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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230037</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Viewpoint</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Viewpoint – Brazilian Guideline for Myocarditis</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Montera</surname>
						<given-names>Marcelo Westerlund</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Statistical analysis and Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-5239-8508</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Dan</surname>
						<given-names>Daniella Motta da Costa</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Statistical analysis and Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2533-5638</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Marcondes-Braga</surname>
						<given-names>Fabiana G.</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Statistical analysis and Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Meridional de Cariacica</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Cariacica</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Meridional de Cariacica, Cariacica, ES – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Evangélico de Vila Velha</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Vila Velha</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Evangélico de Vila Velha, Vila Velha, ES – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Clínicas</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Marcelo Westerlund Montera • Universidade de São Paulo Instituto do Coração – Av. Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. Postal Code 05403-000, São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>mmontera@uol.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>19</day>
				<month>09</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>09</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>3</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230037</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>24</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>08</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>08</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Myocarditis</kwd>
				<kwd>Diagnosis</kwd>
				<kwd>Treatment</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="6"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="11"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>Myocarditis is an inflammatory cardiomyopathy caused by several etiologies, including infectious, post-infectious, autoimmune, and drug-induced diseases. In recent years, COVID-19 has emerged as a considerable etiology of myocarditis, both through direct infection and immune reactions and reactions to specific vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. Tools for diagnosing myocarditis have been consolidated in recent years, with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging being used to important diagnostic, risk stratification, and prognostic evaluation. The disease can result in structural heart damage and severe heart failure. In addition, life-threatening arrhythmias are one of the possible serious complications of this condition. The institution of specific treatment may have prognostic implications. The most recent Brazilian Guideline on Myocarditis provides comprehensive aspects of its diagnosis and treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
		<sec>
			<title>Diagnosis</title>
			<p>The criterion for the diagnostic confirmation of myocarditis defined by the 2013 European and Brazilian Myocarditis Guidelines is the identification of myocardial inflammation by endomyocardial biopsy (EMB).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> This diagnostic criterion, used solely without the option of classifying clinical suspicion, does not mirror clinical practice in the real world, where only a minority of patients in specialized centers are referred for diagnostic investigation through EMB with diagnostic confirmation or exclusion, and most have the diagnosis of clinical suspicion of myocarditis. As an innovation, the 2022 Brazilian Guideline<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> introduces an organizational chart to establish the degrees of suspected diagnosis of myocarditis, which correspond to clinical practice in the real world, where most patients will have a diagnosis of suspected myocarditis rather than confirmation. This organization chart is based on clinical history, myocardial injury biomarkers, electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, and cardiac magnetic resonance, to establish a diagnostic suspicion of myocarditis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>), which will define different approaches regarding follow-up, treatment, and the need for EMB. Patients with low suspicion of myocarditis have a favorable prognosis with a low risk of developing ventricular dysfunction or cardiovascular