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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230040</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Diagnosis and Treatment of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Saraiva</surname>
						<given-names>Fernando</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Coneglian</role>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Fernandes</surname>
						<given-names>Fabio</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Romano</surname>
						<given-names>Minna Moreira Dias</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Cardoso</surname>
						<given-names>Juliano Novaes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Soliani</surname>
						<given-names>Marília Taily</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Bernardo</surname>
						<given-names>Mariani Mendes Madisson</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1090-8165</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Schmidt</surname>
						<given-names>André</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Simões</surname>
						<given-names>Marcus Vinicius</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Clínicas</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Ribeira Preto</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto da Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeira Preto, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Coração</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração – Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Fernando Saraiva Coneglian</bold> • niversidade de São Paulo Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto – Clínica Médica – R. Ten. Catão Roxo, 3900. Postal Code 14015-010, Vila Monte Alegre, Ribeirão Preto, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>fernando.coneglian@usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>Dr. Fabio Fernandes gave lectures for the company Brystol-Meyers.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>01</day>
				<month>08</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>07</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>3</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230040</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>25</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>08</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>08</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>The concept of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy has undergone profound changes with the advent of cardiogenomics and the increase in knowledge about the sarcomeric structure and the mutations that lead to cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. In this review article, we address the state of the art in terms of diagnosis, contemplating the genetic heart diseases responsible for differential diagnoses of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, known as phenocopies, which are a major challenge in clinical practice. We also discuss the current evidence that guides treatment.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Cardiomyopathy, Hypertrophic</kwd>
				<kwd>Diagnostic Imaging</kwd>
				<kwd>Drug Therapy</kwd>
				<kwd>Death, Sudden, Cardiac</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="14"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="52"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>
			<fig id="f01">
				<label>Central Illustration</label>
				<caption>
					<title>: Diagnosis and Treatment of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf01.tif"/>
			</fig>
		</p>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most prevalent genetic cardiomyopathy, with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 500 live births. It has a heterogeneous aspect in its clinical manifestations, possibly due to the highly variable gene penetrance, which implies a great challenge in terms of diagnosis and treatment, given that myocardial involvement affects all age groups, from young children to the elderly population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Knowledge about the pathology has grown in terms of specific diagnostic techniques and genetic and molecular knowledge, with the emergence of promising treatments capable of altering the clinical course of the disease, which requires that professionals remain up-to-date, scientifically minded, and multidisciplinary, so that these technical advances translate to improved patient care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>This review article addresses specific aspects of diagnosis and treatment of HCM in the light of the most recent scientific knowledge.</p>
			<p>The diagnosis of HCM is based on imaging tests, with identification of increased myocardial thickness ≥ 15 mm in any of the studied segments, which is not explained by infiltrative diseases, such as cardiac amyloidosis; hemodynamic alterations, such as those caused by hypertension and chronic kidney disease; or heart diseases such as aortic valve disease, which are conditions capable of causing secondary hypertrophy of the heart muscle. Echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) and computed tomography can be used for this purpose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In cases of relatives of a confirmed case of HCM or in cases of identified pathogenic mutation, even with minor hypertrophies, with thickness ≥ 13 mm, they are diagnosed with HCM, excluding other common pathological conditions.</p>
			<p>In children, diagnosis is more difficult, and it is made based on an increase in thickness corresponding to more than 2 standard deviations from the population mean for age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Strictly speaking, the disease results from the structural alteration of sarcomeric proteins restricted to the heart muscle and can be characterized genetically with recognizably pathological or suspicious mutations. In some cases, the mutation is not identified.</p>
			<p>It is worth underscoring that, within this scenario of diseases that occur with myocardial hypertrophy, there are also phenocopies of sarcomeric HCM, which include deposit diseases, such as Anderson-Fabry disease and Pompe disease; infiltrative diseases, such as amyloidosis; mitochondrial diseases, such as MELAS; syndromic diseases, such as Noonan and Danon; and neuromuscular diseases, such as Friedreich’s ataxia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Accordingly, the initial evaluation of patients with suspected HCM requires, in addition to electrocardiogram (ECG), imaging tests such as echocardiography and CMR to identify the cardiac structural and functional alterations that characterize the diagnosis.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Electrocardiogram</title>
				<p>ECG is often the first cardiac imaging test that raises suspicion of HCM. Several ECG alterations in patients with HCM have been described, including left ventricular hypertrophy, altered ventricular repolarization, arrhythmias, and conduction abnormalities, which may be present in the initial evaluation, even before left ventricular hypertrophy is evident on the imaging methods.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> However, between 5% and 10% of individuals with HCM may have normal electrocardiogram<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Electrocardiogram tracing of a patient with apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Electrocardiogram showed an increase in QRS amplitude, denoting left ventricular overload, as well as deep negative T waves in the septal and lateral wall, which are characteristics of this form of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The use of 24-hour Holter plays an important role in the risk stratification of patients with HCM. Episodes of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia (NSVT) can identify patients at risk for sudden death. It is recommended to perform a 24-hour Holter every 1 to 2 years in patients who do not have an implantable cardiac defibrillator (ICD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Furthermore, 24-hour Holter can screen for the presence of atrial fibrillation, which is associated with adverse events such as stroke.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Echocardiography</title>
