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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230027</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Cardiac Sarcoidosis, the Great Chameleon of Myocardiopathies</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-5387-9449</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Suassuna</surname>
						<given-names>Diogo Coutinho</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Fraga</surname>
						<given-names>Felipe J. de Oliveira</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Montenegro</surname>
						<given-names>Carlos Eduardo L.</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Procape</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Pronto Socorro Cardiológico de Pernambuco (Procape) – Universidade de Pernambuco, Recife, PE – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Carlos Eduardo L. Montenegro • Universidade de Pernambuco - Miocardiopatias/ Transplante cardíaco - Rua dos Palmares, s/n. Postal Code 50100-010, Recife, PE - Brazil E-mail: <email>ce_montenegro@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>01</day>
				<month>08</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>07</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>3</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230027</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>16</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>22</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>22</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Sarcoidosis</kwd>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiomyopathies</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="32"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>Sarcoidosis is a chronic multisystemic disease of unknown etiology, histologically determined by the formation of non-caseating granulomas in various organs of the body, which can also affect heart tissues, resulting in cardiac sarcoidosis (CS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
		<p>This disease continues to be enigmatic in such a way that, since its first description (1929), and over the years, the exact mechanism of its pathogenesis has still not been clarified, with the possibility of the existence of an important component of genetic predisposition added to types of environmental exposure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
		<p>In addition to the “mysterious” pathogenesis, its highly varied clinical manifestations give this pathology the nickname of the <italic>chameleon of cardiomyopathies</italic>, as it can appear in practically any differential diagnosis in this area. No area of the heart is completely free of involvement, although the granulomatous inflammatory lesion mostly affects the myocardium in a multifocal and irregular manner. Therefore, the clinical spectrum of CS is widely varied and depends on the focus and extension of the disease, mainly occurring in the subclinical form. Most cases appear with blood flow abnormalities, ventricular arrythmias, and heart failure,but sudden cardiac death (SCD)1 can also be the initial presentation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
		<p>CS generally appears in association with extracardiac involvement, especially the lungs and intrathoracic lymph nodes, but it can also be the first or even an isolated sign of sarcoidosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In addition to the undetermined pathogenesis, the multiplicity of phenotypes of cardiac involvement, and the simultaneous involvement or not of other organs, we must also deal with unspecific diagnostic criteria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
		<p>CS is still considered to be a rare disease, based on evidence from population studies, calculating its incidence in approximately 1 to 30 cases per 100,000 people, with a major prevalence found within the female, Afro-American population from the northern hemisphere. It has been observed clinically in 5% of all patients with sarcoidosis, while autopsy studies have shown cardiac involvement in 25% of the Caucasian and Afro-American patients, and in up to 80% of Japanese patients with sarcoidosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
		<p>The natural course of CS is often unpredictable and can be aggressive if it is not diagnosed and treated. It tends to involve the progression of focal inflammation, leading to the formation of a scar on the free wall of the left ventricle and papillary muscles, which can result in the development of severe cardiomyopathies, malignant arrythmias, and even SCD. Hence the importance of early diagnosis: patients with a strong likelihood or confirmed diagnosis of CS should be treated immediately to reduce the risk of severe or even fatal outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
		<p>Once the diffuse and irregular distribution of this inflammatory condition becomes rooted in a broad array of cardiological signs and symptoms, which are common to many heart conditions, there are no specific “red-flags” for the disease, which causes poorly trained clinicians in the area of cardiomyopathies to take longer to or even fail to recognize the disease. The possible manifestation of phenotypes are: (1) Silent CS leading to SCD – one Finnish study showed CS diagnosed through autopsy in up to 11% of the cases in which SCD was the first and only manifestation:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> (2) patients with extracardiac sarcoidosis who develop signs and/or symptoms of cardiomyopathy or are asymptomatic from the cardiovascular point of view and find cardiac alterations in routine exams, such as the electrocardiogram – it is estimated that approximately 5-9% of the patients with