mortality, and clinical follow-up is indicated without the need for cardioprotective drugs. Cardioprotective drugs and clinical and ventricular function follow-up by echocardiogram and magnetic resonance imaging are indicated for patients with an intermediate degree of suspicion of miocarditis. Patients with high diagnostic suspicion or with intermediate suspicion with worsening clinical or ventricular function have a worse long-term prognosis, with lower survival, being indicated in this group the EMB for the investigation of the inflammatory activity and the etiological agent to evaluate treatment with immunosuppressants and therapy directed towards the identified etiological factor (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>). With the diagnostic suspicion classification, the new Guideline approaches clinical practice, standardizing the clinical management of most patients with suspected myocarditis and reserving the indication of EMB for those with greater potential for clinical benefit from immunosuppressive therapy.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f01">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Adapted from the stratification algorithm for clinical diagnostic suspicion of myocarditis from the 2022 Brazilian Myocarditis Guideline.1 AVB: atrioventricular block; BNP: B-type natriuretic peptide; ECG: electrocardiogram; ECHO: transthoracic echocardiogram; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; PCRT: C-reactive protein.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230037-gf01.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f02">
					<label>Figure 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Adapted from the therapeutic flowchart of myocarditis based on the degree of clinical suspicion and prognosis of the 2022 Brazilian Myocarditis Guideline.1 AVB: atrioventricular block; EMB: endomyocardial biopsy; CAG: coronary angiography; CAD: coronary artery disease; ECHO: transthoracic echocardiogram; ECG: electrocardiogram; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; CT: computed tomography; ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; ARB: angiotensin receptor blockers.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230037-gf02.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Another major point of relevance in the 2022 Guideline<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> was the strengthening of the role of CMR in the diagnosis and prognosis of myocarditis. The modification of the Lake Louise diagnostic criteria, with the incorporation of T1 and T2 maps for detecting edema and myocardial fibrosis, favored an increase in the diagnostic accuracy of CMR with a sensitivity of 88% and specificity of 96%, placing CMR as an important tool in assessing the degree of suspicion of myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Using CMR, we can also classify the prognostic risk of patients with myocarditis based on edema, degree of myocardial fibrosis (&lt;17g and 13% of LV mass), and ventricular dysfunction. Through the association of degree of prognostic risk of CMR and degree of diagnostic suspicion, we will define the pharmacological therapeutic approach, indication of EMB, assessment of the risk of sudden death, and indication of a cardioverter defibrillator<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Risk stratification and probability of endomyocardial biopsy indication based on cardiac magnetic resonance parameters</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="left">Prognostic risk</th>
								<th>CMR parameter</th>
								<th>Suggested conduct</th>
								<th>Biopsy indication</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>Low</td>
								<td align="center">T1 and T2, without alteration Without ventricular dysfunction</td>
								<td align="center">Clinical follow-up</td>
								<td align="center">No indication</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Intermediary</td>
								<td align="center">T1 or T2, positive Non-extensive late enhancement (&lt;17g and 13% of the LV mass) Normal function or slight dysfunction of LV</td>
								<td align="center">Clinical follow-up Repeat CMR at 1, 3, and 6 months</td>
								<td align="center">Stable: no indication Dysfunction progression: possible indication</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>High</td>
								<td align="center">T1 or T2, positive Extensive late enhancement (&gt;17g or 13% of LV mass), or with involvement of the interventricular septum, and/or moderate or significant LV dysfunction</td>
								<td align="center">Clinical follow-up Repeat CMR at 1, 3, and 6 months</td>
