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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &#x26; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20230036</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230036</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Genetics in Cardiomyopathies &#x2013; Genetic Tests Decoded for the Clinical Cardiologist</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Lamounier</surname><given-names>Arsonval</given-names><suffix>J&#xFA;nior</suffix></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref> <role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o</role> <role>desenho da pesquisa</role> <role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role> <role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role> <role>An&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role> <role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7432-576X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>&#xC1;vila</surname><given-names>Diane Xavier de</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/> <role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o</role> <role>desenho da pesquisa</role> <role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6721-3487</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Barriales-Villa</surname><given-names>Roberto</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref> <role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o</role> <role>desenho da pesquisa</role> <role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Vale do Rio Doce</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Governador Valadares</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Vale do Rio Doce (Univale), Governador Valadares, MG &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade da Coru&#xF1;a</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o Biom&#xE9;dica da Coru&#xF1;a (INIBIC)</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Grupo de Investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Cardiopatias Familiares e Gen&#xE9;tica Cardiovascular</institution>
<country country="ES">Spain</country>
<institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar Universitario A Coru&#xF1;a, Grupo de Investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Cardiopatias Familiares e Gen&#xE9;tica Cardiovascular, Instituto de Investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o Biom&#xE9;dica da Coru&#xF1;a (INIBIC), Universidade da Coru&#xF1;a, CIBERCB-ISCIII A Coru&#xF1;a &#x2013; Spain</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#xF3;i</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#xF3;i, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff></contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Diane Xavier de &#xC1;vila</bold> &#x2022; Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#xF3;i - Rua La Salle,12. Postal Code <postal-code>24020-096</postal-code>, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brazil. E-mail: <email>dianeavilamed@gmail.com</email>, <email>dianeavilamed@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold></p>
<p>Dr. Lamounier Jr has received consultant/advisor fees from Sanofy, BioLab Farma, Grupo Fleury Pardini and Health and Code SL. Dr. Barriales-Villa has received consultant/advisor fees from MyoKardia/Bristol Myers Squibb, Cytokinetics, Sanofy, Pfizer, Alnaylam, Chiesi and Amicus Therapeutics.</p></fn></author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>17</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<volume>3</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e20230036</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>23</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>08</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>08</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2023</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p></license></permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>The era of personalized medicine emphasizes the provision of health care guided by the cardiomyopathy phenotypes described, their interpretation based on genotype, and genetic counseling. The identification of high-risk cardiomyopathy subtypes and the diagnosis of rare etiologies with potential therapies cannot be neglected. Genetic sequencing of these patients, in addition to advances in cardiac imaging techniques, has indicated a new perspective for these concepts, and consequently possible new classifications of cardiomyopathies and new clinical practices. The interaction between multidisciplinary teams and cardiology genetic experts is fundamental for a more appropriate management of gene variants, especially variants of uncertain significance that may be relevant in the expression of cardiomyopathies. This article helps cardiologists in the ordering of genetic tests and their indications, provides information about pathogenicity of variants and emphasizes family screening, challenges that may be overcome in daily practice.</p></abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Cardiomyopathies</kwd>
<kwd>Genetics</kwd>
<kwd>NGS</kwd>
<kwd>Familial Screening</kwd></kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="4"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="62"/></counts></article-meta></front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Increased access to new generation sequencing (NGS) has led to the adoption of new routine clinical measures by the clinical cardiologist. Genetic testing in family screening, the definition of subtypes of dilated cardiomyopathy (CMP) of high arrhythmic risk, and the diagnosis of rare etiologies with potential treatments (e.g., cardiac amyloidosis) are some of the genetic applications in the management of CMP that cannot be neglected. If on the one hand, recommendations on molecular investigation in patients with heart diseases have been adopted, on the other hand, the complexity of genetics has raised questions about its use.</p>
<p>The objective of this review article is to help cardiologists in the applicability of genetics in CMPs, including key concepts for genetic test ordering and indications, family screening, result interpretation and clinical decision making.</p>
<sec>
<title>Genetic CMPs</title>
<p>Genetic CMPs are a heterogeneous group of diseases that affect cardiac muscle, mainly caused by changes in genes that encode sarcomeric, desmosomal, cytoskeletal proteins, among others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> describes different forms of genetic CMPs with respective prevalence. Although the diagnostic criteria of CMPs have been well established in the literature,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> genetic sequencing of these patients and advances in cardiac imaging techniques have pointed to a new perspective on these concepts. Since the 1994 MOGE(S) classification (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>), extracardiac manifestations, family heritage and genetic etiology have been highlighted in the definitions CMPs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Recent clinical trials with cohort of patients carriers of specific variants have shed light on CMP subtypes, which will probably allow new classifications and clinical practices.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Examples include specific treatments, such as tafamidis in cardia amyloidosis and genome editing approaches with CRISPR/Cas9 for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Similarly, arrhythmogenic CMP, which is classically described as right ventricular dysplasia, has been revealed to share common etiologies with dilated CMP, particularly arrhythmogenic right ventricular CMP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Prevalence, genes and performance of genetic test in cardiomyopathies</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCB">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Cardiomyopathy</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Prevalence</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Prioritized genes associated with the disease<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">**</xref></th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">% of positive cases<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">****</xref></th></tr></thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">HCM</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">1/500</td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><italic>MYH7, MYBPC3, TNNT2, TNNC1, TNNI3, TPM1, MYL2, MYL3, ACTC1, FHOD3, CSRP3, JPH2, PLN, TTR, PRKAG2, LAMP2, GLA.