				<p>Echocardiography is a non-invasive diagnostic imaging method with extensive diagnostic capacity in patients with HCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The exam demonstrates structural and functional alterations of the disease, including increased ventricular wall thickness, enlarged atria secondary to pressure overload, presence and degree of the left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) obstruction gradient, and analysis of ventricular diastolic and systolic function (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>). Even with 2-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography, the exact point of LVOT obstruction can be determined, which will be extremely important when there is a need to plan septal reduction therapy (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 3</xref>). Moving images can demonstrate the abnormal movement of the mitral valve towards the interventricular septum and its subvalvular apparatus, secondary to the Venturi effect of acceleration in the LVOT, known as systolic anterior movement of the mitral valve, which directly contributes to the obstructive mechanism of the disease.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Phenotypes of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with asymmetrical septal pattern (A), middle apical pattern (B), and apical pattern (C, yellow arrow). Images of the left ventricular outflow tract obstruction (D), with some parameters of altered left ventricular diastolic dysfunction, such as increased atrial volume (E), and increased pulmonary systolic pressure demonstrated by the velocity of tricuspid regurgitation (F).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f04">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>–The choice of the septal for alcohol ablation based on echocardiographic contrast perfusion. In A, the second septal was isolated (yellow arrow) and perfused with echocardiographic contrast, which marked the middle region of the interventricular septum (red arrow), including the right ventricular moderator band and part of the right ventricular free wall. In C, the first septal was isolated (yellow arrow) and perfused with contrast, which marked the highest region of the interventricular septum (red arrow), correlating with the point of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. The patient was thus submitted to alcohol ablation of the first septal.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf04.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>In some patients with HCM, the use of cavity contrast with microbubble echocardiographic contrast is recommended to characterize myocardial hypertrophy in greater detail in determined myocardial segments. Contrast analysis can also improve diagnostic accuracy for the apical aneurysms that can accompany the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Echocardiography is also capable of characterizing the morphology and function of the mitral valve and its subvalvular apparatus, which are frequently compromised by dysplasia in this disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> The support of 3-dimensional echocardiography can also improve the diagnosis of mitral dysplasia associated with HCM.</p>
				<p>Echocardiographic examination can also be performed using provocative maneuvers to reveal LVOT obstruction gradients. The modalities are diverse, including the Valsalva maneuver, the orthostatic position during the exam, or even tests under physical exertion (bicycle or treadmill),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> all of which focus on measuring the LVOT gradient. Tests using dobutamine are not adequate, given the hemodynamic effects of vasodilation in initial doses and intense tachycardia. Thus, in symptomatic patients with dyspnea on exertion, when there is no demonstration of an obstruction gradient at rest, provocative maneuvers are suggested, the Valsalva maneuver being immediately feasible.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> When the Valsalva maneuver does not reveal the obstruction, examination under physical stress is recommended.</p>
				<p>The analysis of ventricular systolic function on echocardiography in cases of HCM typically demonstrates preserved or overestimated left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). It is also important to monitor LVEF throughout the course of the disease, and cases with a good prognosis evolve with maintenance of systolic function, whereas, in some cases, early declines in LVEF may be associated with a change in phenotype to the dilated pattern, which, in turn, should suggest differential diagnoses with other diseases classified as HCM phenocopies.</p>
				<p>Myocardial strain analysis can be a support tool in differential diagnoses of HCM with situations such as hypertrophies related to athlete’s heart or even hypertensive cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Moderate to advanced diastolic dysfunction in cases of HCM is frequent, and it plays a significant prognostic role in HCM.</p>
				<p>Echocardiography is also used as an essential tool in the follow-up of septal reduction therapies, such as surgical myectomy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> alcohol ablation, or radiofrequency ablation.13,14 The use of myocardial perfusion contrast echocardiography makes it possible to reveal the exact irrigation territory of the septal coronary arteries available for alcohol ablation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> During the coronary angiography procedure, a small volume of echocardiographic contrast, composed of stable microbubbles of myocardial perfusion, is injected into each septal coronary artery of interest, thus identifying the myocardial region of septal perfusion (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>). This allows the best septal coronary to be chosen based on the point of obstruction in the LVOT. It also makes it possible to avoid the alcohol ablation of septals responsible for the irrigation of more medial regions in the septum that may cover the right ventricular moderator band or even the free wall of the right ventricle. The loss of this region can lead to right bundle branch block, a common complication after alcohol septal ablation,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> which can be avoided in some cases when the choice of coronary anatomy is guided by echocardiographic contrast.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</title>
				<p>CMR is in the process of being consolidated as a necessary method in HCM as it provides diagnostic and prognostic information. The high spatial and temporal resolution makes it possible to measure the dimensions of the cavity and ventricular walls with high precision (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4A</xref>). Moreover, it makes it possible to clearly visualize areas that are difficult to visualize on other methods, such as the anterolateral wall and the apical portion of the left ventricle, in addition to precisely characterizing muscle tendons and the supraventricular crest of the right ventricle, a frequent cause of incorrect measurements of left ventricular wall thickness, leading to diagnostic error.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Diverse phenotypic manifestations that have been described can be identified using specific CMR techniques, including myocardial crypts and elongation of the mitral leaflets, in addition to changes to the extracellular space.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f05">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– A) Asymmetric septal hypertrophy on 4-chamber imaging of the left ventricle and dilated left atrium; B) Left ventricular hypertrophy with midventricular obstruction and apical aneurysm on 4-chamber imaging; C) Apical form with predominance of hypertrophy at the tip of the left ventricle; D) 4-chamber imaging showing anterior septal movement of the mitral leaflet, creating flow acceleration (dark area indicated by the arrow); E) Myocardial fibrosis, shown as light areas in the heart muscle (dark) on short-axis imaging in the septal region close to the junction with the right ventricle; F) Extensive area of septal fibrosis (light areas) corresponding to approximately 20% of the total LV mass. (Personal archive of Prof. Dr. André Schmidt).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf05.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The apical portion can present distinct patterns (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4C</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">D</xref>, and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">E</xref>). The apical form is mainly manifested by major hypertrophy at the apex of the left ventricle, but the occurrence of apical aneurysm has been described and may play a prognostic role, as it is a source of arrhythmias and thromboembolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The use of gadolinium-based contrast makes it possible to identify the presence of fibrosis in approximately 2/3 of cases in different series.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Although the most common description is at the insertion points of the right ventricle, it can occur in any part of the left ventricle and even in the right ventricle. It can be punctual or diffuse, but it usually preserves the subendocardium (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4F</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">G</xref>). Its extension has prognostic value when it exceeds 15% of left ventricular mass, suggesting worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> A recent study demonstrated that fibrosis is progressive with increments of 0.5% to 1.0% per year and is linked to the appearance of heart failure and the need for cardiac defibrillators.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Finally, it has been recognized that left atrial dimensions (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 4B</xref>) have a prognostic character.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> An Italian registry found that dimensions greater than 48 mm practically doubled the risk of cardiovascular mortality events and tripled the risk of heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Furthermore, functional studies of the atrium have also demonstrated prognostic value even before atrial dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The method’s contributions to confirming diagnosis and obtaining prognostic markers suggest that it should be considered during evaluation and follow-up, and it can be repeated every 3 to 5 years to observe the beginning and/or progression of ventricular fibrosis.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Genetic testing and diagnosis of phenotypes</title>