								<td align="center">Possible indication</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>LV: left ventricle; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>The diagnostic investigation of myocarditis of autoimmune origins such as Sarcoidosis and Giant Cells Lupus gained prominence in the 2022 Guideline,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> which highlighted the increase in diagnostic capacity through detection of inflammatory disease activity, with the use of PET with 18F-FDG, with a sensitivity of 84% and specificity of 83%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> for the diagnosis of myocarditis due to cardiac sarcoidosis. The analysis of the genetic profile of the myocardial tissue for the research of specific genomes for idiopathic giant cell myocarditis and sarcoidosis increased the diagnostic sensitivity of EMB, avoiding sampling error, which, together with PET with 18F-FDG allow in greater accuracy not only in the diagnostic definition but also disease activity and assessment of response to therapy.</p>
			<p>Myocarditis caused by tropical diseases and rheumatic disease is not mentioned in any myocarditis guidelines, despite their high prevalence in several countries. In Brazil, we have a high prevalence of both pathologies, mainly in the north and northeast of the country and in rural areas, which motivated the 2022 Guideline to establish diagnostic flowcharts and therapeutic approaches for both pathologies; therefore, the only myocarditis guideline with this content.</p>
			<p>Myocarditis due to COVID-19 was a widely investigated topic regarding its real prevalence, pathophysiological mechanisms, and therapeutic management. The Guideline provides a simple understanding of physiopathological mechanisms and the alterations of complementary exams and establishes a practical organization chart of diagnosis and management for SARS-CoV-2-related myocarditis.</p>
			<p>Acute Cardiotoxicity by Antineoplastic Therapy, myocarditis related to cancer treatment, has gained importance due to immunotherapy’s evolution, specifically immune checkpoint inhibitors. The classic models of cardiotoxicity with ventricular dysfunction are those caused by anthracyclines and cyclophosphamide. As mortality from cardiotoxicity can reach 50%, early and accurate diagnosis is of great importance for reducing cardio-aggression and decision-making on maintaining or discontinuing the antineoplastic agent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The 2022 Guideline aims to provide cardiologists and clinicians involved in cardio-oncology with a guide for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cardiotoxicity induced by antineoplastic agents<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> where echocardiogram and CMR are indicated as diagnostic methods of choice with greater sensitivity for early screening of the diagnosis of myocarditis.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Treatment</title>
			<p>The Myocarditis Guideline published in 2022<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> brings some innovations concerning the 2013<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Guideline on the therapeutic regimen that deserve to be highlighted. The first is constructing a therapeutic flowchart based on the degree of clinical suspicion and prognosis. The flowchart helps guide clinicians into the most appropriate therapy in each situation since not all patients will undergo endomyocardial biopsy. Patients with a low risk of myocarditis, without signs of severity or ventricular dysfunction, have a favorable prognosis and can be clinically followed. In patients with intermediate suspicion of myocarditis, initiation of cardioprotective drug therapy such as beta-blockers, converting enzyme inhibitors, or angiotensin receptor blockers is recommended for at least one year in order to preserve ventricular function, with individualized follow-up according to function and arrhythmogenic potential. Finally, patients with a high suspicion of the diagnosis of myocarditis should be evaluated for signs of greater severity and, in the presence of ventricular dysfunction, malignant arrhythmias, or hemodynamic instability, an endomyocardial biopsy is indicated to try to identify etiologies that deserve more aggressive treatment such as giant cell or eosinophilic myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> In situations of instability, using inotropic support and/or short-term devices is recommended to provide support and act as a bridge to the recovery of ventricular function. In this context, invasive monitoring becomes opportune.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> After performing an endomyocardial biopsy, it is possible to define whether there is myocardial inflammation and investigate the presence of viruses. The inflammation and etiological agent documentation allows adequate therapy for each situation. Three strategies can be used in patients with myocarditis: immunosuppressive agents, antivirals, and immunomodulation.</p>