</italic></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">60%</td></tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E7CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">MCD</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1/250 to 1/2500</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>TTN, LMNA, BAG3, DES, DMD, TAZ, RBM20, SCN5A, FLNC.</italic> Include the genes associated with HCM and ACM</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">40%</td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle">MCA</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1/2.000 to 1/5.000</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>DES, DSC2, DSG2, DSP, JUP, PKP2, PLN, RYR2, TMEM43.</italic> Include the genes associated with DCM</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">50%</td></tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E7CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">MCNC</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Unknown</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Evaluate the genes associated with HCM and DCM</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Unknown</td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">MCR</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Unknown</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Evaluate the genes associated with HCM</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60%</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>HCM: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; DCM: dilated cardiomyopathy; ACM: arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, non-compaction cardiomyopathy; RCM: restrictive cardiomyopathy.</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN2">
<label>**</label>
<p>Prioritized genes associated with each cardiomyopathy. Adapted from guidelines.<sup>19,36</sup></p></fn>
<fn id="TFN3">
<label>****</label>
<p>Maximum efficiency of genetic testing applied in cohorts of index-cases (probands).<sup>36,37</sup></p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>MOGES classification of cardiomyopathies. Arbustini et al., 20148 HCM: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; DCM: dilated cardiomyopathy; RCM: restrictive cardiomyopathy; ARVC: arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy; LVNC: left ventricle non compaction cardiomyopathy; ECG: electrocardiogram; ECHO: echocardiogram.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230036-gf01.tif"/></fig>
<p>The expression of genetic CMPs varies among individuals, even among family members affected by the same genetic variant, which makes risk stratification of these patients a challenge. Penetrance is related to the absence or presence of any clinical manifestation known to be determined by a gene and is given as percentage as a function of age. In CMPs, penetrance of most genes is incomplete, <italic>i.e</italic>., less than 100% of carriers manifest the disease, and seems to increase with age. However, depending on the genotype, some etiologies may have complete penetrance at young ages.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Current prevalence estimates of hypertrophic CMP and dilated CMP described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> are based on cohorts of patients with a definite diagnosis of the disease and probably underestimate the actual prevalence of the disease. This is important information as many carriers of causal genetic variants, at risk of cardiovascular complications, have mild manifestations that do not establish the diagnosis and/or are of late onset.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ordering a gene panel testing</title>
<p>In cardiology, genetic investigation in a family starts with a gene panel (NGS panel), preferably of a patient with a clear diagnosis of CMP, who we call &#x201C;index-case&#x201D; (or proband).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> The NGS panel should include all prioritized genes, associated with the CMO observed in the index-case, recommended by the guidelines (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
<p>Prioritized genes are genes with several variants, that cosegregate with the disease in different families and that have a causal relationship with the disease, as corroborated by functional studies (<italic>in vitro</italic> or animal models).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> In these genes, most of the genetic variants classified as either pathogenic or probably pathogenic are identified, facilitating the diagnosis and the clinical decision making. Other genes that may be included in the panel are called secondary or candidate genes; these are either ultrarare causes or their association with the disease is still uncertain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Thus, the level of evidence of their pathogenic potential is lower, resulting in a more frequent identification of more genetic variants of uncertain significance, which precludes molecular diagnosis of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> It is also worth pointing out that most of the genetic variants described are missense, and major deletions or duplications correspond to a low number of cases (1-3%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Major deletions or duplications was initially analyzed by multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA); however, nowadays, these genetic variants have been assessed by NGS panels by analysis of the copy number variation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>In cases when the gene panel testing cannot be ordered for a patient with suspected CMP due to the clinical findings and family history, the cardiologist may opt for the clinical examination of first-degree relatives; if a family member with a well-established diagnosis is found, the gene panel may then be ordered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Specialized centers have used successful strategies of risk communications by letters, electronic applications, and telephone calls to raise families&#x2019; awareness about the importance of cardiological evaluation and genetic screening.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> It is recommended that risk communication be used in a context of genetic counseling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>So far, the availability of gene panels in the context of the Brazilian unified health system has been limited to specific research projects carried out in public university hospitals. In addition, there is no obligation for the private healthcare system to cover gene panel tests,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> which we believe to change in coming years with the emergence of sufficient scientific evidence and the clinical, family and social impact of sudden death and heart failure.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Indications of genetic studies</title>
<p>Although there are particularities in the indication of genetic tests among the different types of CMPs, a trend can be seen.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Genetic CMPs have a key familial or hereditary character, and hence the genetic examination is always recommended, especially when the benefit of familial screening is clear.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> The performance of the genetic test (percentage of cases in which a causal variant is identified) is variable among the CMPs (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> It may be higher in individuals younger than 45 years old, in those with a more pronounced phenotype and in individuals with a positive family history of CMP or sudden cardiac death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