systemic sarcoidosis have symptomatic CS. Moreover, few series of autopsies and cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) have reported a prevalence of subclinical CS of about 25-30% in these patients (in whom, to a great extent, the myocardial involvement includes a small portion and is clinically silent):<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (3) patients with predominant cardiac symptoms due to CS with or without clinical evidence of sarcoid involvement in other organs – the majority end up being infected by the disease in multiple organs, whereas isolated CS is a more rare and severe manifestation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Two large cohorts described that, when present, the more prevalent symptoms of CS are dyspnea (50-70%), palpitations (40-60%), and fatigue (30-45%), while the more common signs include advanced atrioventricular block (46%), heart failure with a reduced ejected fraction (18%), and sustained ventricular tachycardia (17%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
		<p>In general, the complementary exams represent good allies in corroborating the clinical diagnosis of CS, although its specificity and its sensitivity are limited.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> As the confirmation of the presence of myocardial granulomas is difficult, due to the heterogeneous distribution of the sarcoid lesions, due to the limitation of the endomyocardial biopsy, or due to the fact that it refers to a method that is far from being widely available in cardiology services, different groups of criteria are used for the clinical diagnosis of CS, although none of them has been validated or adopted universally.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The diagnosis becomes especially arduous when the only manifestation is that of cardiac dysfunction (isolated CS) – a case in which the endomyocardial biopsy itself has a low sensitivity and often requires a series of histopathological studies for confirmation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Nonetheless, this diagnosis should be strongly suspected in patients with multisystemic sarcoidosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
		<p>In addition, since the pathogenesis of CS is rare and unknown, proper therapy has not been well established and there are no controlled trial data.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Although the immunosuppression is recommended, there are limited data about the beginning, duration, therapeutic scheme, and ideal doses. All of the recommendations are based on small observational studie.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Thus, anti-arrythmias can be used in those patients who are against immunosuppression therapy, and ablation by catheter can be considered when the immunosuppression and anti-arrhythmic therapy fail, as can the possibility of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
		<p>The clinical presentation of patients with CS differs a bit from other patients with heart failure. The point to be highlighted here is related to the classification of sarcoidosis, which in many text books or review articles is defined as an infiltrate, or even restrictive, cardiomyopathy. However, when we further analyze the histopathological and image findings, what appears is an inflammatory cardiomyopathy with peculiar characteristics. Based on this principle, we can view this disease from a different perspective, from the cardiovascular point of view, mainly in relation to its complementary exams and its diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.</p>
		<p>The ECG can be completely normal or present unspecific findings in patients with CS, but, in cases in which the ECG is altered, highly varied blood flow abnormalities, arrythmias, and ventricular extrasystoles are quite common.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In this sense, other cardiomyopathies are implied with these findings and should be researched within an appropriate clinical context: ischemic cardiopathy, right ventricle arrythmogenic cardiomyopathy, tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathies, Chagas disease, and even cardiac amyloidosis.</p>
		<p>The echocardiogram (ECHO) is one of the most commonly used tools in the evaluation of a patient suspected of CS. It is commonly the first imaging exam applied in the investigation of the majority of patients. It also presents a low sensitivity; therefore, a normal ECHO result does not exclude the disease and is rarely recommended for screening. One of the more suggestive alterations of this pathology is the tapering of the interventricular septum, mainly in the basal region, which can lead to a septal aneurysm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Other manifestations include an alteration in the segmental contractility, generally with non-coronary distribution; ventricular dilation; worsening of the systolic and/or diastolic function of the right and left ventricle, which is an important prognostic and less common indicator; myocardial thickness simulating other pathologies that can lead to left ventricular hypertrophy (infiltrate diseases, for example), or the hypertrophic cardiomyopathy itself.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> More recently, it was demonstrated that the echocardiographic evaluation with a longitudinal global strain can improve the capacity to provide an earlier detection of myocardial involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