				<p>HCM is the most common heart disease of genetic etiology. Several mutations in coding points of sarcomeric proteins, of the Z disk, or of intracellular calcium modulators have already been described as associated with the cardiac phenotype of myocardial hypertrophy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Sarcomeric mutations that are very commonly associated with genetic disease are MYBPC3, MYH7, MYL2, TPM1, TNNT2, TNNI3, TNNC1, and TTN, and they are detected in approximately 60% of the studied population with the HCM phenotype. Although some studies have already associated the morphology of myocardial hypertrophy with some specific gene mutations, their correlation with the prognosis of the disease is not proven.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The variable penetrance of mutations in HCM is one of the factors responsible for the complexity in understanding the relationship between detection of mutations and disease manifestation. Another factor is the extreme overlapping of mutations with other phenotypes of myocardial disease, such as restrictive or even dilated diseases.</p>
				<p>In recent decades there has been increased availability of standardized genetic panels for HCM. The identification of a genetically affected case guides the screening of family members. In cases with special clinical presentations, such as associations of diverse systemic diseases, symptoms of muscular or neurological deficits, with early renal dysfunction, or even with an unfavorable evolution of ventricular function, genetic diagnosis may rule out phenocopies. The identification of pathogenic variants through genetic tests can have a significant impact on patients, especially on asymptomatic family members who do not manifest the disease, making it an important responsibility not only to indicate the tests but also to interpret them. Whenever possible, the interpretation of the tests should be performed by trained professionals capable of performing genetic counseling. The interpretation of these results can be challenging, with a significant prevalence of results of uncertain clinical significance, especially if applied to individuals without the phenotypic manifestation of the disease, but as targets of family screening.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Diverse systemic diseases, some of which are also of genetic etiology, can manifest with a phenotype of HCM and, thus, mimic the diagnosis; these are known as phenocopies. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> displays some of the main diseases classified as phenocopies of HCM and their gene mutations. Each disease listed has its own characteristics of diagnosis and treatment, which are not discussed in detail in this review.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– List of diseases classified as phenocopies of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left" colspan="2" scope="col">Disease</th>
									<th align="left" scope="col">Genetic mutation</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" rowspan="3">Glycogen storage disorders</td>
									<td align="left">Danon disease (lisossomal)</td>
									<td align="left">LAMP2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Cardiomyopathy due to PRKAG gene deficiency (manifests with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome)</td>
									<td>PRKAG</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Pompe disease</td>
									<td>Alpha-glucosidase</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td colspan="2">Anderson-Fabry disease</td>
									<td>Alpha-galactosidase A (GLA)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td colspan="2">Cardiac amyloidosis</td>
									<td>TTR (transthyretin)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td colspan="2">Mitochondrial diseases</td>
									<td>Mitochondrial genome</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td colspan="2">Noonan syndrome</td>
									<td>PTPN11</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment</title>
				<p>The treatment of HCM should be guided by the clinical presentation and manifestation of complications<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f06">
						<label>Figure 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Flowchart for clinical management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. HCM: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; ICD: implantable cardiac defibrillator.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf06.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Non-pharmacological measures</title>
				<p>Balanced diet, weight control, and smoking cessation are recommended. Dehydration, hypotension, and alcohol abuse should be avoided, especially in the obstructive form.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Physical activity</title>
				<p>Although HCM is the main cause of sudden death in athletes, there are insufficient data in the literature on the relationship of the risk of sudden cardiac death attributable to HCM during sports practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pharmacological treatment</title>
				<p>Pharmacological treatment in HCM is used to control symptoms. In patients who remain asymptomatic, there is no clear recommendation on the use of medications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Beta blockers</title>
				<p>Beta blockers are considered a first-line therapy to control symptoms in HCM in both forms, obstructive or not.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Their benefits include increased diastolic time, better coronary perfusion, reduced oxygen consumption, reduced risk of tachyarrhythmias, and reduced risk of sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Calcium channel blockers</title>
				<p>Non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers, such as verapamil and diltiazem, are second-line alternatives for patients who cannot tolerate or have a contraindication to the use of beta blockers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Disopyramide</title>
				<p>In patients who are refractory to the use of beta blockers and non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers, the addition of disopyramide to one of these classes may be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors</title>
				<p>Renin-angiotensin system inhibitors are reserved for patients with HCM in the heart failure phase with systolic ventricular dysfunction without an obstructive pattern. The VANISH (The Valsartan for Attenuating Disease Evolution in Early Sarcomeric Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy) study evaluated the performance of valsartan in a small sample of patients with HCM, suggesting improvement in the combined primary outcome that included structural, functional, and biomarker alterations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Other medications</title>
				<p>Hypotension and the use of vasodilators should be avoided in HCM, especially in the obstructive form of the disease.</p>
				<p>The use of low doses of loop diuretics should be considered for volume adjustment and relief of congestive symptoms. The inadvertent use of high doses of diuretics can cause intravascular volume depletion and worsen the LVOT gradient.</p>
				<p>In patients with systolic ventricular dysfunction, the recommended treatment for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction should be adopted.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Specific medications - Mavacamten</title>