<p>In Brazil, there has been a trend of cardiologists to order the genetic testing especially in borderline cases aiming at more accurate diagnosis and risk stratification. In these situations of uncertainty, although there is an indication for molecular analysis, its strength of recommendation is lower.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Since these are borderline cases, the number of negative results is, as expected, lower, with no identification of a causal genetic variant. On the other hand, in right ventricular arrhythmogenic CMP, genetics plays an important role as a diagnostic criterion since in some cases the clinical findings are not definite for the diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>In hypertrophic CMP, the use of genetics as a prognostic marker has not been consolidated, except in the identification of rare genotypes associated with high risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Maybe because of it, the European guidelines on hypertrophic CMP suggest that genetic tests should be conducted at laboratories with expertise in the interpretation of genetic variants<sup>.35</sup> On the other hand, risk stratification in dilated CMP has become a well-established indication in genetic studies. In dilated CMPs, the objective of genetic test is to identify etiologies with significant arrhythmia potential, in which variants in the lamin, filamin-C, or desmoplakin genes would be found.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> For patients affected by variants in these genes, an early implantation of a cardioverter defibrillator is recommended if specific clinical markers are present.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>Special attention should be given to patients with genetic variants, likely to have syndromic presentations. Genetic testing may be applied in cases of extracardiac or even cardiac manifestations, known as red flags (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>), with suggest a syndromic CMP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> In hypertrophic CMP, in which syndromic presentations are also known as phenocopies, the molecular diagnosis may reveal the need for a multidisciplinary management due to possible involvement of other organs. Genes related to mitochondriopathies, malformation syndromes (e.g. RASopathies) and deposition diseases, among other inborn errors of metabolism have been associated with phenotypes that include hypertrophic forms of CMPs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> This is also true for different syndromes in dilated CMP, especially neuromuscular diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Cardiologists should be aware that syndromic phenotypes are not always evident, and many of these patients reach adult age without an appropriate diagnosis. In some cases, cardiac manifestations may be the initial presentation of the disease, with need for implementing a multidisciplinary follow-up.</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Systemic red flags in cardiomyopathies.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230036-gf02.tif"/></fig>
<p>Finally, the genetic test is indicated for patients who had sudden cardiac death (identified in the autopsy reports or resuscitated patients).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> The definition of a genetic etiology allows to identify the cause, perform the family screening to identify or exclude family members at risk for the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> In Brazil, an autopsy investigation of sudden cardiac death can be considered an exception, let alone a post-mortem molecular analysis. Thus, in case of deaths probably due to a cardiovascular event, the physician may perform the clinical assessment of the family and initiate the genetic investigation, preferably by a NGS of the affected relative. When there is no family member affected, the indication for the genetic test may be controversial and discussed by a group of experts.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Pathogenicity of variants and family screening</title>
<p>Genetic variants (a better term than &#x201C;mutation&#x201D;) can be classified as pathogenic, likely pathogenic, variant of uncertain significance (VUS) and benign. This classification is based on several criteria defined by international consensuses,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> although many genes in CMPs have nuances for the classification of their variants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> The classification of genetic variants is basically determined by the existing level of evidence, considering the description of affected families (causal relationship) <italic>versus</italic> their prevalence in the generally healthy population (benign variant). Molecular aspects and functional studies can also suggest deleterious effects (or not) of specific variants, reinforcing their pathogenetic profile.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
<p>When a pathogenic or a likely pathogenic variant is identified in the index-case of a family, molecular diagnosis and family screening should be performed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> While genetic analysis is conducted by NGS panels that simultaneously evaluates a series of genes associated with a certain type of CMP, in family screening, the family members are genotyped exclusively for the familial variant identified by the Sanger sequencing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> If a family member carrying the respective variant is identified, periodic monitoring and risk stratification of this individual is recommended. Relatives identified as non-carriers should be discharged from the follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> All first-degree relatives of a carrier should be assessed, which would be called the cascade screening. In our routine, it is not uncommon that the cardiologist ignores the hereditary aspect of genetic CMPs and does not even perform a clinical assessment of the family members when a genetic study is not available.</p>
<p>Clinicians should be careful in obtaining the family history, which may be unspecific. Patients&#x2019; reports of relatives who &#x201C;died from infarction&#x201D;, relatives using pacemakers or &#x201C;with arrhythmias&#x201D; should be valued, as well as cases of transplantation or reports of signs of heart failure (HF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Although ischemic heart disease is known as the main cause of sudden death and HF, one should bear in mind that probably past generations have not undergone detailed clinical examinations compared with today, and a proper diagnosis is hampered by inaccurate reports. In addition, other clinical information should be valued when syndromic forms of CMP may be suspected, including neurological signs and renal failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> The variable expressivity of syndromic CMPs could determine a predominantly non-cardiac presentation in a family member who would also have a high cardiovascular risk. The construction of a genogram of three or more generations would allow better visualization of the members at risk and implementation of a more appropriate management at long term. In fact, the construction of a genealogical tree is currently recommended and may increase the diagnosis of CMP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
<p>Although most of genetic etiologies of CMP are autosomal dominant, X-linked or even <italic>de novo</italic> (not-inherited variants) may also be identified.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> This information may guide the familial screening, by selecting relatives that should or should not be genotyped or clinically assessed, which would optimize the clinical management and costs of genetic testing in the family members.</p>
<p>Questions have been raised regarding the use of VUSs in clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> These variants are so classified when their level of evidence are insufficient to confirm or exclude a causal relationship.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> In this case, familial screening with predictive purposes cannot be applied, neither can a molecular diagnosis be established.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> When a VUS is identified in a prioritized gene, a familial cosegregation analysis of the variant can be performed in the presence of an informative family (multiple individuals with the diagnosis of the disease).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Multidisciplinary teams, specialized in genetic cardiology, have provided better communication and management of VUSs as compared to cardiologists alone,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> and the clinical significance of these variants may be relevant in the expression of CMP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> The classification of genetic variants may change over time with the increase of knowledge and of sequenced patients. Thus, patients with VUS may be assessed periodically to update the classification of the variants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> It is also worth pointing out that the presence of a VUS in a gene associated with syndromic presentation may guide the propedeutics towards an extracardiac evaluation to search for a genotype-phenotype correlation that may elucidate the causal role of the variant, as reported, for example, in Fabry disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
<p>In family management, it is recommended that only children older than 10 years be genotyped.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> An exception would be families including pediatric patients affected. In some cases, the possibility of early treatment, as the enzyme replacement therapy in Fabry disease, the benefits in identifying younger carriers outweigh eventual ethical precautions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