		<p>Myocardial perfusion scintigraphy (MPS) at rest or with effort detects areas of myocardial injury at rest, as well as areas in which the of myocardial perfusion reserve during effort or at rest is decreased. The lesions associated with CS appears in the nuclear image as segmented reductions the tracer uptake in the myocardium. These perfusion defects differ from the coronary arterial disease, as they do not respect the territory of the coronary arteries. Moreover, the microvascular vasoconstriction associated with the granulomas of sarcoidosis results in the phenomenon of “reverse distribution”, in which the myocardial perfusion defects increase at rest, as compared to during effort.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The Gallium-67 citrate scintigraphy (67Ga) is another method of detection for CS, as this marker connects to an acute phase agent (lactoferrin) near the active focus of the inflammation, and can identify cardiac and extracardiac sites. The combination of 67Ga with CPM increases the sensitivity and the diagnostic accuracy of CS, corroborating its inflammatory etiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
		<p>Currently, CMR is considered to be one of the major diagnostic modalities in ischemic and non-ischemic cardiomyopathies, due to its capacity to characterize the myocardium with high-resolution imagery. In suspected CS, the CMR images enable one to see not only the anatomy and function, but also the myocardial edema, necrosis, and presence of fibrotic scars.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Much like with ECHO, it allows one to observe segmental alterations of non-coronary patterns, septal tapering, thickening, and ventricular aneurysm. In a more acute stage, it detects the presence of myocardial edema observed in the increase of the sign in the modality of the T2 map and the presence of inflammation with a myocardial enhancement after 3 to 5 min of the administration of gadolinium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> At a later stage, the imaging modality that stands out the most, and is the key point in the diagnosis, is the late gadolinium enhancement (LGE), representing areas of tissue necrosis with substitution by fibrotic tissue. Typically, the LGE involves basal segments of the left ventricle (LV) and the septal region of the right ventricle (RV), but any region of the heart can be affected. It is often distributed in an irregular manner with a non-ischemic pattern, and is limited or preserves, to a great extent, the subendocardial and mid-mesocardial regions. However, transmural patterns or even involvement of the free wall of the RV are possible,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> and can even mimic other cardiomyopathies (ischemic, chagasic, for instance). The “hook or hug sign” with the presence of continuous LGE of the septum and the entire free wall of the RV is an important marker of the image in CS, but the identical pattern can be seen in the myocarditis of gigantic cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Other uses of CMR include the capacity to increase the sensitivity of the endomyocardial biopsy, identifying the areas of greater probability of involved tissues and their prognostic value, with the LGE representing an important risk factor for fatal events, as well as a follow-up of the treatment response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
		<p>Among the imaging exams with a greater sensitivity and specificity for CS, what stands out is the 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (18F-FDG PET/CT). Its rationale is based on the inflammatory activity of the cells in the granulomas of sarcoidosis, which appear with a high craving for glucose and its analogues, leading to an increase in the sign in that region,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> which, combined with the PET of the entire body, enables one to identify the activity of the extracardiac disease and evaluate the cardiac perfusion through its respective tracers. Depending on the stage of the disease, the findings can vary from only pure inflammation with an uptake of 18F-FDG or only a perfusion defect in the case of terminal scar or treated CS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> The critical point of the exam that suggests an active area of CS is the overlapping of a “hot point” of one or more areas of uptake of 18F-FDG with the presence of the perfusion defect, considered a characteristic funding of CS (mismatch pattern). The perfusion defects result in the healing of the ventricle or in the reversible involvement of the microcirculation. The hibernating myocardium, other forms of myocarditis, rheumatological diseases with cardiac involvement, and some genetic cardiomyopathies can also cause an abnormal absorption of 18F-FDG. The absence of extracardiac uptake diminishes the specificity of the PET for CS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> New studies show that the simultaneous analysis of the CMR and the FDG/PET increase the sensitivity in the diagnosis of CS and lead to a lower rate of false positives, having a synergetic effect, enabling the detection of patients in early pre-clinical stages and guiding treatment, in which the implementation of immunosuppression can be more beneficial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> It is important to remember that in patients who already use immunosuppressants or who are in a spontaneous remission stage of CS, a PET negative for inflammation does not exclude its diagnosis.</p>