			<p>Immunosuppressive therapy aims to suppress the inflammatory and/or autoimmune response and, consequently, contribute to clinical improvement and ventricular function in conditions such as giant cell myocarditis, eosinophilic myocarditis, or myocarditis secondary to autoimmune diseases (class of recommendation I). Immunosuppressive agents can also be considered in myocarditis with negative viral research in patients who evolve with chronic HF to improve clinical status and LV function, an IIa recommendation according to the Brazilian Guideline. A detailed description of immunosuppressive treatment, which may include corticosteroid pulse therapy, rabbit immunoglobulin, azathioprine or cyclophosphamide, and/or methotrexate for some specific autoimmune etiologies can also be found in the latest update of the Brazilian Myocarditis Guideline.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Current therapy for patients with myocarditis involves using corticosteroids alone or associated with azathioprine in the presence of inflammation and absence of viral infection. However, viral genome research seems controversial regarding immunosuppressive therapy indications. It is known that the objective is to improve inflammation, and the appropriate scenario is in situations where there is no viral genome and where it has been related to improved ventricular function. On the other hand, there is no strong evidence relating the qualitative finding of microorganisms in cardiac tissue to the development of myocarditis since the viral genome may be present even in normal hearts. In this context, new techniques that document RNA transcription or the number of copies can be promising in the therapeutic decision. Advances in immunosuppression in lymphocytic myocarditis are still needed<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f03">
					<label>Figure 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Adapted from Myocarditis Therapeutic Flowchart based on BEM results from the 2022 Brazilian Myocarditis Guideline.1 DCMP: dilated cardiomyopathy; PCR: polymerase chain reaction.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230037-gf03.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Studies involving antiviral agents have been developed because viral persistence is related to a worse prognosis. Administration of interferon-beta, for example, induced virus elimination in patients with viral myocarditis due to adenovirus or enterovirus and was related to improved survival, functional class, and quality of life. A similar scenario is observed with ganciclovir|valganciclovir in patients with HF symptoms in a clinical situation of myocarditis caused by the human herpesvirus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> However, in conditions of BV19 infection, further studies are needed to consolidate the use of nucleoside analogs and antiviral inhibitors of reverse transcriptase to improve clinical outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Immunomodulation is also a studied strategy for the treatment of viral myocarditis. This strategy includes the use of immunoglobulins and/or immunoadsorption. Intravenous immunoglobulins reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines and increase anti-inflammatory ones. Evidence about the benefits of immunoglobulins in the treatment of myocarditis is still insufficient for the routine recommendation of its use, but there is potential benefit in viral myocarditis due to adenovirus and parvovirus B19. Its use was related to improved heart pump, exercise capacity, functional class, and viral load reduction. The use of immunoadsorption seems to be promising in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy with the presence of antibodies, but there is a lack of evidence to consolidate its therapeutic use in myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In addition to specific treatment for myocarditis, cardioprotective strategies should be instituted. Converting enzyme inhibitors and/or beta-blockers for 12 months has potential benefits in patients without ventricular dysfunction. In the presence of ventricular dysfunction, it is essential to institute prognostic-modifying therapies following the recommendations of the Brazilian, American, or European Guidelines for heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Such measures may lead to an improvement in ventricular function, and, in this situation, the maintenance of neurohormonal therapy is recommended since its suspension is associated with a worsening of left ventricular function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Although most patients have a favorable prognosis, a non-negligible percentage of patients may develop hemodynamic instability and cardiogenic shock. In this situation, the use of inotropes, as well as intra-aortic balloon and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), should be considered as a bridge to recovery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In general, the new Brazilian Guideline on myocarditis addresses the diagnosis and treatment of myocarditis innovatively. It helps clinicians to use it in practice, helping to clarify the diagnosis and define the most appropriate therapy for each clinical scenario.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ref-list>