<p>Family genetic testing should be conducted using a multidisciplinary counseling approach by a heart team including a geneticist.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> In Brazil, the geneticist is the only professional able to perform this testing, while in other countries, there is an organized, extensive formation to obtain the title of genetic counselor. Genetic counseling would allow a better approach and communication to patients about risks, pre- and post-test genetic counseling, investigation of syndromic forms and other heritage-related issues.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> This would facilitate the application of genetics in cardiology, similarly to what observed with cancer genetic counseling in oncology in Brazil.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Large gene panels</title>
<p>A cardiologist may ask: why are there large gene panels including so many genes available in the market if the number of prioritized genes is relatively small? This could be explained by different reasons.</p>
<p>Prioritized genes are mostly associated with non-syndromic forms of CMP. However, in different types of CMP, many genes associated with ultra-rare syndromic forms are identified, and many of them are included in these large panels, as occurs with NGS in hypertrophic CMP for example. In case of a suspected syndromic form, a large panel could be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> In our practice, there is no large gene panel, available in the market, that exhaustively includes all genes possibly associated with the syndromic forms of CMP. An example are the RASopathies, a group of multisystemic syndromes related to the Ras-MAPK signaling pathway, that may be present in hypertrophic CMP and/or congenital heart diseases, in which there are currently nearly 30 genes implicated. The inclusion of RASopathy-associated genes to hypertrophic CMP panels has been shown to increase clinical diagnoses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> However, none of the large gene panels available today includes all genes described in the different syndromes associated with Ras-MAPK signaling pathway.</p>
<p>In situations like this or in case of suspected ultra-rare etiologies, such as mitochondrial diseases or inborn metabolic disorders, the pathophysiology of CMP may be related to a large list of genes. In these cases, especially in pediatric cardiology, the whole-exome sequencing may be a viable option,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> with possible inclusion in the health care coverage established by the national health agency in Brazil. In addition, large gene panels can be used when the phenotype of the index-case is overlapped by different forms of CMP or when different types of the disease are manifested in the same family (e.g., hypertrophic CMP and non-compaction CMP). These are known as comprehensive CMP gene panels, that would be appropriately used in these situations. Also, there are comprehensive panels that, in addition to the CMP-associated genes, include those associated with channelopathies, or even aortopathies. Genetic studies may be ordered when there is no suspicion of the cause of sudden death in the family, or when cardiac arrhythmias or conduction disorder may be the first manifestation of a genetic CMP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusions</title>
<p>Genetic is a useful tool in the diagnosis, risk stratification and family management in CMPs. The guidelines provide established recommendations regarding its application, and recent studies have indicated a definition of the CMP subtypes that imply new treatment opportunities, greater assertiveness in risk stratification and will possibly lead to new classifications in this scenario. Despite its complexity, the challenge of the use of genetics may be overcome in daily practice, and multidisciplinary genetic counseling is recommended to optimize its use and the care provided.</p>
</sec></body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
<p><bold>Sources of funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Study association</bold></p>
<p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Arsonval Lamounier J&#xFA;nior, from Universidad de la Coru&#xF1;a.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn></fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revis&#xE3;o</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Gen&#xE9;tica nas Miocardiopatias &#x2013; Testes Gen&#xE9;ticos Decodificados para o Cardiologista Cl&#xED;nico</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Lamounier</surname><given-names>Arsonval</given-names><suffix>J&#xFA;nior</suffix></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref> <role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o</role> <role>desenho da pesquisa</role> <role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role> <role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role> <role>An&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role> <role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7432-576X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>&#xC1;vila</surname><given-names>Diane Xavier de</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>3</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/> <role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o</role> <role>desenho da pesquisa</role> <role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6721-3487</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Barriales-Villa</surname><given-names>Roberto</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>2</sup></xref> <role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o</role> <role>desenho da pesquisa</role> <role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role></contrib>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Governador Valadares</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Vale do Rio Doce (Univale), Governador Valadares, MG &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>2</label>
<country country="ES">Espanha</country>
<institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar Universitario A Coru&#xF1;a, Grupo de Investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Cardiopatias Familiares e Gen&#xE9;tica Cardiovascular, Instituto de Investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o Biom&#xE9;dica da Coru&#xF1;a (INIBIC), Universidade da Coru&#xF1;a, CIBERCB-ISCIII A Coru&#xF1;a &#x2013; Espanha</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#xF3;i, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff></contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Diane Xavier de &#xC1;vila</bold> &#x2022; Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#xF3;i - Rua La Salle,12. CEP <postal-code>24020-096</postal-code>, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brasil. E-mail: <email>dianeavilamed@gmail.com</email>, <email>dianeavilamed@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>O Dr. Lamounier Jr recebeu honor&#xE1;rios de consultor/assessor da Sanofy, BioLab Farma, Grupo Fleury Pardini e Health and Code SL. O Dr. Barriales-Villa recebeu honor&#xE1;rios de consultor/consultor da MyoKardia/Bristol Myers Squibb, Cytokinetics, Sanofy, Pfizer, Alnaylam, Chiesi e Amicus Therapeutics.</p></fn></author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A era da medicina personalizada enfatiza o cuidado guiado pelos diversos fen&#xF3;tipos de miocardiopatia (MCP) j&#xE1; descritos, a sua interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o a partir do gen&#xF3;tipo e o aconselhamento gen&#xE9;tico. A identifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de subtipos de MCP de alto risco e o diagn&#xF3;stico de etiologias raras com a possibilidade de terapias espec&#xED;ficas n&#xE3;o podem ser negligenciadas. O sequenciamento gen&#xE9;tico desses pacientes, ao lado do avan&#xE7;o nas t&#xE9;cnicas de imagem card&#xED;aca, tem apontado uma nova perspectiva para esses conceitos, e consequentemente poss&#xED;veis novas classifica&#xE7;&#xF5;es das MCPs e novas condutas cl&#xED;nicas. &#xC9; fundamental a intera&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre equipes multidisciplinares e especialistas em cardiologia gen&#xE9;tica para melhor manejo das variantes, principalmente as de significado incerto que podem ter relev&#xE2;ncia na express&#xE3;o da MCP. Este artigo orienta os cardiologistas na solicita&#xE7;&#xE3;o do exame gen&#xE9;tico, discute suas indica&#xE7;&#xF5;es e a patogenicidade das variantes e enfatiza o rastreamento familiar, desafios que podem ser superados na pr&#xE1;tica cotidiana.</p></abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Miocardiopatias</kwd>