		<p>The endomyocardial biopsy is considered to be the gold standard for the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis, whose histological marks are non-necrotic (caseating) granulomas and gigantic (epitheloid) cells isolated with or without surrounding lymphocytic/granulocytic infiltration combined with myocardial fibrosis, and without extensive eosinophilia or myocyte necrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> However, as the cardiac involvement is generally focal and irregular, it has a low sensitivity, and tends to be positive in only 20% of the cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Although there are reports of higher sensitivity when the biopsies are conducted under the guidance of another imaging exam, many centers prefer to perform the extracardiac biopsy (when possible), arguing that the sensitivity and security are better.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> It is important to highlight that the finding of non-ceseating granuloma, as well as the lymphocytic infiltration and accumulation of macrophages also found in CS, can also be found in infectious, occupational, toxic, and neoplastic diseases, and vasculitis, as well as in the myocarditis of gigantic cells or dilated myocardiopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
		<p>The diagnosis of CS requires a combination of clinical, histological, and imaging modalities. To date, the two most commonly used diagnostic criteria for CS were published by the Japanese Society of Sarcoidosis and other granulomatous diseases (adapted in 2019 - <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>) and the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS – published in 2014).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Nevertheless, these guidelines were based mainly on a consensus among specialists and lack the proper validation from other prospective studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> The most recent Brazilian recommendation on the theme, published in 2022, follows up on the last recommendation from the Japanese society (2019) for the diagnosis of CS, whether it is followed by an extracardiac sarcoid lesion or not.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
		<p>
			<table-wrap id="t1">
				<label>Table 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>– Japanese Society of Sarcoidosis (2017). SJC recommendation for the diagnosis of cardia sarcoidosis 247. Criteria for cardiac involvement The cardiac findings should be evaluated based on the greater and lesser criteria</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
					<colgroup width="100%">
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<thead>
						<tr>
							<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Clinical findings that satisfy the following 1) or 2) strongly suggest the presence of cardiac involvement.</th>
						</tr>
					</thead>
					<tbody>
						<tr>
							<td>1) Two or more of the five principles (a) to (e) are met.</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>2) One of the five criteria (a) to (e) plus two or more lesser criteria (f) to (h) are met.</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>Major criteria</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>a) High-degree atrioventricular block (including full atrioventricular block) or fatal ventricular arrhythmia (for example, sustained ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>b) Basal tapering of the ventricular septum or abnormal anatomy of the ventricular wall (ventricular aneurysm, tapering of the upper or mid-ventricular septum, thickness of the regional ventricular wall)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>c) left ventricular contractile dysfunction (left ventricle ejection fraction less than 50% or alteration of segmental contractility)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>d) The 67Ga citrate or PET 18F-FDG scintigraphy reveals an abnormally high accumulation of markers in the heart</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>e) the MR with gadolinium shows a delay in the myocardial contrast</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>Minor criteria</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>f. Normal ECG findings: ventricular arrhythmias (unsustained ventricular tachycardia, multifocal or frequent premature ventricular contractions), deviation of axis or abnormal Q waves</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>g. Perfusion defects in the myocardial perfusion scintigraphy</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>h. Endomyocardial biopsy: monocyte infiltration and moderate or severe myocardial interstitial fibrosis.</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>Guidelines for the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>1) Histological diagnosis group (those with positive findings in the myocardial biopsy): cardiac sarcoidosis is histologically diagnosed when the endomyocardial biopsy or the surgical samples show non-ceseating granulomas</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>2) Clinical diagnosis group (that with negative findings in the myocardial biopsy or those that were not submitted to the myocardial biopsy): the patient is diagnosed clinically as cardiac sarcoidosis (1) when non-ceseating granulomas are found in other organs other than the heart, and clinical findings strongly suggest cardiac involvement mentioned above are present; or (2) when the patient shows in his/her clinical picture findings that strongly suggest pulmonary or ophthalmologic sarcoidosis (bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy, high ECA serum activity or high serum levels of lysozyme, high serum sIL-2R, significant accumulation of markers in the 67Ga citrate or PET 18F-FDG scintigraphy, high percentage of CD4/CD8 lymphocytes, ratio &gt;3.5 in the LBA liquid). The imaging results strongly suggest the previously mentioned cardiac involvement.