmica e arritmias ventriculares sintomáticas e/ou refratárias à ablação, sugerindo-se também o implante de CDI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O tratamento medicamentoso da IC deve seguir as recomendações dos guidelines vigentes, com medicações que atuam na história natural da IC, bem como aquelas sintomáticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Em pacientes com MNC e IC avançada que preencham os critérios gerais para terapia de ressincronização (TRC), o implante do dispositivo deve ser considerado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Observou-se ainda que pacientes com áreas mais extensas de miocárdio não trabeculado apresentaram respostas melhores a TRC, com maiores chances de remodelamento reverso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Para pacientes refratários à terapia medicamentosa para IC, o transplante cardíaco deve ser considerado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Uma análise do banco de dados do United Network of Organ Sharing (UNOS) comparou pacientes submetidos a transplante cardíaco entre 2000-2013 por MNC e por miocardiopatia dilatada idiopática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> As taxas de sobrevida entre os grupos foram semelhantes, porém a incidência de infecção de ferida operatória foi maior no grupo de MNC, provavelmente por maior necessidade de dispositivos de assistência ventricular no período peritransplante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A ablação é outra discussão importante nos pacientes com MNC, pois apresentam arritmias e distúrbios de condução com maior frequência. Assim, pacientes com síndrome de WPW, taquicardia atrioventricular reentrante, taquicardia por reentrada nodal e taquicardia ventricular monomórfica podem beneficiar-se da ablação por radiofrequência.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> No entanto, o procedimento pode ser necessário também na superfície epicárdica, além da abordagem endocárdica padrão, pois as áreas de arritmias foram encontradas no tecido miocárdico fibrótico presente no miocárdio trabeculado e não trabeculado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					<p>De acordo com as recomendações da ESC para participação em esportes competitivos, atletas com trabeculações excessivas reveladas em qualquer método de imagem, sem função sistólica do VE prejudicada, arritmias ventriculares ou eventos tromboembólicos, não têm restrições em esportes competitivos. Atletas com diagnóstico de MNC são estratificados de acordo com a função sistólica do VE. Aqueles com função do VE normal podem participar de todos os esportes competitivos (com exceção daqueles em que síncope pode causar morte ou lesões graves), caso sejam assintomáticos, sem história de síncope inexplicável e sem arritmia ventricular em Holter e teste ergométrico. Atletas com função sistólica de VE comprometida e/ou arritmia ventricular devem ser aconselhados a abster-se de participar em esportes competitivos e a permanecer em acompanhamento clínico regular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
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					<title>Prognóstico</title>
					<p>Os pacientes com trabeculação excessiva assintomáticos e saudáveis têm bom prognóstico. Um estudo com duração de 9,5 anos não mostrou diferenças em volume do VE, função sistólica, IC, AVC e desfechos cardiovasculares entre pacientes hipertrabeculados versus aqueles com trabeculação normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Portanto, a trabeculação excessiva com FEVE normal e sem fibrose não possuem um pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Piores resultados foram vistos na presença de realce tardio na RMC e na FEVE reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O risco de eventos cardiovasculares maiores também parece ser maior em pacientes com disfunção sistólica do VE associada a alguma variante patogênica associada a MNC, em comparação àqueles com formas esporádicas da doença e também com disfunção ventricular, sugerindo que a genética também desempenha um papel fundamental no prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outros fatores associados a pior prognóstico são: fibrilação atrial, diâmetro do átrio esquerdo acima de 40mm, idade avançada e doenças neuromusculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A mortalidade varia na literatura, porém um estudo retrospectivo estimou uma mortalidade da MNC de 5,8% ao ano, porém a maioria dos pacientes apresentavam disfunção ventricular e/ou fibrilação atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
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