				<p>Mavacamten is the first specific medication for the treatment of HCM. It is a selective allosteric inhibitor of cardiac myosin ATPase that reduces actin-myosin cross bridges and then myocardial contractility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> The EXPLORER-HCM (Mavacamten for Treatment of Symptomatic Obstructive Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy) study evaluated the efficacy and safety of mavacamten in patients with symptomatic obstructive HCM. In this study, mavacamten showed a reduction in the LVOT gradient, a reduction in symptoms, and an improvement in quality of life when compared to placebo. Adverse cardiac effects were reported in a few patients in the mavacamten group, demonstrating that, although diminishing cardiac contractility, mavacantem proved to be safe in terms of not interfering with ventricular systolic function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> The VALOR-HCM study (Mavacamten in Adults With Symptomatic Obstructive HCM Who Are Eligible for Septal Reduction Therapy) evaluated whether the use of mavacamten could avoid the need for septal reduction therapy in symptomatic obstructive HCM refractory to clinical treatment. The results of this study showed that mavacamten significantly reduced the eligibility for septal reduction therapy in the evaluated patients when compared to placebo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Atrial fibrillation</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Anticoagulation</title>
					<p>In patients with HCM and atrial fibrillation, anticoagulation is recommended regardless of the CHA2DS2-VASC score.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Heart rate control strategy</title>
					<p>The use of beta-blockers, verapamil, or diltiazem is recommended for heart rate control.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Rhythm control strategy</title>
					<p>Regarding the rhythm control strategy, the use of cardioversion or antiarrhythmic medications is recommended. Catheter ablation can be effective in patients who are refractory to pharmacological therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Prevention of sudden death</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Antiarrhythmics</title>
				<p>There are no randomized controlled data to support the use of antiarrhythmics for the prevention of sudden death in HCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardiac defibrillator implantation as primary prophylaxis</title>
				<p>HCM is the most common cause of sudden cardiac death in young people, and most episodes are related to ventricular fibrillation. Accordingly, ICD implantation is the most effective approach to primary prevention of sudden cardiac death in high-risk patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Decision-making about ICD implantation as primary prevention of sudden cardiac death is based on the clinical assessment of risk factors, identified through retrospective observational studies from recent decades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The Brazilian Society of Cardiology published the <italic>Brazilian Guidelines for Cardiac Implantable Electronic Devices</italic> (2023), which distinguishes the risk factors for sudden cardiac death in HCM as major risk markers or risk modifiers, in addition to scoring isolated NSVT as an independent criterion. Major risk markers include history of sudden cardiac death in the family under 40 years of age, septal thickness &gt; 30 mm, unexplained syncope in the past 6 months, multiple and recurrent episodes of NSVT (heart rate &gt; 130 bpm), fibrosis on CMR &gt; 15% left ventricular mass, apical left ventricular aneurysm, and LVEF &lt; 50%. Among the risk modifiers are: factors that increase the risk: fibrosis beyond the septal region; marked LVOT obstruction at rest (&gt; 50 mmHg); abnormal response of blood pressure or hypotension to physical exercise and risk-reducing factor: age &gt; 60 years. Patients are considered high risk for sudden cardiac death if they have at least one isolated higher risk marker, isolated or with the presence of modifiers; in this case, ICD implantation (class IIa) should be considered. In patients with NSVT as the only risk factor, the benefit of ICD implantation as primary prophylaxis of sudden cardiac death is uncertain (class IIb). In patients who do not have major risk markers, ICD is not indicated (class III)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figure 6</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f07">
						<label>Figure 6</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Teixeira et al. Flowchart for the primary prevention of sudden cardiac death in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.45 +FH: positive family history; ICD: implantable cardiac defibrillator; LV: left ventricular; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; m: months; NSVT: nonsustained ventricular tachycardia; SCD: sudden cardiac death.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf07.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardiac defibrillator implantation as secondary prophylaxis</title>
				<p>In patients with HCM who survived cardiac arrest, with sustained VT and ventricular fibrillation, ICD implantation is indicated as secondary prophylaxis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ventricular arrhythmias</title>
				<p>In patients with symptomatic ventricular arrhythmias or recurrent ICD shocks, despite the use of beta-blockers, antiarrhythmic therapy is recommended, preferably with amiodarone or sotalol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In recurrent symptomatic sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia or recurrent ICD shocks, despite optimal device programming and antiarrhythmic drug therapy, catheter ablation may reduce the arrhythmic burden.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In life-threatening, poorly tolerated, recurrent ventricular tachyarrhythmias that are refractory to maximal antiarrhythmic therapy and ablation, evaluation of heart transplantation is indicated, according to current listing criteria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Septal reduction therapy</title>
				<p>In patients with symptomatic obstructive HCM (maximum LVOT gradient &gt; 50 mmHg) (NYHA III to IV), despite optimized drug treatment, septal reduction therapy should be evaluated. Septal reduction therapy should also be considered in cases of recurrent exertional syncope despite optimal drug therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Surgical myectomy</title>
				<p>Myectomy is the first-choice septal reduction therapy technique because it substantially reduces the LVOT gradient in up to 90% of cases. It is also recommended in patients with concomitant indication for septal reduction and surgical approach to other lesions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Alcohol septal ablation</title>
				<p>Alcohol ablation of septal coronary arteries shows similar results to surgical myectomy in terms of reduction of the gradient, improvement of symptoms and physical capacity for exercise. Septal reduction therapy is the choice for patients with high surgical risks.</p>
				<p>It may be less effective in patients with extensive septal fibrosis (evaluated by CMR) and severe hypertrophy (septum &gt; 30 mm).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>HCM is a very prevalent pathology. It is complex in its manifestations, and genetic aspects are of increasing importance to its differential diagnosis, requiring a detailed evaluation using multimodality imaging with the aim of risk stratification and diagnosis. Treatment has advanced in specific approaches, which will soon be incorporated into clinical practice, in addition to the traditional targets that improve the quality of life of patients, and they need to be individualized. Stratification of the risk of sudden death is an important part of patient evaluation, in addition to interventional approaches in cases of patients who are refractory to clinical treatment.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Sorajja</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ommen</surname>
							<given-names>SR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Holmes</surname>
							<given-names>DR</given-names>
							<suffix>Jr</suffix>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dearani</surname>
							<given-names>JA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rihal</surname>
							<given-names>CS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gersh</surname>
							<given-names>BJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Survival after Alcohol Septal Ablation for Obstructive Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2012</year>
					<volume>126</volume>
					<issue>20</issue>
					<fpage>2374</fpage>
					<lpage>2380</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.076257</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B52">
				<label>52</label>
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						<name>
							<surname>ten Cate</surname>
							<given-names>FJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Soliman</surname>
							<given-names>OI</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Michels</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Theuns</surname>
							<given-names>DA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jong</surname>
							<given-names>PL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Geleijnse</surname>
							<given-names>ML</given-names>