<kwd>Gen&#xE9;tica</kwd>
<kwd>NGS</kwd>
<kwd>Rastreio Familiar</kwd></kwd-group></front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdu&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>A amplia&#xE7;&#xE3;o do acesso ao sequenciamento de nova gera&#xE7;&#xE3;o (<italic>NGS</italic>, sigla em ingl&#xEA;s para <italic>next generation sequencing</italic>) tem implicado na ado&#xE7;&#xE3;o de novas condutas na pr&#xE1;tica cotidiana do cardiologista cl&#xED;nico. O teste gen&#xE9;tico no <italic>screening</italic> familiar, a identifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de subtipos de miocardiopatia (MCP) dilatada de alto risco arritmog&#xEA;nico, e o diagn&#xF3;stico de etiologias raras com a possibilidade de terapias espec&#xED;ficas como na amiloidose card&#xED;aca, s&#xE3;o algumas das aplica&#xE7;&#xF5;es da gen&#xE9;tica no manejo das MCP que atualmente n&#xE3;o podem ser negligenciadas. Se por um lado, se consolidam as recomenda&#xE7;&#xF5;es para a investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o molecular em pacientes cardiopatas, por outro a complexidade da gen&#xE9;tica tem gerado d&#xFA;vidas sobre o seu uso.</p>
<p>O objetivo deste estudo de revis&#xE3;o &#xE9; orientar os cardiologistas na aplicabilidade da gen&#xE9;tica nas MCPs, incluindo conceitos fundamentais para sua solicita&#xE7;&#xE3;o, indica&#xE7;&#xF5;es, rastreio familiar, interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos resultados e consequente tomada de decis&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica.</p>
<sec>
<title>MCPs gen&#xE9;ticas</title>
<p>As MCP gen&#xE9;ticas s&#xE3;o um grupo heterog&#xEA;neo de doen&#xE7;as que afetam o m&#xFA;sculo card&#xED;aco, causadas principalmente por altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es nos genes que codificam prote&#xED;nas sarcom&#xE9;ricas, desmossomais, prote&#xED;nas do citoesqueleto, entre outras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref> s&#xE3;o apresentadas as diferentes formas de MCP gen&#xE9;ticas e suas respectivas preval&#xEA;ncias. Os crit&#xE9;rios diagn&#xF3;sticos das distintas formas de MCP est&#xE3;o bem estabelecidos na literatura,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> n&#xE3;o obstante, o sequenciamento gen&#xE9;tico desses pacientes e o avan&#xE7;o nas t&#xE9;cnicas de imagem card&#xED;aca t&#xEA;m apontado uma nova perspectiva para esses conceitos. Desde a classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o MOGES em 2014 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref>), as manifesta&#xE7;&#xF5;es extra-card&#xED;acas, o padr&#xE3;o de heran&#xE7;a familiar e etiologia gen&#xE9;tica vem sendo ressaltados na defini&#xE7;&#xE3;o das MCP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Recentes estudos cl&#xED;nicos descrevendo coortes portadoras de variantes espec&#xED;ficas t&#xEA;m lan&#xE7;ado luz sobre subtipos de MCP, o que provavelmente permitir&#xE3;o novas classifica&#xE7;&#xF5;es e condutas cl&#xED;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Terapias espec&#xED;ficas, como o tafamidis na amiloidose card&#xED;aca ou a terapia com edi&#xE7;&#xE3;o gen&#xF4;mica CRISPR/Cas9 na distrofia muscular de Duchenne, s&#xE3;o alguns desses exemplos, assim como na MCP arritmog&#xEA;nica, uma doen&#xE7;a classicamente descrita como uma displasia do ventr&#xED;culo direito, mas que a gen&#xE9;tica mostra etiologias comuns com MCP dilatada, particularmente a MCP arritmog&#xEA;nica do ventr&#xED;culo direito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Preval&#xEA;ncia, genes e rendimento do teste gen&#xE9;tico nas MCP</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCB">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Patologia</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Preval&#xEA;ncia</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">Genes Priorit&#xE1;rios relacionados &#xE0; doen&#xE7;a<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">**</xref></th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">% de casos positivos<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">****</xref></th></tr></thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">MCH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1/500</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>MYH7, MYBPC3, TNNT2, TNNC1, TNNI3, TPM1, MYL2, MYL3, ACTC1, FHOD3, CSRP3, JPH2, PLN, TTR, PRKAG2, LAMP2, GLA.</italic></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60%</td></tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E7CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">MCD</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1/250 a 1/2500</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>TTN, LMNA, BAG3, DES, DMD, TAZ, RBM20, SCN5A, FLNC.</italic> Incluir os genes relacionados a MCH e MCA</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">40%</td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">MCA</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">1/2.000 a 1/5.000</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>DES, DSC2, DSG2, DSP, JUP, PKP2, PLN, RYR2, TMEM43.</italic> Incluir os genes relacionados a MCD</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">50%</td></tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E7CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle">MCNC</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Desconhecido</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Avaliar os genes relacionados &#xE0; MCH e MCD</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Desconhecido</td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">MCR</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Desconhecido</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Avaliar os genes relacionados &#xE0; MCH</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">60%</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4">
<p>MCH: miocardiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica; MCD: miocardiopatia dilatada; MCA: miocardiopatia arritmog&#xEA;nica; MCNC: miocardiopatia n&#xE3;o compactada; MCR: miocardiopatia restritiva.</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN5">
<label>**</label>
<p>Genes priorit&#xE1;rios relacionados a cada miocardiopatia. Adapta&#xE7;&#xE3;o feita com base em diferentes diretrizes.<sup>19,36</sup></p></fn>
<fn id="TFN6">
<label>****</label>
<p>Rendimento m&#xE1;ximo do teste gen&#xE9;tico considerando-se seu emprego em coortes compostas apenas por casos &#xED;ndice (probandos).<sup>36,37</sup></p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o MOGES para miocardiopatias. Arbustini et al., 2014<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup>. MCD: miocardiopatia dilatada; MCH: miocardiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica; MCR: miocardiopatia restritiva; CVDA: cardiomiopatia ventricular direita arritmog&#xEA;nica miocardiopatia n&#xE3;o compactada; MNCVE: mioc&#xE1;rdio n&#xE3;o compactado de ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo; ECG: eletrocardiograma; ECO: ecocardiograma.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230036-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>A express&#xE3;o das MCPs gen&#xE9;ticas &#xE9; vari&#xE1;vel entre os indiv&#xED;duos, inclusive entre parentes afetados pela mesma variante gen&#xE9;tica, e constitui um desafio na estratifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de risco dos pacientes. A penetr&#xE2;ncia &#xE9; um conceito relacionado &#xE0; aus&#xEA;ncia ou presen&#xE7;a de qualquer manifesta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica sabidamente determinada por um gene e &#xE9; dada por uma porcentagem em fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o da idade. Nas MCPs, a penetr&#xE2;ncia da maioria dos genes &#xE9; incompleta (ou seja, menos de 100% dos portadores manifestar&#xE3;o a doen&#xE7;a), e costuma aumentar conforme a idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> No entanto, a depender do gen&#xF3;tipo, algumas etiologias podem apresentar penetr&#xE2;ncia completa em idades jovens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> As estimativas de preval&#xEA;ncia atuais para MCP hipertr&#xF3;fica e MCP dilatada apresentadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref> s&#xE3;o baseadas em coortes com claro diagn&#xF3;stico da doen&#xE7;a e provavelmente subestimam a verdadeira preval&#xEA;ncia da doen&#xE7;a. Esse dado &#xE9; importante no manejo familiar, pois muitos indiv&#xED;duos que carregam variantes gen&#xE9;ticas causais e est&#xE3;o em risco de complica&#xE7;&#xF5;es cardiovasculares t&#xEA;m manifesta&#xE7;&#xF5;es leves que n&#xE3;o definem o diagn&#xF3;stico e/ou s&#xE3;o de in&#xED;cio tardio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Solicitando um painel gen&#xE9;tico</title>