</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>Guidelines for the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>Pre-requisites</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>1. No clinical characteristics of sarcoidosis in other organs other than the heart are not observed (the patient should be examined in detail to evaluate respiratory, ophthalmologic, and cutaneous involvements of sarcoidosis.) When the patient is symptomatic, other etiologies that can affect the corresponding organs should be discarded.</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>2. The 67Ga citrate or PET 18F-FDG scintigraphy shows no abnormal accumulation of markers in any other organ other than the heart.</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>3. The chest computed tomography (CT) does not show signs of CS in the lungs or hilar and mediastinal lymphadenopathy (smaller axis &gt;10 mm).</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>Histological diagnosis group</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>1. Isolated cardiac sarcoidosis is histologically diagnosed when the endocardial biopsy or surgical samples show non-ceseating granulomas.</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>Clinical diagnosis group</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>1. Isolated cardiac sarcoidosis is clinically diagnosed when the criteria (d) and at least three other greater criteria (a) to (e) are satisfied. When the patient meets at least four criteria of cardiac involvement that do not include criteria (d) or when the patient meets criteria (b) and (d) plus one of the remaining criteria, the patient is suspected of having isolated cardiac sarcoidosis.</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<fn id="TFN1">
						<p>ACE: angiotensine conversion enzyme; ECG: electrocardiogram; BAL: broncoalveolar lavage; PET 18F-FDG: 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography; MR: magnetic resonance. Adapted from Terasaki et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref>
						</p>
					</fn>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
		</p>
		<p>Although they agree on the concept that the endocardial biopsy is the most accurate diagnostic method, other secondary diagnostic tools can aid in the diagnosis and enable either a non-invasive or minimally invasive evaluation for the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In this sense, the findings from the myocardial scintigraphy, CMR, and PET-CT with 18F-FDG take on special relevance. In fact, the simultaneous application of CMR with PET-CT is currently being studied, with good diagnostic accuracy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
		<p>Even if the progress in imaging methods has enabled a new way to establish the diagnosis of CS – often discarding the endocardial biopsy (gold standard), a more accurate clinical suspicion is still necessary, since the diagnostic rationale moves from this to the diagnostic confirmation using complementary exams. In this sense, recognition programs and screening protocols are essential to achieve the desired early diagnosis, thus enabling an opportune treatment of this medical condition before it becomes fatal (mainly due to sudden arrhythmic death). It is easier and should be remembered that the diagnostic suspicion should always emerge in patients with the extracardiac disease, which presents cardiac signs and symptoms. Likewise, it is prudent to consider the finding of unexplainable 2<sup>nd</sup> and 3<sup>rd</sup> degree atrioventricular bock (AVB), sustained ventricular arrhythmias, or the presence of heart failure with ventricular dysfunction, discarding ischemic or chagasic cardiopathy, as being indicative for research.</p>
		<p>In the opinion of the authors, there is no way to reach a diagnosis of CS without a multimodal approach. Possibly, with the adoption of “red-flags”, as proposed in the presente article (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>), associated with an imaging exam that is suggestive and provides evidence of active myocardial inflammation, more diagnoses can be performed without the need for endomyocardial histopathological analyses, which are seldom available in our field.</p>
		<p>
			<table-wrap id="t2">
				<label>Table 2</label>
				<caption>
					<title>– “Red flags” of cardiac sarcoidosis</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
					<colgroup width="100%">
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<thead>
						<tr>
							<th align="left">“Red flags” of cardiac sarcoidosis</th>
						</tr>
					</thead>
					<tbody>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>Clinical manifestation</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>
								<list list-type="bullet">
									<list-item>
										<p>Sudden cardiac death</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Manifestation suggestive of tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy</p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>ECG/ HOLTER 24H</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>
								<list list-type="bullet">
									<list-item>
										<p>2<sup>nd</sup> and 3<sup>rd</sup> degree AVB</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Q pathologies with no ischemic disease</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Frequent and/or polymorphic ventricular arrhythmias</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Alternation (Holter) of advanced AVB with frequent ventricular arrhythmias</p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>Echocardiogram</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>
								<list list-type="bullet">
									<list-item>
										<p>Tapering of basal region of the interventricular septum</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Septal Aneurysm</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Segmental contractile alteration of non-coronary pattern</p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>CPM/67Ga</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>