			<title>References</title>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Ponto de Vista</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Ponto de Vista – Diretriz Brasileira de Miocardite</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Montera</surname>
						<given-names>Marcelo Westerlund</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Análise estatística</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-5239-8508</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Dan</surname>
						<given-names>Daniella Motta da Costa</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Análise estatística</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2533-5638</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Marcondes-Braga</surname>
						<given-names>Fabiana G.</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Análise estatística</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Meridional de Cariacica, Cariacica, ES – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Evangélico de Vila Velha, Vila Velha, ES – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"> Correspondência: Marcelo Westerlund Montera • Universidade de São Paulo Instituto do Coração – Av. Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. CEP 05403-000, São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: mmontera@uol.com.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Miocardite</kwd>
				<kwd>Diagnóstico</kwd>
				<kwd>Tratamento</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>A miocardite é uma cardiomiopatia inflamatória provocada por diversas etiologias, incluindo doenças infecciosas e pós-infecciosas, autoimunes e induzidas por drogas. Nos últimos anos, a COVID-19 emergiu como considerável etiologia de miocardite, tanto por infecção direta como por reações imunes e reação a vacinas específicas contra SARS-CoV-2. Ferramentas para o auxílio ao diagnóstico de miocardite foram consolidadas nos últimos anos, com a ressonância magnética cardíaca em importante destaque diagnóstico, estratificação de risco e avaliação prognóstica. A doença pode resultar em dano estrutural cardíaco e insuficiência cardíaca grave. Além disso, arritmias potencialmente fatais são uma das possíveis graves complicações dessa condição. A instituição de tratamento específico pode ter implicação prognóstica. A mais recente Diretriz Brasileira de Miocardite traz de forma abrangente aspectos sobre seu diagnóstico e tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>Diagnóstico</title>
				<p>O critério para a confirmação diagnóstica da Miocardite definidos pelas diretrizes Europeia e Brasileira de 2013 de Miocardite, é a identificação da inflamação miocárdica pela biopsia endomiocárdica (BEM).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Este critério diagnóstico utilizado de forma única sem a opção de classificação de suspeita clínica, não espelha a pratica clínica do mundo real, onde somente uma minoria dos pacientes, em centros especializados, são encaminhados para investigação diagnóstica por meio da BEM com a confirmação ou exclusão diagnóstica, e a maioria tem o diagnóstico de suspeita clínica de Miocardite. A diretriz brasileira de 2022<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> traz como inovação um organograma para estabelecer os graus de suspeita diagnóstica da miocardite, que correspondem a prática clínica do mundo real, onde a maioria dos pacientes terão um diagnóstico de suspeita de miocardite e não de confirmação. Este organograma se baseia na história clínica, em biomarcadores de injúria miocárdica, eletrocardiograma, ecocardiograma e ressonância magnética cardíaca, para estabelecer uma graduação de suspeição diagnóstica de miocardite (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref>), que definirão condutas distintas quanto ao seguimento, tratamento e à necessidade de BEM. Os pacientes de baixa suspeição de miocardite, apresentam um prognóstico favorável com baixo risco de evoluirem com disfunção ventricular ou mortalidade cardiovascular, sendo indicado seguimento clínico sem a necessidade de medicamentos cardioprotetores. Nos pacientes com grau de suspeição intermediário, está indicada a utilização de medicamentos cardioprotetores e o seguimento clínico e da função ventricular por ecocardiograma e ressonância magnética. Os pacientes com alta suspeição diagnóstica ou com suspeição intermediária com piora clínica ou da função ventricular, apresentam um pior prognóstico a longo prazo, com menor sobrevida, sendo indicado neste grupo a realização de BEM, para a pesquisa da atividade inflamatória e do agente etiológico, para avaliar o tratamento com imunossupressores e terapêutica direcionada para o fator etiológico identificado (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref>). Com a classificação de suspeita diagnóstica, a nova diretriz se aproxima da prática clínica, normatizando o manuseio clínico da maioria dos pacientes com suspeita de miocardite, e reservando a indicação da BEM para os com maior potencial de benefício clínico com a terapêutica imunossupressora.