<p>A investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o gen&#xE9;tica na cardiologia inicia-se em uma fam&#xED;lia com a solicita&#xE7;&#xE3;o de um painel gen&#xE9;tico (painel NGS), preferencialmente para um paciente com diagn&#xF3;stico claramente estabelecido de MCP, quem chamamos de caso-&#xED;ndice (ou probando).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> O painel NGS dever&#xE1; incluir todos os genes priorit&#xE1;rios, associados com a MCP observada no caso-&#xED;ndice, recomendados pelas diretrizes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
<p>Os genes priorit&#xE1;rios s&#xE3;o aqueles nos quais foram identificadas m&#xFA;ltiplas variantes gen&#xE9;ticas, cossegregando com a doen&#xE7;a em diferentes fam&#xED;lias, com estudos funcionais (<italic>in vitro</italic> ou modelos animais) corroborando sua rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o causal com a doen&#xE7;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Nesses genes &#xE9; onde se identifica a vasta maioria das variantes gen&#xE9;ticas classificadas como patog&#xEA;nicas ou provavelmente patog&#xEA;nicas, as quais permitem firmar um diagn&#xF3;stico e logo estabelecer uma tomada de decis&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica. Outros genes que podem ser inclu&#xED;dos nos pain&#xE9;is s&#xE3;o nomeados genes secund&#xE1;rios ou candidatos e, muitas vezes, s&#xE3;o causas ultrarraras ou sua associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o com a doen&#xE7;a n&#xE3;o est&#xE1; bem estabelecida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Desta forma, o n&#xED;vel de evid&#xEA;ncia sobre seu potencial patog&#xEA;nico &#xE9; menor, resultando na identifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o mais frequente de variantes gen&#xE9;ticas classificadas como de significado incerto, o que n&#xE3;o permite firmar o diagn&#xF3;stico molecular da doen&#xE7;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Vale ainda ressaltar, que a maioria das variantes gen&#xE9;ticas descritas &#xE9; do tipo <italic>missense</italic> ou radicais, enquanto as dele&#xE7;&#xF5;es ou duplica&#xE7;&#xF5;es maiores correspondem a um baixo n&#xFA;mero dos casos (1-3%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Inicialmente, a an&#xE1;lise de dele&#xE7;&#xF5;es ou duplica&#xE7;&#xF5;es maiores era feita por um exaustivo emprego do m&#xE9;todo de MLPA (<italic>Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification</italic>). Por&#xE9;m, atualmente, esse tipo de variantes gen&#xE9;ticas &#xE9; examinado nos pain&#xE9;is NGS pela an&#xE1;lise da varia&#xE7;&#xE3;o do n&#xFA;mero de c&#xF3;pias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>Nos casos em que n&#xE3;o &#xE9; poss&#xED;vel solicitar um painel gen&#xE9;tico para um paciente com poss&#xED;vel diagn&#xF3;stico de MCP e forte suspeita diante os achados cl&#xED;nicos e hist&#xF3;ria familiar, o cardiologista pode optar pela avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica dos parentes de primeiro grau e, se um familiar com diagn&#xF3;stico bem estabelecido &#xE9; identificado, pode-se solicitar o painel gen&#xE9;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Centros especializados t&#xEA;m optado por estrat&#xE9;gias bem sucedidas de comunica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de risco por meio de cartas, aplicativos eletr&#xF4;nicos ou liga&#xE7;&#xF5;es como forma de sensibilizar familiares para a import&#xE2;ncia da avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o cardiol&#xF3;gica e rastreamento gen&#xE9;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> &#xC9; recomendado que a comunica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de risco seja empregada preferencialmente em um contexto de aconselhamento gen&#xE9;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>At&#xE9; o momento, a disponibilidade dos pain&#xE9;is gen&#xE9;ticos no &#xE2;mbito do Sistema &#xDA;nico de Sa&#xFA;de (SUS) no Brasil tem se limitado a projetos de pesquisa espec&#xED;ficos em hospitais p&#xFA;blicos universit&#xE1;rios. Na sa&#xFA;de suplementar n&#xE3;o existe obrigatoriedade da cobertura pelas operadoras de sa&#xFA;de,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> uma realidade que acreditamos que deva mudar nos pr&#xF3;ximos anos devido &#xE0; exist&#xEA;ncia de evid&#xEA;ncia cient&#xED;fica suficiente e pelo impacto cl&#xED;nico, familiar e social relacionado &#xE0; morte s&#xFA;bita e a insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Indica&#xE7;&#xF5;es do estudo gen&#xE9;tico</title>
<p>Embora haja particularidades na indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o do teste gen&#xE9;tico entre os diferentes tipos de MCPs, uma tend&#xEA;ncia pode ser observada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Por se tratarem de doen&#xE7;as gen&#xE9;ticas, o car&#xE1;ter familiar ou heredit&#xE1;rio &#xE9; central, e o exame gen&#xE9;tico &#xE9; sempre recomendado em todas as formas de MCP, principalmente quando houver o benef&#xED;cio do <italic>screening</italic> familiar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> O rendimento do estudo gen&#xE9;tico (porcentagem de casos onde uma variante causal &#xE9; identificada) &#xE9; vari&#xE1;vel entre as formas de MCP (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Ele pode ser mais alto nos indiv&#xED;duos mais jovens (idade inferior a 45 anos), fen&#xF3;tipo mais pronunciado e hist&#xF3;ria familiar positiva para CMP ou morte s&#xFA;bita card&#xED;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
<p>No Brasil, temos observado que existe uma tend&#xEA;ncia do cardiologista em solicitar o teste gen&#xE9;tico principalmente nos casos <italic>borderline</italic> com o objetivo de finalmente se obter o diagn&#xF3;stico ou uma estratifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de risco mais assertiva. Nestas situa&#xE7;&#xF5;es de incerteza, embora haja a indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o do exame molecular, a for&#xE7;a da recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o para a sua realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9; menor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Uma vez que os casos s&#xE3;o <italic>borderline</italic>, naturalmente temos um maior n&#xFA;mero de resultados negativos, sem que nenhuma variante gen&#xE9;tica causal seja identificada. Por outro lado, na MCP arritmog&#xEA;nica do ventr&#xED;culo direito, o uso da gen&#xE9;tica tem um importante peso como crit&#xE9;rio diagn&#xF3;stico, uma vez que nem sempre os achados cl&#xED;nicos permitem definir claramente o diagn&#xF3;stico da doen&#xE7;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na MCP hipertr&#xF3;fica, a gen&#xE9;tica como um marcador progn&#xF3;stico n&#xE3;o tem indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o consolidada, salvo nos casos de se identificar raros gen&#xF3;tipos associados a alto risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Devido a isso, talvez a diretriz europeia de MCP hipertr&#xF3;fica sugira que os testes gen&#xE9;ticos sejam realizados em laborat&#xF3;rios com expertise na interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o das variantes gen&#xE9;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Por outro lado, a estratifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de risco na MCP dilatada tornou-se uma indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o bem estabelecida para o estudo gen&#xE9;tico. Nas formas dilatadas, o intuito do exame gen&#xE9;tico &#xE9; a identifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o das etiologias com alto potencial arritmog&#xEA;nico, onde se identificariam variantes nos genes da lamina, filamina C ou desmoplaquinas, entre outras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Pacientes afetados por variantes nestes genes teriam a recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o para um implante precoce de um cardiodesfibrilador quando presentes determinados marcadores cl&#xED;nicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>Especial aten&#xE7;&#xE3;o deve ser dada a pacientes portadores de variantes gen&#xE9;ticas que apontam para a possibilidade de apresenta&#xE7;&#xF5;es sindr&#xF4;micas. O teste gen&#xE9;tico pode ser empregado nas situa&#xE7;&#xF5;es onde se observam manifesta&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas extra-card&#xED;acas ou mesmo card&#xED;acas, as chamadas <italic>red flags</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2</xref>), que sugerem se tratar de uma MCP sindr&#xF4;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Na MCP hipertr&#xF3;fica, onde as apresenta&#xE7;&#xF5;es sindr&#xF4;micas s&#xE3;o tamb&#xE9;m conhecidas por fenoc&#xF3;pias, o diagn&#xF3;stico molecular pode revelar a necessidade de um manejo multidisciplinar devido ao poss&#xED;vel acometimento de outros &#xF3;rg&#xE3;os. Genes associados a mitocondriopatias, s&#xED;ndromes malformativas (como as RASopatias) e doen&#xE7;as de dep&#xF3;sito entre outros erros inatos do metabolismo t&#xEA;m sido descritos com fen&#xF3;tipos que incluem formas hipertr&#xF3;ficas de MCP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Na MCP dilatada, ocorre o mesmo com uma grande diversidade de apresenta&#xE7;&#xF5;es sindr&#xF4;micas, com destaque para as doen&#xE7;as neuromusculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> O cardiologista deve ter em mente que nem sempre um fen&#xF3;tipo sindr&#xF4;mico salta aos olhos e muitos desses pacientes atingem a idade adulta sem um diagn&#xF3;stico adequado. Ainda, em alguns casos, a manifesta&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca pode ser a apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o inicial da doen&#xE7;a, sendo fundamental instituir o <italic>follow-up</italic> multidisciplinar.