						</name>
						<etal>et al</etal>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Long-term Outcome of Alcohol Septal Ablation in Patients with Obstructive Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: A Word of Caution</article-title>
					<source>Circ Heart Fail</source>
					<year>2010</year>
					<volume>3</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>362</fpage>
					<lpage>369</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.109.862359</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group> <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Erratum</label>
         	<p><bold>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop. 2023; 3(1):e20230040</bold></p>
		<p>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop. 2023; 3(1):e20230040 In the Review Article “Diagnosis and Treatment of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy”, with https://doi.org/10.36660/abchf.20230040, published in the journal ABC Heart Failure &amp; Cardiomyopathy, ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop. 2023; 3(1):e20230040, on page 1, correct the author’s name: Mariani Mendes Madison for: Mariani Mendes Madisson Bernardo.</p>
        </fn>
    </fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Diagnóstico e Tratamento da Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Coneglian</surname>
						<given-names>Fernando Saraiva</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Fernandes</surname>
						<given-names>Fabio</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Romano</surname>
						<given-names>Minna Moreira Dias</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Cardoso</surname>
						<given-names>Juliano Novaes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Soliani</surname>
						<given-names>Marília Taily</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Bernardo</surname>
						<given-names>Mariani Mendes Madisson</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1090-8165</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Schmidt</surname>
						<given-names>André</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Simões</surname>
						<given-names>Marcus Vinicius</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto da Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeira Preto, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração – Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"> Correspondência: Fernando Saraiva Coneglian • Universidade de São Paulo Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto – Clínica Médica – R. Ten. Catão Roxo, 3900. CEP 14015-010, Vila Monte Alegre, Ribeirão Preto, SP – Brasil E-mail: fernando.coneglian@usp.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Dr. Fabio Fernandes palestrou aulas para empresa Brystol-Myers.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A miocardiopatia hipertrófica tem sofrido profundas alterações em sua concepção com o advento da cardiogenômica e o aumento do conhecimento em termos da estrutura sarcomérica e das mutações que levam à hipertrofia do cardiomiócito. Abordamos neste artigo de revisão, o estado da arte em termos de diagnóstico, contemplando as cardiopatias genéticas responsáveis pelos diagnósticos diferenciais da miocardiopatia hipertrófica, conhecidas como fenocópias, grande desafio da prática clínica. Ademais, levantaremos as evidências atuais que guiam o tratamento.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica</kwd>
				<kwd>Diagnóstico por Imagem</kwd>
				<kwd>Tratamento Farmacológico</kwd>
				<kwd>Morte Súbita Cardíaca</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>
				<fig id="f01002">
					<label>Figura Central</label>
					<caption>
						<title>: Diagnóstico e Tratamento da Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf01-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A cardiomiopatia hipertrófica (CMH) é a mais prevalente miocardiopatia genética, com prevalência estimada em 1:500 nascidos vivos. Tem aspecto heterogêneo em suas manifestações clínicas, possivelmente devido à penetrância gênica muito variável, o que implica em grande desafio, em termos de diagnóstico e tratamento, dado que o acometimento miocárdico perpassa todas as faixas etárias, desde a criança em tenra idade até a população idosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> O conhecimento sobre a patologia tem crescido em termos de técnicas diagnósticas específicas e no conhecimento genético e molecular, com surgimento de tratamentos promissores capazes de alterar o curso clínico da doença, o que exige dos profissionais atualização, espírito científico e multidiscilinaridade, para que este avanço técnico se traduza em melhoria dos cuidados com o paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Este artigo de revisão aborda aspectos específicos de diagnóstico e tratamento da CMH à luz do conhecimento científico mais recente.</p>
				<p>O diagnóstico da CMH é baseado em exames de imagem, com identificação de aumento da espessura miocárdica em qualquer dos segmentos estudados ≥ 15 mm, que não seja explicado por doenças infiltrativas, como a amiloidose cardíaca; por alterações hemodinâmicas, como as causadas pela hipertensão e a doença renal crônica; ou por doenças cardíacas como a valvopatia aórtica, condições capazes de causar hipertrofia secundária do músculo cardíaco. Podem ser utilizados para este fim o ecocardiograma, a ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) e a tomografia computadorizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Em caso de pessoas que são familiares de um caso confirmado de CMH ou em caso de mutação patogênica identificada, mesmo com hipertrofias menores, com espessura ≥ 13 mm, são diagnósticas, excluindo-se outras condições patológicas comuns.</p>
				<p>Em crianças, o diagnóstico é mais difícil, sendo realizado a partir de aumento da espessura correspondente a mais do que 2 desvios-padrões da média populacional para a idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>No sentido estrito, a doença decorre da alteração estrutural de proteínas sarcoméricas restritas ao músculo cardíaco, podendo ser caracterizada geneticamente com mutações reconhecidamente patológicas ou suspeitas. Em alguns casos, a mutação não é identificada.</p>
				<p>Vale salientar que dentro desse cenário de doenças que cursam com hipertrofia miocárdica, há ainda fenocópias da CMH sarcomérica, que incluem as doenças de depósito, como a doença de Anderson-Fabry e doença de Pompe; doenças infiltrativas, como a amiloidose; doenças mitocondriais, como MELAS; doenças sindrômicas, como Noonan e Danon; e doenças neuromusculares como a ataxia de Friedreich.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Dessa forma, a avaliação inicial do paciente com suspeita de CMH demanda, além da realização do eletrocardiograma (ECG), a execução de exames de imagem como o ecocardiograma e a RMC para identificar as alterações estruturais e funcionais cardíacas que caracterizem o diagnóstico.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Eletrocardiograma</title>
					<p>O ECG é com frequência o primeiro exame de imagem cardiológico que levanta a suspeita da CMH. São descritas várias alterações do ECG nos portadores de CMH, dentre as quais destacam-se a sobrecarga ventricular esquerda, alteração de repolarização ventricular, arritmias e anormalidades de condução que podem estar presentes na avaliação inicial mesmo antes de a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda ser evidente nos métodos de imagem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Porém, entre 5% e 10% dos indivíduos com CMH podem apresentar eletrocardiograma normal<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Traçado de eletrocardiograma de paciente com cardiomiopatia hipertrófica forma apical. Observa-se aumento da amplitude do QRS, denotando sobrecarga ventricular esquerda e ondas T negativas e profundas em parede septal e lateral, características dessa forma de cardiomiopatia hipertrófica.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>O uso do Holter de 24 horas desempenha importante papel na estratificação de risco dos pacientes com CMH. Episódios de taquicardia ventricular não sustentada (TVNS) podem identificar pacientes com risco para a ocorrência de morte súbita. Orienta-se realizar o Holter de 24 horas a cada 1 a 2 anos em pacientes que não possuem cardiodesfibrilador implantável (CDI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Além disso, o Holter de 24 horas pode rastrear a presença de fibrilação atrial, a qual está associada a eventos adversos como o acidente vascular cerebral.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Ecocardiografia</title>