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Adaptado de Algoritmo de estratificação de suspeita clínica diagnóstica de miocardite da Diretriz Brasileira de Miocardite de 2022.1 BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; TV: taquicardia ventricular; TVNS: taquicardia ventricular não sustentada; PCRT: proteina C reativa; BNP: peptídeo natriurético tipo B; ECG: eletrocardiograma; ECO: ecocardiograma; RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca; RT: realce tardio; HAS: hipertensão arterial sistêmica; RNM: ressonância nuclear magnética.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230037-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02002">
						<label>Figura 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Adaptado de Fluxograma terapêutico de miocardite com base no grau de suspeição clínica e no prognóstico da Diretriz Brasileira de Miocardite de 2022.1 BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; BEM: biópsia endomiocárdica; CAT: coronariografia; DAC: doença arterial coronariana; ECO: ecocardiograma transtorácico; ECG: eletrocardiograma; RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca; TC: tomografia computadorizada; IECA: inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina; BRA: bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230037-gf02-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Outro grande ponto de relevância na diretriz de 2022<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> foi o fortalecimento do papel da RMC no diagnóstico e prognóstico da miocardite. A modificação dos critérios diagnósticos de Lake Louise, com a incorporação dos mapas T1 e T2 para detecção de edema e fibrose miocárdica, favoreceram um aumento na acurácia diagnóstica da RMC com sensibilidade de 88% e especificidade de 96%, colocando a RMC como importante instrumento na avaliação do grau de suspeita de Miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Por meio da RMC também podemos classificar o risco prognóstico do paciente com miocardite, baseado na presença de edema, grau da fibrose miocárdica,(&lt;17g e 13% da massa do VE), e a disfunção ventricular. Por meio do grau de risco prognóstico da RMC associado com o grau de suspeição diagnóstica, definiremos a conduta terapêutica farmacológica, indicação de BEM, avaliação de risco de morte súbita e indicação de cardiodesfibrilador<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1002">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Estratificação de risco e probabilidade da indicação de biópsia endomiocárdica baseada nos parâmetros de ressonância magnética cardíaca</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Risco prognóstico</th>
									<th>Parâmetro da RMC</th>
									<th>Conduta sugerida</th>
									<th>Indicação de biópsia</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Baixo</td>
									<td align="center">T1 e T2, sem alteração Sem disfunção ventricular</td>
									<td align="center">Seguimento clínico</td>
									<td align="center">Sem indicação</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Intermediário</td>
									<td align="center">T1 ou T2, positivos Realce tardio não extenso (&lt;17g e 13% da massa do VE) Função normal ou leve disfunção do VE</td>
									<td align="center">Seguimento clínico Repetição da RMC em 1, 3 e 6 meses</td>
									<td align="center">Estável: sem indicação Progressão da disfunção: possível indicação</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Alto</td>
									<td align="center">T1 ou T2, positivos Realce tardio extenso (&gt;17g ou 13% da massa do VE), ou com envolvimento do septo interventricular, e/ou disfunção do VE moderada ou importante</td>
									<td align="center">Seguimento clínico Repetição da RMC em 1, 3 e 6 meses</td>
									<td align="center">Possível indicação</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1002">
								<p>VE: ventrículo esquerdo; RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>A investigação diagnóstica das miocardites de origem autoimune como Sarcoidose e Células Gigantes e Lúpus ganharam destaque na diretriz de 2022<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> que ressaltou o aumento da capacidade diagnóstica por meio de detecção de atividade de doença inflamatória, com o uso do PET com 18F-FDG, com sensibilidade de 84% e especificidade de 83%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> para o diagnóstico da miocardite por sarcoidose cardíaca. A análise do perfil genético do tecido miocárdico para a pesquisa de genomas específicos para Miocardite idiopática de células gigantes e sarcoidose, aumentaram a sensibilidade diagnóstica da BEM, evitando o erro por amostragem, que em conjunto com o PET com 18F-FDG permitem uma maior acurácia não só da definição diagnóstica como também de atividade de doença e de avaliação a resposta a terapêutica.</p>