</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Red-flags <italic>sist&#xEA;micos das miocardiopatias</italic>.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230036-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>Por fim, teste gen&#xE9;tico &#xE9; indicado a pacientes que sofreram morte s&#xFA;bita card&#xED;aca (identificada na aut&#xF3;psia ou nos ressuscitados).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> A detec&#xE7;&#xE3;o de uma etiologia gen&#xE9;tica permite identificar a causa, proceder com o <italic>screening</italic> familiar e a identifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o ou exclus&#xE3;o de familiares em risco de desenvolver a doen&#xE7;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> No Brasil podem ser considerados exce&#xE7;&#xF5;es os casos de morte s&#xFA;bita em que se realiza uma aut&#xF3;psia e parece ser ainda mais distante o estudo molecular <italic>post-mortem.</italic> Desta forma, em caso de &#xF3;bito por prov&#xE1;vel evento cardiovascular, o m&#xE9;dico pode realizar a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica familiar e iniciar o estudo gen&#xE9;tico preferencialmente solicitando um painel NGS para o parente afetado. No caso de nenhum familiar ser afetado, a indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o do teste gen&#xE9;tico seria controversa e poderia ser discutida por um grupo de especialistas.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Patogenicidade das variantes e screening familiar</title>
<p>As variantes gen&#xE9;ticas (termo melhor empregado do que &#x201C;muta&#xE7;&#xE3;o&#x201D;) podem ser classificadas como patog&#xEA;nicas, provavelmente patog&#xEA;nicas, de significado incerto (na sigla em ingl&#xEA;s VUS, <italic>variant of uncertain significance</italic>) e benignas. Essa classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9; baseada em in&#xFA;meros crit&#xE9;rios definidos em consensos internacionais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> embora em diversos genes nas MCP existam nuances para a classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o das variantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Basicamente, a classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o das variantes gen&#xE9;ticas &#xE9; determinada pelo n&#xED;vel de evid&#xEA;ncia que existe a seu respeito, considerando as descri&#xE7;&#xF5;es em fam&#xED;lias afetadas (rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o causal) versus sua preval&#xEA;ncia em indiv&#xED;duos saud&#xE1;veis na popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o em geral (variante benigna). Aspectos moleculares e estudos funcionais tamb&#xE9;m podem sugerir um efeito delet&#xE9;rio ou n&#xE3;o de uma variante espec&#xED;fica, corroborando seu perfil patogen&#xE9;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
<p>Quando uma variante patog&#xEA;nica ou provavelmente patog&#xEA;nica &#xE9; identificada no caso &#xED;ndice de uma fam&#xED;lia, o diagn&#xF3;stico molecular e o <italic>screening</italic> familiar devem ser empregados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Enquanto o estudo gen&#xE9;tico no caso &#xED;ndice &#xE9; realizado por meio de pain&#xE9;is NGS que avaliam simultaneamente uma s&#xE9;rie de genes associados a determinado tipo de MCP, no rastreio familiar, os parentes s&#xE3;o genotipados apenas para a variante familiar identificada pelo m&#xE9;todo de Sanger.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Em caso de ser identificado um familiar portador da respectiva variante, este deve ser periodicamente avaliado e ter o seu risco estratificado. Os parentes identificados como n&#xE3;o portadores t&#xEA;m a recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o de alta do <italic>follow-up</italic> regular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Todos os parentes de primeiro grau de um portador devem ser avaliados, realizando-se o que se denomina <italic>screening</italic> familiar em cascata. Lembramos que, no nosso cotidiano, n&#xE3;o &#xE9; incomum o cardiologista n&#xE3;o valorizar o aspecto heredit&#xE1;rio das MCP gen&#xE9;ticas, n&#xE3;o realizando sequer a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica dos familiares quando n&#xE3;o &#xE9; poss&#xED;vel o estudo gen&#xE9;tico da fam&#xED;lia.</p>
<p>O cl&#xED;nico deve estar atento ao colher a hist&#xF3;ria familiar que muitas vezes pode ser inespec&#xED;fica. Relatos como &#x201C;morreu infartado&#x201D;, parentes com marca-passo ou &#x201C;que sofriam de arritmias&#x201D; devem ser valorizados, assim como os casos de transplantes ou relatos de sinais de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Embora a doen&#xE7;a card&#xED;aca isqu&#xEA;mica seja reconhecidamente a principal causa de morte s&#xFA;bita e IC, deve-se ter em mente que gera&#xE7;&#xF5;es passadas possivelmente n&#xE3;o receberam uma avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca t&#xE3;o detalhada como hoje, e muitos dos diagn&#xF3;sticos se perdem em relatos familiares imprecisos. Na hist&#xF3;ria familiar devem ainda ser valorizadas outras informa&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas devido &#xE0; possibilidade de MCP com formas sindr&#xF4;micas, como no caso de sinais neurol&#xF3;gicos ou insufici&#xEA;ncia renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> A expressividade vari&#xE1;vel das MCP sindr&#xF4;micas pode determinar uma apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o predominantemente n&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca em um familiar que tamb&#xE9;m estaria em risco cardiovascular aumentado. A constru&#xE7;&#xE3;o de um heredograma de no m&#xED;nimo tr&#xEA;s gera&#xE7;&#xF5;es permite visualizar melhor os familiares em risco e instituir um melhor manejo ao longo do tempo. De fato, a constru&#xE7;&#xE3;o da &#xE1;rvore geneal&#xF3;gica &#xE9; uma recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o presente nas diretrizes e pode aumentar os casos de diagn&#xF3;stico de MCP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
<p>As etiologias gen&#xE9;ticas das MCP s&#xE3;o quase sempre autoss&#xF4;micas dominantes, mas etiologias autoss&#xF4;micas recessivas, ligadas ao X ou mesmo apresenta&#xE7;&#xF5;es <italic>de novo</italic> (variantes n&#xE3;o herdadas) podem ser identificadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Essa informa&#xE7;&#xE3;o permite nortear o <italic>screening</italic> familiar, selecionando parentes que deveriam ou n&#xE3;o ser genotipados ou avaliados clinicamente, o que otimizaria o manejo cl&#xED;nico e os gastos financeiros com estudos gen&#xE9;ticos nos membros da fam&#xED;lia.</p>