								<list list-type="bullet">
									<list-item>
										<p>Reverse distribution pattern (uptake at rest</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Uptake with gallium of active areas</p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>Cardiac magnetic resonance</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>
								<list list-type="bullet">
									<list-item>
										<p>Myocardial edema (T2 map) or late gadolinium enhancement in basal regions of the LV and septal regions of the RV, preserving the subendocardial region “Hug sign” in the RV (continuous enhancement in the free wall and septum of the RV)</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Late transmural enhancement, excluding ischemic disease or chagasic cardiopathy</p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>18F-FDG PET/CT</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>“Mismatch pattern” and associated extracardiac uptake</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td><bold>Extra-cardiac signs</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td>Extracardiac granulomatous lesions</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<fn id="TFN2">
						<p>AVB: atrioventricular bock; LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; ECG: electrocardiogram.</p>
					</fn>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
		</p>
		<p>It is well-known that chameleons are easier to be found at night, when they lose their capacity for camouflage. This may well be the reason why we have been unable to find this chameleon cardiomyopathy: the fact that we are in the dark, needing to shed light on our diagnostic criteria and push away the differential diagnoses that it mimics.</p>
		<p>
			<fig id="f01">
				<label>Figure 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>– Diagnostic flowchart of cardiac sarcoidosis; Brazilian Guideline for Myocarditis and Pericarditis; Montera et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> AVB: atrioventricular block; LV: left ventricle; CT: computed tomography; PET 18F-FDG: 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230027-gf01.tif"/>
			</fig>
		</p>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Sarcoidose Cardíaca, o Grande Camaleão das Miocardiopatias</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-5387-9449</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Suassuna</surname>
						<given-names>Diogo Coutinho</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Fraga</surname>
						<given-names>Felipe J. de Oliveira</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Montenegro</surname>
						<given-names>Carlos Eduardo L.</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Pronto Socorro Cardiológico de Pernambuco (Procape) – Universidade de Pernambuco, Recife, PE – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"> Correspondência: Carlos Eduardo L. Montenegro • Universidade de Pernambuco - Miocardiopatias/ Transplante cardíaco - Rua dos Palmares, s/n. CEP 50100-010, Recife, PE - Brasil E-mail: ce_montenegro@yahoo.com.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Sarcoidose</kwd>
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiomiopatias</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>A sarcoidose é uma doença multissistêmica crônica de etiologia desconhecida, histologicamente determinada pela formação de granulomas não caseosos em vários órgãos do corpo, podendo inclusive afetar o tecido cardíaco, resultando em sarcoidose cardíaca (SC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>A doença permanece enigmática na medida em que, desde a sua primeira descrição (1929) e ao longo dos anos, o mecanismo exato de sua patogênese não foi esclarecido, sendo aventada a existência de um importante componente de predisposição genética somado a alguma exposição antigênica ambiental.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Além de sua “misteriosa” patogênese, suas apresentações clínicas extremamente variadas dão a essa patologia o apelido de camaleão das cardiomiopatias, já que ela pode sempre estar entre praticamente qualquer diagnóstico diferencial nessa área. Nenhuma área do coração está isenta de ser acometida, embora a lesão inflamatória granulomatosa afete majoritariamente o miocárdio de maneira multifocal e irregular. Portanto, o espectro clínico da SC é amplamente variado e dependente do foco e extensão da doença, ocorrendo em sua maioria na forma subclínica. Uma parcela muito significativa dos casos se manifesta com anormalidades de condução, arritmias ventriculares e insuficiência cardíaca, mas a morte súbita cardíaca (MSC)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> também pode ser a apresentação inicial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>A sarcoidose cardíaca geralmente se apresenta associada ao envolvimento extracardíaco – especialmente pulmões e linfonodos intratorácicos, mas pode ser o primeiro ou mesmo um sinal isolado de sarcoidose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Não bastasse a patogênese indeterminada, a multiplicidade de fenótipos de acometimento cardíaco e o comprometimento simultâneo ou não de outros órgãos, ainda nos deparamos com critérios diagnósticos inespecíficos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>A SC ainda é considerada uma doença rara, com base no que dispomos de estudos populacionais, calculando-se sua incidência em aproximadamente 1 a 30 casos por 100.000 pessoas, com maior prevalência entre a população afro-americana, sexo feminino e no hemisfério norte. Ela foi observada clinicamente em 5% dos pacientes