				<p>As miocardites ocasionadas pelas doenças tropicais e a doença reumática não são citadas em nenhuma diretriz de miocardite, apesar de sua alta prevalência em diversos países. No Brasil, temos uma alta prevalência de ambas as patologias, principalmente na região norte e nordeste do país e em áreas rurais, o que motivou a diretriz de 2022 o estabelecimento de fluxogramas diagnósticos e de abordagem terapêutica, para ambas as patologias, sendo, portanto, a única diretriz de miocardite com este conteúdo.</p>
				<p>A miocardite por COVID-19, foi tema amplamente investigado quanto a sua real prevalência, mecanismos fisiopatológicos e manuseio terapêutico. A diretriz traz de forma simples a compreensão dos mecanismos fisiopatológicos, as alterações dos exames complementares, e estabelece um organograma prático de diagnóstico e de manuseio para miocardite relacionada a SARS-CoV-2.</p>
				<p>A Cardiotoxidade Aguda por Terapêutica Antineoplásica mais recentemente, a miocardite relacionada ao tratamento do câncer, ganhou importância devido à evolução da imunoterapia, mais especificamente relacionada aos inibidores de <italic>checkpoint</italic> imunológico. Os modelos clássicos de cardiotoxicidade com disfunção ventricular, são as ocasionadas pelas antraciclinas e ciclofosfamida. Como a mortalidade em decorrência a cardiotoxidade pode chegar a 50%, o diagnóstico precoce e preciso tem grande importância não somente para a redução da cardio-agressão, como também na tomada de decisão da manutenção ou suspensão do agente antineoplásico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>A diretriz de 2022 tem como objetivo trazer para o cardiologista e o clínico envolvido em cardio-oncologia, um guia para a prevenção, diagnóstico e tratamento da cardiotoxidade induzida pelos agentes anti-neoplasicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Onde o ecocardiograma e a RMC são indicados como os métodos diagnósticos de escolha com maior sensibilidade para o rastreamento precoce do diagnóstico de miocardite.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Tratamento</title>
				<p>A diretriz de miocardite publicada em 2022<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>traz algumas inovações em relação à diretriz de 2013<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> sobre o esquema terapêutico que merecem destaque. O primeiro deles é a construção de um fluxograma terapêutico com base no grau de suspeição clínica e no prognóstico. O uso do fluxograma ajuda a orientar a terapêutica mais apropriada em cada situação, uma vez que nem todos os pacientes serão submetidos à biopsia endomiocárdica. Pacientes com baixo risco de miocardite, sem sinais de gravidade ou disfunção ventricular tem prognóstico favorável e podem ser seguidos clinicamente. Em pacientes com suspeita intermediária de miocardite, o início da terapia farmacológica cardioprotetora como betabloqueadores, inibidores da enzima de conversão ou bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina é recomendada por pelo menos um ano a fim de conservar a função ventricular, com seguimento individualizado de acordo com a função e potencial arritmogênico. Por fim, os pacientes com alta suspeita do diagnóstico de miocardite, devem ser avaliados quanto a sinais de maior gravidade e, na presença de disfunção ventricular, arritmias malignas, ou instabilidade hemodinâmica, está indicada a realização de biopsia endomiocárdica para tentar identificar etiologias que mereçam tratamento mais agressivo como por exemplo miocardite de células gigantes ou eosinofílica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Em situações de instabilidade, o uso de suporte inotrópico e/ou com dispositivos de curta duração está recomendado para dar suporte e atuar como ponte para recuperação da função ventricular. Neste quadro torna-se oportuno a monitorização invasiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A partir da realização da biopsia endomiocárdica, é possível definir se há inflamação miocárdica, assim como investigar a presença de vírus. A documentação de inflamação e do agente etiológico permite a adequada terapêutica para cada situação. Três diferentes estratégias podem ser utilizadas em pacientes com miocardite: agentes imunossupressores, antivirais e imunomodulação.</p>