					<p>A ecocardiografia é método diagnóstico por imagem não invasivo com extensa capacidade diagnóstica em pacientes com CMH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> O exame demonstra as alterações estruturais e funcionais da doença, incluindo o aumento de espessura de paredes ventriculares, o aumento de átrios secundário à sobrecarga de pressão, a presença e grau do gradiente obstrutivo de via de saída do ventrículo esquerdo (VSVE), e a análise de função diastólica e sistólica ventriculares (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>). Com a ecocardiografia bidimensional, mesmo transtorácica, o ponto exato de obstrução ao fluxo em VSVE pode ser determinado, o que será de suma importância quando houver necessidade de planejamento de terapia de redução septal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 3</xref>). Imagens em movimento podem demonstrar a movimentação anormal de valva mitral em direção ao septo interventricular e seu aparato subvalvar, secundária ao efeito Venturi de aceleração em VSVE, chamado de movimento sistólico anterior de valva mitral, que contribui diretamente para o mecanismo obstrutivo da doença.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Fenótipos de cardiomiopatia hipertrófica de padrão septal assimétrico (A), médio apical (B) e apical (C, seta amarela). Imagens do gradiente obstrutivo em via de saída de ventrículo esquerdo (D), de alguns parâmetros de disfunção diastólica do ventrículo esquerdo alterada, tais quais o aumento do volume atrial (E), e de pressão sistólica pulmonar demonstrada pela velocidade de regurgitação tricúspide (F).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04002">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Escolha da septal a ser alcoolizada com base na perfusão por contraste ecocardiográfico. Em A, a segunda septal foi isolada (seta amarela) e perfundida com contraste ecocardiográfico, o qual marcou a região média do septo interventricular (seta vermelha), incluindo a banda moderadora do ventrículo direito e parte da parede livre do ventrículo direito. Em C, a primeira septal foi isolada (seta amarela) e perfundida com contraste, o qual marcou a região mais alta do septo interventricular (seta vermelha), correlacionada com o ponto de obstrução de via de saída do ventrículo esquerdo. O paciente foi então submetido à alcoolização da primeira septal.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf04-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Em alguns pacientes com CMH, o uso de contrastação cavitária com contraste ecocardiográfico de microbolhas é recomendado para caracterizar a hipertrofia miocárdica em determinados segmentos miocárdicos com maior detalhamento. A análise de contraste também pode melhorar a acurácia diagnóstica para os aneurismas apicais que podem acompanhar a doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A ecocardiografia é ainda capaz de caracterizar a morfologia e função de valva mitral e de seu aparato subvalvar, frequentemente comprometidos por displasia nesta doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> O apoio de ecocardiografia tridimensional também pode melhorar o diagnóstico de displasias mitrais associadas à CMH.</p>
					<p>O exame ecocardiográfico pode ainda ser realizado sob manobras provocativas para desmascarar gradientes obstrutivos em VSVE. As modalidades de provocação são diversas, incluindo a realização de manobra de Valsalva, a posição ortostática durante exame, ou ainda testes sob esforço físico (bicicleta ou esteira),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> todos eles com foco na medida do gradiente em VSVE. Testes sob uso de dobutamina não são adequados, dados seus efeitos hemodinâmicos de vasodilatação nas doses iniciais e intensa taquicardia. Assim, em pacientes sintomáticos por dispneia aos esforços, quando não há demonstração de gradiente obstrutivo em repouso, sugere-se a realização de manobras provocativas, sendo a manobra de Valsalva a de exequibilidade imediata.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Quando a manobra de Valsalva não desmascarar a obstrução, sugere-se exame sob estresse físico.</p>
					<p>A análise de função sistólica ventricular pela ecocardiografia em casos de CMH demonstra, tipicamente, a fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) preservada ou superestimada. O acompanhamento da FEVE ao longo da evolução da doença também é importante, e casos de bom prognóstico evoluem com manutenção de função sistólica, enquanto que, em alguns casos, quedas precoces de FEVE podem estar associadas à mudança de fenótipo para o padrão dilatado, o que, por sua vez, deve sugerir diagnósticos diferenciais com outras doenças classificadas como fenocópias de CMH.</p>
					<p>A análise de deformação miocárdica (<italic>strain</italic>) pode ser ferramenta de apoio em diagnósticos diferenciais de CMH com situações como hipertrofias relacionadas ao coração de atleta ou mesmo à cardiomiopatia hipertensiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Disfunções diastólicas de grau moderado a avançado em casos de CMH são frequentes e tem papel prognóstico significativo na CMH.</p>
					<p>A ecocardiografia também é utilizada como ferramenta essencial no acompanhamento de terapias de redução septal, tais quais a miectomia cirúrgica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> a alcoolização ou terapias ablativas por radiofrequência.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> O uso da ecocardiografia com contraste de perfusão miocárdica permite que se evidencie qual é o exato território de irrigação das artérias coronarianas septais disponíveis para a alcoolização.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Durante procedimento de angiografia coronariana, um pequeno volume de contraste ecocardiográfico, composto por microbolhas estáveis de perfusão miocárdica, é injetado em cada coronária septal de interesse e, assim, a região miocárdica de perfusão septal é identificada (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>). Isso permite que a melhor coronária septal seja escolhida, baseando-se no ponto de obstrução em VSVE. Permite ainda que seja evitada a alcoolização de septais responsáveis pela irrigação de regiões mais mediais no septo e que possam abranger a banda moderadora do ventrículo direito ou ainda a parede livre do ventrículo direito. A perda dessa região pode cursar com bloqueio do ramo direito, complicação comum no pós procedimento de alcoolização septal,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> a qual pode ser evitada em alguns casos quando se tem a escolha da anatomia coronariana guiada pelo contraste ecocardiográfico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Ressonância magnética cardíaca</title>
					<p>A RMC está em consolidação como método necessário na CMH por fornecer informações diagnósticas e prognósticas. A elevada resolução espacial e temporal possibilita medir com elevada precisão as dimensões cavitárias e das paredes ventriculares (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4A</xref>). Além disso, possibilita a visibilização clara de áreas de difícil visibilização por outros métodos, como a parede anterolateral e a porção apical do ventrículo esquerdo, além de caracterizar precisamente tendões musculares e a crista supraventricular do ventrículo direito, causa frequente de medidas incorretas de espessura da parede ventricular esquerda, ocasionando erro diagnóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Diversas manifestações fenotípicas descritas são identificadas com o método: criptas miocárdicas e alongamento dos folhetos mitrais, além das modificações no espaço extracelular com técnicas específicas.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f05002">
							<label>Figura 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– A) Hipertrofia septal assimétrica em imagem de 4 câmaras do ventrículo esquerdo (VE) e átrio esquerdo dilatado; B) Hipertrofia do VE com obstrução médio ventricular e aneurisma apical em imagem de 4 câmaras; C) Forma apical com predomínio de hipertrofia na ponta do VE; D) imagem de 4 câmaras mostrando movimento septal anterior do folheto mitral, criando aceleração de fluxo (área escura na ponta da seta); E) Fibrose miocárdica, evidenciada como áreas claras no músculo cardíaco (escuro) em imagem de eixo curto na região septal próxima à junção com o ventrículo direito; F) Extensa área de fibrose septal (áreas claras) correspondendo a cerca de 20% da massa total do VE. (Arquivo pessoal do Prof. Dr. André Schmidt).