<p>As VUS t&#xEA;m gerado d&#xFA;vidas a respeito da sua aplica&#xE7;&#xE3;o na pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Essas variantes s&#xE3;o assim classificadas quando o n&#xED;vel de evid&#xEA;ncia sobre elas &#xE9; insuficiente para afirmar ou excluir uma rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o causal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Neste caso, o <italic>screening</italic> familiar com finalidades preditivas n&#xE3;o pode ser empregado, tampouco ser firmado um diagn&#xF3;stico molecular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Quando uma VUS &#xE9; identificada em um gene priorit&#xE1;rio, pode ser realizado o estudo de cossegrega&#xE7;&#xE3;o familiar da variante em caso de existir uma fam&#xED;lia informativa (m&#xFA;ltiplos indiv&#xED;duos com o diagn&#xF3;stico da doen&#xE7;a).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Caso a variante seja identificada em todos os familiares afetados, ela pode ser considerada a prov&#xE1;vel causa da doen&#xE7;a na fam&#xED;lia, ao contr&#xE1;rio, caso a variante n&#xE3;o seja identificada em um parente com o diagn&#xF3;stico da doen&#xE7;a, ela possivelmente n&#xE3;o &#xE9; a causa da doen&#xE7;a familiar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Equipes multidisciplinares especializadas em cardiologia gen&#xE9;tica t&#xEA;m mostrado melhor comunica&#xE7;&#xE3;o e manejo das VUSs do que cardiologistas isolados,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> sendo que o significado cl&#xED;nico dessas variantes pode ter relev&#xE2;ncia na express&#xE3;o da MCP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> A classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de variantes gen&#xE9;ticas pode sofrer altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es ao longo do tempo &#xE0; medida que novos pacientes s&#xE3;o sequenciados e cresce o conhecimento a seu respeito. Assim, pacientes com VUS podem ser reavalidados periodicamente com o intuito de atualizar a classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de suas variantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Deve-se ainda ressaltar que a presen&#xE7;a de uma VUS em um gene associado a uma apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o sindr&#xF4;mica pode direcionar a proped&#xEA;utica para uma avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o extra-card&#xED;aca buscando uma correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o gen&#xF3;tipo-fen&#xF3;tipo que pode esclarecer o papel causal daquela variante encontrada, como &#xE9; relatado por exemplo na doen&#xE7;a de Fabry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
<p>&#xC9; recomendado que, no manejo familiar das MCP, apenas crian&#xE7;as com mais de 10 anos de idade sejam genotipadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A exce&#xE7;&#xE3;o poderia ocorrer naquelas fam&#xED;lias onde existam relatos de pacientes afetados em idades pedi&#xE1;tricas. Em alguns casos, a possibilidade de tratamento precoce, como na terapia de reposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o enzim&#xE1;tica na doen&#xE7;a de Fabry, o benef&#xED;cio de se identificar um portador em idades jovens supera as eventuais precau&#xE7;&#xF5;es &#xE9;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
<p>A avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o familiar deve ser sempre realizada em um contexto de aconselhamento gen&#xE9;tico multidisciplinar, com a presen&#xE7;a de um m&#xE9;dico geneticista no <italic>heart team.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> No Brasil, apenas esse profissional &#xE9; devidamente habilitado para realiz&#xE1;-lo, enquanto em alguns pa&#xED;ses existe uma forma&#xE7;&#xE3;o longa e bem estruturada para se obter o t&#xED;tulo de <italic>genetic counselor</italic>. A comunica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de risco, o aconselhamento gen&#xE9;tico pr&#xE9; e p&#xF3;s-teste, a interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos resultados gen&#xE9;ticos, a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o nas formas sindr&#xF4;micas e outras quest&#xF5;es relacionadas &#xE0; hereditariedade s&#xE3;o possivelmente melhor abordadas e comunicadas aos pacientes em um contexto de aconselhamento gen&#xE9;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Essa conduta facilitaria a aplica&#xE7;&#xE3;o da gen&#xE9;tica no universo dos cardiologistas, de forma semelhante ao que acontece no aconselhamento gen&#xE9;tico do c&#xE2;ncer junto aos oncologistas no Brasil.</p>
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<sec>
<title>Pain&#xE9;is gen&#xE9;ticos ampliados</title>
<p>O cardiologista poderia perguntar: por que existem pain&#xE9;is gen&#xE9;ticos ampliados com dezenas de genes dispon&#xED;veis no mercado se o n&#xFA;mero de genes priorit&#xE1;rios &#xE9; relativamente limitado? Este fato acontece por motivos distintos.</p>
<p>Os genes priorit&#xE1;rios est&#xE3;o na maioria das vezes associados a apresenta&#xE7;&#xF5;es n&#xE3;o sindr&#xF4;micas das MCP. No entanto, nos diferentes tipos de MCP, s&#xE3;o encontrados genes associados a formas sindr&#xF4;micas ultrarraras e esses pain&#xE9;is ampliados incluiriam uma grande parte destes genes, como ocorre nos pain&#xE9;is NGS na MCP hipertr&#xF3;fica, por exemplo. Em caso de existir a suspeita de uma apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o sindr&#xF4;mica, um painel ampliado poderia ser considerado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Nossa pr&#xE1;tica tem mostrado que nos pain&#xE9;is ampliados dispon&#xED;veis no mercado, nenhum deles abrange de forma exaustiva todos os genes possivelmente associados a MCP com apresenta&#xE7;&#xF5;es sindr&#xF4;micas. Um exemplo s&#xE3;o as RASopatias, um conjunto de s&#xED;ndromes multissist&#xEA;micas relacionadas &#xE0; via de sinaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o Ras/MAPK que podem se expressar com MCP hipertr&#xF3;fica e/ou cardiopatias cong&#xEA;nitas, nas quais atualmente j&#xE1; existem cerca de 30 genes implicados. A inclus&#xE3;o dos genes relacionados &#xE0;s RASopatias em pain&#xE9;is gen&#xE9;ticos de MCP hipertr&#xF3;fica j&#xE1; demonstrou aumentar o rendimento diagn&#xF3;stico desses exames.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Contudo, nenhum dos pain&#xE9;is gen&#xE9;ticos ampliados dispon&#xED;veis no mercado inclui adequadamente todos os genes descritos nas diferentes s&#xED;ndromes associadas &#xE0; via de sinaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o Ras/MAPK.</p>
<p>Em situa&#xE7;&#xF5;es como esta ou diante da suspeita de etiologias ultrarraras, como as doen&#xE7;as mitocondriais ou nos erros inatos do metabolismo, a fisiopatologia da MCP pode estar relacionada a uma vasta lista de genes. Nestes casos e principalmente na cardiologia pedi&#xE1;trica, o sequenciamento completo do exoma pode ser uma op&#xE7;&#xE3;o vi&#xE1;vel,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> inclusive com poss&#xED;vel enquadramento na cobertura estabelecida no rol da Ag&#xEA;ncia Nacional da Sa&#xFA;de no Brasil.</p>
<p>Os pain&#xE9;is gen&#xE9;ticos ampliados podem ser ainda empregados quando o fen&#xF3;tipo observado no caso &#xED;ndice &#xE9; sobreposto com diferentes formas de MCP ou quando est&#xE3;o presentes na fam&#xED;lia indiv&#xED;duos manifestando tipos distintos (por exemplo, MCP hipertr&#xF3;fica e MCP n&#xE3;o compactada). Esses s&#xE3;o os denominados pain&#xE9;is globais de MCP e estariam bem empregados nestas situa&#xE7;&#xF5;es. Existem tamb&#xE9;m pain&#xE9;is globais que, al&#xE9;m dos genes relacionados a MCP, incluem aqueles relacionados &#xE0;s canalopatias, ou mesmo aortopatias. Estes estudos gen&#xE9;ticos podem ser solicitados quando n&#xE3;o h&#xE1; suspeita da causa de uma morte s&#xFA;bita card&#xED;aca na fam&#xED;lia ou quando se considera que a arritmia card&#xED;aca ou dist&#xFA;rbio de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o observados poderiam ser a manifesta&#xE7;&#xE3;o inicial de uma MCP gen&#xE9;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
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</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclus&#xF5;es</title>
<p>A gen&#xE9;tica &#xE9; uma ferramenta &#xFA;til no diagn&#xF3;stico, estratifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de risco e manejo familiar nas MCP. As diretrizes t&#xEA;m recomenda&#xE7;&#xF5;es bem consolidadas quanto &#xE0; sua aplica&#xE7;&#xE3;o e os estudos recentes apontam para a defini&#xE7;&#xE3;o de subtipos de MCP que implicam em novas oportunidades de tratamento, maior assertividade na estratifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de risco e possivelmente desencadear&#xE3;o novas classifica&#xE7;&#xF5;es neste cen&#xE1;rio. Apesar de sua complexidade, o desafio do uso da gen&#xE9;tica pode ser superado na pr&#xE1;tica cotidiana, sendo o aconselhamento gen&#xE9;tico multidisciplinar recomendado com o intuito de otimizar seu emprego e assist&#xEA;ncia aos pacientes.</p>
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<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo n&#xE3;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
<p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o acad&#xEA;mica</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo &#xE9; parte de tese de doutorado de Arsonval Lamounier J&#xFA;nior pela Universidad de la Coru&#xF1;a.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
<p><bold>Aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9;tica e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo n&#xE3;o cont&#xE9;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn></fn-group>
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