				<p>A terapêutica imunossupressora tem por objetivo suprimir a resposta inflamatória e/ou autoimune e, consequentemente, contribuir para melhora clínica e da função ventricular em condições como miocardite por células gigantes, miocardite eosinofílica ou miocardite secundária a doenças autoimunes (classe de recomendação I). Agentes imunossupressores também podem ser considerados na miocardite com pesquisa viral negativa em pacientes que evoluem com IC crônica com objetivo de melhorar status clínico e função de VE, sendo esta uma recomendação IIa de acordo com a diretriz brasileira. A descrição detalhada do tratamento imunossupressor que pode incluir pulsoterapia com corticoide; imunoglobulina de coelho, azatioprina ou ciclofosfamida e/ou metotrexate para algumas etiologias específicas autoimunes também pode ser encontrada na última atualização da Diretriz Brasileira de Miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup>A atual terapêutica de pacientes com miocardite envolve o uso de corticoides isolados ou associado a azatioprina, diante da presença de inflamação e ausência de infecção viral. Todavia, a pesquisa do genoma viral parece controversa no contexto da indicação da terapia imunossupressora. Sabe-se que o objetivo é a melhora da inflamação, e o adequado cenário de atuação é em situações de ausência de genoma viral, onde foi relacionado à melhora de função ventricular. Por outro lado, até o momento não se tem fortes evidências que relacionem o achado qualitativo de microrganismo no tecido cardíaco ao desenvolvimento da miocardite, uma vez que o genoma viral pode estar presente até mesmo em corações normais. Neste contexto, o uso de novas técnicas que documentem a transcrição de RNA ou a quantidade de cópias podem ser promissoras na decisão terapêutica. Avanços no uso da imunossupressão na miocardite linfocitária ainda são necessários<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03002">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Adaptado de Fluxograma terapêutico da miocardite com base nos resultados da BEM da Diretriz Brasileira de Miocardite de 2022.1 CMPD: cardiomiopatia dilatada; PCR: reação em cadeia da polimerase.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230037-gf03-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Considerando que a persistência viral está relacionada a pior prognóstico, estudos envolvendo agentes antivirais têm sido desenvolvidos. A administração de interferon-beta, por exemplo, induziu eliminação do vírus em pacientes com miocardite viral por adenovírus ou enterovírus e esteve relacionada à melhora de sobrevida, melhora de classe funcional e de qualidade de vida. Cenário similar observado com o uso de ganciclovir|valganciclovir em pacientes com sintomas de IC em situação clínica de miocardite pelo herpes vírus humano 6. Já em condições de infecção pelo BV19 mais estudos são necessários para consolidar o uso de análogos de nucleosídeos e de inibidores antivirais da transcriptase reversa para melhorar desfechos clínicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A imunomodulação também é uma estratégia estudada para o tratamento das miocardites virais. Esta estratégia inclui uso de imunoglobulinas e/ou imunoadsorção. Imunoglobulinas intravenosas reduzem citocinas pró-inflamatórias e aumentam as anti-inflamatórias. As evidências acerca dos benefícios das imunoglobulinas no tratamento da miocardite ainda são insuficientes para a recomendação rotineira de seu uso, porém há potencial benefício nas miocardites virais por adenovírus e parvo vírus B19. Seu uso foi relacionado à melhora de bomba cardíaca, capacidade para o exercício, classe funcional e redução da carga viral. O uso de imunoadsorção parece ser promissor em pacientes com miocardiopatia dilatada com presença de anticorpos, porém faltam evidências que consolidem o seu uso terapêutico nas miocardites.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Além do tratamento específico para miocardites, estratégias cardioprotetoras devem ser instituídas. Em pacientes sem disfunção ventricular, o uso de inibidores da enzima de conversão e/ou betabloqueadores por 12 meses tem potencial benefício. Na presença de disfunção ventricular, é fundamental a instituição de terapias modificadoras de prognóstico de acordo com as recomendações das diretrizes brasileira, americana ou europeia de insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>Tais medidas podem cursar com melhora da função ventricular e, nesta situação, a manutenção da terapia neuro-hormonal é recomendada, uma vez que sua suspensão está associada com piora da função ventricular esquerda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Embora a maioria dos pacientes tenha prognóstico favorável, uma porcentagem não desprezível de pacientes pode evoluir com instabilidade hemodinâmica e choque cardiogênico. Nesta situação, o uso de inotrópicos, assim como balão intraaórtico e a membrana de oxigenação extracorpórea (ECMO) devem ser considerados como ponte para recuperação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>De maneira geral, a nova Diretriz Brasileira de Miocardite aborda o diagnóstico e tratamento das miocardites de maneira inovadora e contribui para que o clínico possa utilizá-la na prática, auxiliando na elucidação diagnóstica e na definição da terapêutica mais adequada para cada cenário clínico.</p>
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					<p>Vinculação acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label/>
					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
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				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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