com sarcoidose, enquanto estudos de autópsia mostraram envolvimento cardíaco em 25% dos caucasianos e pacientes afro-americanos, e até 80% dos pacientes japoneses com sarcoidose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<p>O curso natural da SC é muitas vezes imprevisível e pode ser agressivo se não for diagnosticado e tratado, envolvendo a progressão da inflamação focal para a formação de cicatriz na parede livre do ventrículo esquerdo e músculos papilares resultando no desenvolvimento de cardiomiopatias graves, arritmias malignas e até MSC. Daí a importância do diagnóstico precoce: pacientes com forte probabilidade ou diagnóstico confirmado para SC devem ser tratados imediatamente para diminuir o risco de desfechos graves ou até mesmo fatais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Uma vez que a distribuição difusa e irregular desta condição inflamatória assente uma ampla gama de sinais e sintomas cardiológicos, comuns a muitas patologias cardíacas, não existem “<italic>Red-flags</italic>” específicos para a doença, o que faz com que clínicos menos treinados na área de cardiomiopatias demorem mais, ou até sequer a reconheçam. Os fenótipos de apresentação clínica possíveis são: (1) SC silenciosa levando à MSC – estudo finlandês mostrou SC diagnosticada por autópsia em até 11% dos casos em que a MSC foi a primeira e única manifestação;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> (2) pacientes com sarcoidose extracardíaca que desenvolvem sinais e/ou sintomas de cardiopatia ou são assintomáticos do ponto de vista cardiovascular e encontram alterações cardíacas em exames de rotina como eletrocardiograma – é estimado que aproximadamente 5-9% dos pacientes com sarcoidose sistêmica têm SC sintomática e poucas séries de autópsias e ressonância cardíaca relataram prevalência de SC subclínica em torno de 25-30% nesses pacientes (em cujo caso, na maioria das vezes, o envolvimento miocárdico envolve uma pequena porção e é clinicamente silencioso),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (3) pacientes com sintomas cardíacos predominantes pela SC com ou sem evidência clínica de envolvimento sarcoide em outros órgãos – a maioria acaba tendo doença de múltiplos órgãos, enquanto a SC isolada é uma apresentação mais rara e grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Duas grandes coortes descreveram que, quando presentes, os sintomas mais prevalentes da SC são dispneia (50-70%), palpitações (40-60%) e fadiga (30-45%), ao passo que os sinais mais costumeiros são bloqueio atrioventricular avançado (46%), insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (18%) e taquicardia ventricular sustentada (17%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
			<p>De forma geral, os exames complementares constituem bons aliados para corroborar o diagnóstico clínico de SC, embora sua especificidade e sua sensibilidade sejam limitadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Como a confirmação da presença de granulomas miocárdicos é difícil, por distribuição heterogênea das lesões sarcoides, por limitação da biópsia endomiocárdica ou por se tratar de um método longe de estar amplamente disponível em serviços de cardiologia, diferentes conjuntos de critérios são usados para o diagnóstico clínico de SC, embora nenhum deles seja validado ou adotado universalmente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>O diagnóstico torna-se especialmente árduo quando a única manifestação é a disfunção cardíaca (SC isolada) – caso em que a própria biópsia endomiocárdica tem baixa sensibilidade e que muitas vezes requer estudos histopatológicos seriados para confirmação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> No entanto, esse diagnóstico deve ser fortemente suspeitado em pacientes com sarcoidose multissistêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Além disso, sendo a patogênese da SC rara e desconhecida, a terapia precisa não foi bem estabelecida e não existem dados de ensaios controlados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Embora a imunossupressão seja recomendada, há dados limitados sobre início, duração, esquema terapêutico e doses ideais. Todas as recomendações são baseadas em pequenos estudos observacionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Assim, os antiarrítmicos podem ser usados naqueles pacientes refratários à terapia imunossupressora e a ablação por cateter pode ser considerada quando a imunossupressão e terapia antiarrítmica falharem, além da possibilidade de implante de cardiodesfibrilador implantável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			<p>A apresentação clínica dos pacientes com SC difere muito pouco de outros pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca. O ponto a se salientar aqui é relacionado à classificação da sarcoidose, que em muitos livros-texto ou artigos de revisão é colocada como uma cardiomiopatia infiltrativa, ou até mesmo restritiva. Entretanto, quando nos debruçamos sobre seus achados histopatológicos e de imagem, vemos que estamos diante de uma cardiomiopatia inflamatória com características peculiares. Partindo desse princípio, podemos ter um novo olhar sobre essa doença, do ponto de vista cardiovascular, principalmente em relação aos seus exames complementares e seu diagnóstico, tratamento e prognóstico.</p>
			<p>O eletrocardiograma pode ser completamente normal ou apresentar achados inespecíficos nos pacientes com SC, mas, nos casos alterados, são comuns anormalidades de condução das mais variadas, arritmias e extrassístoles ventriculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Nesse sentido, outras cardiomiopatias também estão implicadas com esses achados e devem ser pesquisadas dentro de contexto clínico apropriado, a lembrar: cardiopatia isquêmica, cardiomiopatia arritmogênica do VD, taquicardiomiopatias, doença de Chagas e até amiloidose cardíaca.</p>