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf05-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>A porção apical pode apresentar distintos padrões (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4C</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">D</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">E</xref>). A forma apical manifesta-se principalmente por grande hipertrofia no ápice do ventrículo esquerdo, mas a ocorrência de aneurisma apical tem sido descrita e pode apresentar papel prognóstico por ser fonte de arritmias e tromboembolismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A utilização de contraste à base de gadolínio permite identificar a presença de fibrose em cerca de 2/3 dos casos em diversas séries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Ainda que a descrição mais comum seja nos pontos de inserção do ventrículo direito, essa pode ocorrer em qualquer parte do ventrículo esquerdo e até no ventrículo direito. Pode ser pontual ou difusa, mas costuma preservar o subendocárdio (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4F</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">G</xref>). Sua extensão apresenta valor prognóstico quando acima de 15% da massa ventricular esquerda sugerindo pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Recente estudo demonstrou que a fibrose é progressiva com incrementos de 0,5% a 1,0% por ano e está ligada ao aparecimento de insuficiência cardíaca e necessidade de cardiodesfibriladores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Por fim, as dimensões do átrio esquerdo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 4B</xref>) têm sido reconhecidas como de caráter prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Em registro italiano, verificou-se que dimensões acima de 48 mm praticamente dobraram o risco para eventos de morte cardiovascular e triplicaram o risco de insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Além disso, estudos funcionais do átrio também demonstraram valor prognóstico mesmo antes da dilatação atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em suma, as contribuições do método para confirmar diagnóstico e obter marcadores prognósticos sugerem que deva ser considerado ao longo da avaliação e seguimento, podendo ser repetido a cada 3 a 5 anos para observar o surgimento e/ou a progressão da fibrose ventricular.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Teste genético e diagnóstico de fenocópias</title>
					<p>A CMH é a doença cardíaca mais comum de etiologia genética. Diversas mutações em pontos de codificação de proteínas sarcoméricas, do disco Z, ou de moduladores do cálcio intracelular já foram descritas como associadas ao fenótipo cardíaco de hipertrofia miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Mutações sarcoméricas muito comumente associadas à doença genética são MYBPC3, MYH7, MYL2, TPM1, TNNT2, TNNI3, TNNC1 e TTN e são detectadas em cerca de 60% da população estudada que tenha fenótipo de CMH. Embora alguns trabalhos já tenham associado a morfologia da hipertrofia miocárdica a algumas mutações gênicas específicas, a correlação das mesmas com o prognóstico da doença não é comprovada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A penetrância variável de mutações na CMH é um dos fatores responsáveis pela complexidade no entendimento da relação entre a detecção de mutações e a manifestação da doença. Outro fator é a extrema sobreposição de mutações com outros fenótipos de doença miocárdica, tais quais os das doenças restritivas ventriculares ou mesmo dilatadas.</p>
					<p>Nas últimas décadas houve maior disponibilidade de painéis genéticos padronizados para CMH. A identificação de um caso geneticamente acometido guia o rastreamento de familiares. Em casos com apresentações clínicas especiais, tais quais com associações de doenças sistêmicas diversas, ou com sintomas de déficits musculares, neurológicos, com disfunção renal precoce, ou ainda com evolução desfavorável da função ventricular, o diagnóstico genético pode afastar fenocópias. A identificação de variantes patogênicas através de testes genéticos pode ter impacto significativo aos pacientes, principalmente em familiares assintomáticos e que não tenham a doença manifesta, sendo, portanto, motivo de grande responsabilidade não só a indicação como ainda a interpretação dos testes. Sempre que possível a interpretação dos testes deve ser feita por profissionais treinados e capazes de realizar o aconselhamento genético. A interpretação destes resultados pode ser desafiadora, com prevalência significativa de resultados de significância clínica incerta, principalmente se aplicados a indivíduos sem a manifestação fenotípica da doença, mas como alvo de rastreio familiar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Doenças sistêmicas diversas, algumas também de etiologia genética, podem se manifestar com fenótipo de CMH e, portanto, mimetizar o diagnóstico, sendo chamadas de fenocópias. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref> demonstra algumas das principais doenças classificadas como fenocópias de CMH e suas mutações gênicas. Cada doença listada coleciona características próprias de diagnóstico e tratamento, não sendo abordadas em detalhes nesta revisão.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Lista das doenças classificadas como fenocópias da miocardiopatia hipertrófica</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left" colspan="2" scope="col">Doença</th>
										<th align="left" scope="col">Mutação gênica</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="left" rowspan="3">Desordens de depósito de glicogênio</td>
										<td align="left">Doença de Danon (lisossomal)</td>
										<td align="left">LAMP2</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Cardiomiopatia por deficiência no gene PRKAG (manifesta com síndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White)</td>
										<td>PRKAG</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Doença de Pompe</td>
										<td>Alfa-glucosidase</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td colspan="2">Doença de Anderson-Fabry</td>
										<td>Alfa-galactosidase A (GLA)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td colspan="2">Amiloidose cardíaca</td>
										<td>TTR (transtirretina)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td colspan="2">Doenças mitocondriais</td>
										<td>Genoma mitocondrial</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td colspan="2">Síndrome de Noonan</td>
										<td>PTPN11</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento</title>
					<p>O tratamento da CMH deve ser guiado pela forma de apresentação clínica e manifestação de complicações<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f06002">
							<label>Figura 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Algoritmo de manejo clínico da cardiomiopatia hipertrófica. CDI: cardiodesfibrilador implantável; CMH: cardiomiopatia hipertrófica.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf06-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Medidas não farmacológicas</title>
					<p>Recomenda-se dieta equilibrada, controle de peso, cessação de tabagismo. Deve-se evitar, principalmente na forma obstrutiva, desidratação, hipotensão e uso abusivo de álcool.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Atividade física</title>
					<p>Apesar de a CMH ser a principal causa de morte súbita em atletas, não existem dados suficientes na literatura sobre a relação do risco de morte súbita cardíaca (MSC) atribuível à CMH durante a prática esportiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento farmacológico</title>
					<p>O tratamento farmacológico na CMH é empregado para o controle de sintomas. Naqueles pacientes que permanecem assintomáticos não existe recomendação clara sobre o uso de medicações.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Betabloqueadores</title>
					<p>Os betabloqueadores são considerados como terapia de primeira linha para controle de sintomas na CHM em ambas as formas, obstrutiva ou não.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Dentre seus benefícios estão: aumento do tempo diastólico, melhor perfusão coronariana, redução do consumo de oxigênio, redução de risco de taquiarritmias e redução do risco de morte súbita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Bloqueadores de canal de cálcio</title>
					<p>Os bloqueadores de canal de cálcio não-diidropiridínicos, como verapamil e diltiazem, são alternativas de segunda linha para pacientes que não toleram ou têm contraindicação ao uso de betabloqueadores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Disopiramida</title>
					<p>Nos pacientes refratários ao uso de betabloqueadores e bloqueadores de canal de cálcio não-diidropiridínicos pode-se considerar a adição de disopiramida a uma dessas duas classes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Inibidores do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona</title>
					<p>Os inibidores do sistema renina-angiotensina estão reservados para os portadores de CMH em fase de insuficiência cardíaca com disfunção ventricular sistólica sem padrão obstrutivo. O estudo VANISH (The Valsartan for Attenuating Disease Evolution in Early Sarcomeric Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy) avaliou o desempenho da valsartana em uma pequena amostra de pacientes com CMH, sugerindo melhora do desfecho primário combinado que incluiu alterações estruturais, funcionais e biomarcadores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Demais medicações</title>
					<p>Deve-se evitar hipotensão e o uso de vasodilatadores na CMH, principalmente na forma obstrutiva da doença.</p>
					<p>Deve-se considerar o emprego de diuréticos de alça em baixas doses para ajuste volêmico e alívio de sintomas congestivos. O uso inadvertido de altas doses de diuréticos pode causar depleção de volume intravascular e agravar o gradiente na VSVE.</p>
					<p>Nos pacientes com disfunção ventricular sistólica deve-se adotar o tratamento preconizado para insuficiência cardíaca de fração de ejeção reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Fármacos específicos – Mavacamten</title>
					<p>O mavacamten é o primeiro fármaco específico para o tratamento da CMH. Trata-se de um inibidor alostérico seletivo da miosina cardíaca ATPase que atua na redução das pontes cruzadas de actina-miosina e na redução da contratilidade miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> O estudo EXPLORER-HCM (Mavacamten for Treatment of Symptomatic Obstructive Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy) avaliou a eficácia e segurança do mavacamten em pacientes com CMH obstrutiva sintomática. Nesse estudo o mavacamten mostrou redução no gradiente da VSVE, redução dos sintomas e melhora da qualidade de vida quando comparado ao placebo. Efeitos cardíacos adversos foram relatados em poucos pacientes do grupo mavacamten demonstrando que, apesar de atuar na redução da contratilidade cardíaca, o mavacantem mostrou-se seguro quanto a não interferência na função sistólica ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> O estudo VALOR-HCM (Mavacamten in Adults With Symptomatic Obstructive HCM Who Are Eligible for Septal Reduction Therapy) avaliou se o uso do mavacamten poderia evitar a necessidade de terapia de redução do septo na CMH obstrutiva sintomática refratária ao tratamento clínico. Os resultados desse estudo mostraram que o mavacamten reduziu significativamente a elegibilidade de terapia de redução do septo nos pacientes avaliados quando comparado ao placebo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Fibrilação atrial</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Anticoagulação</title>
						<p>Em pacientes com CMH e fibrilação atrial, a anticoagulação é recomendada independente do escore CHA2DS2-VASC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Estratégia de controle de frequência cardíaca</title>
						<p>O uso de betabloqueadores, verapamil ou diltiazem é recomendado para controle de frequência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Estratégia de controle do ritmo</title>
						<p>Para a estratégia de controle do ritmo recomenda-se o emprego de cardioversão ou drogas antiarrítmicas. A ablação por cateter pode ser eficaz quando refratariedade à terapia medicamentosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Prevenção de morte súbita</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Antiarrítmicos</title>
					<p>Não há dados randomizados e controlados para apoiar o uso de antiarrítmicos para a prevenção de morte súbita na CMH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Implante de CDI como profilaxia primária</title>
					<p>A CMH é a causa mais comum de MSC em jovens e a maioria dos episódios está relacionado à fibrilação ventricular. Dessa forma, o implante de CDI é a abordagem mais efetiva de prevenção primária de MSC em pacientes com alto risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> A tomada de decisão sobre implante de CDI como prevenção primária de MSC é baseada na avaliação clínica de fatores de risco, identificados através de estudos observacionais retrospectivos das últimas décadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia publicou a Diretriz Brasileira de Dispositivos Cardíacos Eletrônicos Implantáveis (2023) que distingue os fatores de risco para MSC na CMH em marcadores de risco maiores ou modificadores de risco, além de pontuar a TVNS isolada como critério independente. Dentre os marcadores de risco maiores estão: história de MSC na família abaixo dos 40 anos, espessura septal &gt; 30 mm, síncope inexplicada nos últimos 6 meses, TVNS múltiplas e recorrentes (frequência cardíaca &gt; 130 bpm), fibrose na RMC &gt; 15% da massa do ventrículo esquerdo, aneurisma apical do ventrículo esquerdo e FEVE &lt; 50%. Dentre os modificadores de risco estão: fatores que aumentam o risco: fibrose além da região septal; obstrução acentuada da VSVE em repouso (&gt; 50 mmHg); resposta anormal da pressão arterial ou hipotensão ao exercício físico e fator que reduz o risco: idade &gt; 60 anos. O paciente é considerado como de alto risco para MSC se apresentar pelo menos marcador de risco maior, isolado ou com a presença de modificadores; nesse caso, deve ser considerado o implante de CDI (Classe IIa). No paciente com TVNS como único fator de risco, o implante de CDI como profilaxia primária de MSC tem benefício incerto (Classe IIb). No paciente que não apresenta marcadores de risco maiores o CDI não está indicado (Classe III)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07002">Figura 6</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f07002">
							<label>Figura 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Algoritmo de prevenção primária da MSC no portador de cardiomiopatia hipertrófica.45 CDI: cardiodesfibrilador implantável; FC: frequência cardíaca; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; HF+: história familiar positiva; m: meses; MSC: morte súbita cardíaca; TVNS: taquicardia ventricular não sustentada; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230040-gf07-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Implante de CDI como profilaxia secundária</title>
					<p>Nos pacientes com CMH que sobreviveram à parada cardíaca, TV sustentada e fibrilação ventricular está indicado o implante de CDI como profilaxia secundária.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Arritmias ventriculares</title>
					<p>Nas arritmias ventriculares sintomáticas ou choques recorrentes do CDI, apesar do uso de betabloqueadores, recomenda-se a terapia antiarrítmica de preferência com amiodarona ou sotalol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na taquicardia ventricular monomórfica sustentada sintomática recorrente ou nos choques recorrentes do CDI, apesar da programação ideal do dispositivo e da terapia com drogas antiarrítmicas, a ablação por cateter pode reduzir a carga arrítmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Nas taquiarritmias ventriculares recorrentes com risco de vida, mal toleradas, refratárias à terapia antiarrítmica máxima e à ablação, a avaliação do transplante cardíaco é indicada de acordo com os critérios de listagem atuais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Terapias de redução septal</title>
					<p>Em pacientes com CMH obstrutiva (gradiente máximo de VSVE &gt; 50 mmHg) sintomática (NYHA III-IV), a despeito do tratamento medicamentoso otimizado, deve ser avaliada a terapia de redução septal. A terapia de redução septal também deve ser considerada nos casos de síncope recorrente ao esforço, apesar de terapia medicamentosa otimizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Miectomia cirúrgica</title>
					<p>A miectomia é a técnica de terapia de redução septal de primeira escolha por reduzir substancialmente o gradiente da VSVE em até 90% dos casos. É recomendada também em pacientes com indicação concomitante de redução de septo e de abordagem cirúrgica de outras lesões.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Embolização alcoólica do septo</title>
					<p>A embolização alcoólica das artérias coronarianas septais tem resultado semelhante à cirurgia de miectomia em termos de redução do gradiente, melhora dos sintomas e da capacidade física ao exercício. A terapia de redução septal é de escolha em pacientes com alto risco cirúrgico.</p>
					<p>Pode ser menos eficaz em pacientes com extensa fibrose septal (avaliada pela RMC) e com hipertrofia grave (septo &gt; 30 mm).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A CMH é uma patologia muito prevalente, complexa em suas manifestações, e no seu diagnóstico diferencial, necessitando de uma avaliação detalhada com multimodalidade de imagem com vistas à estratificação de risco e diagnóstico, aspectos genéticos têm uma importância crescente. O tratamento cresce em abordagens específicas, que em breve serão incorporadas na prática clínica, além dos alvos tradicionais que atuam na melhora da qualidade de vida dos pacientes, e precisam ser individualizados. Estratificação de risco de morte súbita entra como parte importante na avaliação dos pacientes, bem como abordagens intervencionistas nos casos dos pacientes refratários ao tratamento clínico.</p>
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					<p>Vinculação acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
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				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Errata</label>
         	<p><bold>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop. 2023; 3(1):e20230040</bold></p>
			<p>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop. 2023; 3(1):e20230040 No Artigo de Revisão “Diagnóstico e Tratamento da Cardiomiopatia Hipertrófica”, com número de DOI: https://doi.org/10.36660/abchf.20230040, publicado no periódico ABC Heart Failure &amp; Cardiomyopathy, ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop. 2023; 3(1):e20230040, na página 1, corrigir o nome da autora Mariani Mendes Madison para: Mariani Mendes Madisson Bernardo.</p>
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