			<p>O ecocardiograma (ECO) é uma das ferramentas mais usadas na avaliação do paciente suspeito para SC. Costuma ser o primeiro exame de imagem na investigação da maioria dos pacientes. Apresenta também baixa sensibilidade, portanto um ECO normal não exclui a doença, e também é pouco indicado para rastreio. Uma das alterações mais sugestivas dessa patologia é o afilamento do septo interventricular, principalmente na região basal, podendo levar à formação de aneurisma septal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Outras apresentações incluem alteração de contratilidade segmentar, geralmente com distribuição não-coronariana; dilatação ventricular, piora da função sistólica e/ou diastólica do ventrículo direito e esquerdo, sendo um importante indicador prognóstico e, menos comum, espessamento miocárdico simulando outras patologias que podem levar à hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (doenças infiltrativas, por exemplo), ou a própria cardiomiopatia hipertrófica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, foi demonstrado que a avaliação ecocardiográfica com <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal pode melhorar a capacidade de detectar envolvimento miocárdico mais precocemente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			<p>A cintilografia de perfusão miocárdica em repouso e estresse (CPM) detecta áreas de injúria miocárdica no repouso, assim como áreas de redução da reserva de perfusão miocárdica no estresse e no repouso. As lesões associadas à SC aparecem na imagem nuclear como reduções segmentares da captação do traçador no miocárdio. Esses defeitos de perfusão diferem da doença arterial coronária por não respeitarem território de artérias coronárias. Além disso, a vasoconstrição microvascular associada aos granulomas da sarcoidose resulta no fenômeno de “distribuição reversa”, em que os defeitos de perfusão miocárdica aumentam no repouso em comparação com o estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A cintilografia com citrato de gálio 67 (67Ga) é outro método de detecção de SC, pois esse marcador se liga a um agente de fase aguda (lactoferrina) perto do foco ativo da inflamação, podendo identificar sítios cardíacos e extracardíacos. A combinação da 67Ga com CPM aumenta a sensibilidade e a acurácia diagnóstica da SC, corroborando sua etiologia inflamatória.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Atualmente a ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) é considerada uma das grandes modalidades diagnósticas nas cardiomiopatias isquêmica e não isquêmica, devido à sua capacidade de caracterização do miocárdio com alta resolução de imagem. Na SC suspeita, as imagens de RMC permitem visualizar não apenas anatomia e função, mas também edema miocárdico, necrose e presença de cicatriz fibrótica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Assim como no ECO, permite observar alterações segmentares de padrão não coronariano, afilamento septal, espessamento e aneurisma ventricular. Em uma fase mais aguda, detecta-se a presença de edema miocárdico observado no aumento de sinal na modalidade de mapa T2 e presença de inflamação com o realce miocárdio após 3 a 5 min da administração do gadolínio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Na fase mais tardia, a modalidade de imagem que mais se destaca, sendo ponto-chave no diagnóstico, é o realce tardio com gadolínio (RTG), representando áreas de necrose tecidual com substituição por tecido fibrótico. Tipicamente o RTG envolve segmentos basais do VE e a região septal do VD, mas qualquer região do coração pode ser afetada. É frequentemente distribuído de forma irregular com padrão não isquêmico, sendo limitado ou preservando na maioria das vezes a região subendocárdica e mesocárdio médio, no entanto, padrões transmurais ou até acometimento de parede livre de VD são possíveis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> podendo inclusive mimetizar outras cardiomiopatias (isquêmica, chagásica, por exemplo). O “sinal do gancho ou do abraço” com presença de RTG contínuo do septo e toda parede livre de VD é um importante marcador de imagem na SC, porém padrão idêntico por ser visto na miocardite de células gigantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Outras utilidades da RMC são a capacidade de aumentar a sensibilidade da biópsia endomiocárdica identificando as áreas de maior probabilidade de tecido acometido e seu valor prognóstico, sendo o RTG um importante fator de risco para eventos fatais, assim como no acompanhamento da resposta ao tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Entre os exames de imagem com maior sensibilidade e especificidade para SC, destaca-se a tomografia por emissão de pósitrons com 18F-Fluorodesoxiglicose (18F-FDG PET/CT). Seu racional baseia-se na atividade inflamatória das células nos granulomas da sarcoidose que se apresentam com uma alta avidez por glicose e seus análogos, levando a um aumento de sinal naquela região<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> que, combinado ao PET de corpo inteiro, permite identificar atividade de doença extracardíaca e avaliar a perfusão cardíaca por meio dos seus respectivos traçadores. Dependendo da fase da doença, os achados podem variar de pura inflamação apenas com captação do 18F-FDG ou apenas defeito de perfusão no caso de cicatriz terminal ou SC tratada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> O ponto crítico do exame que sugere uma área ativa de SC é a sobreposição de um “ponto quente” de uma ou mais áreas de captação do 18F-FDG com a presença de defeito de perfusão, considerado um achado característico de SC (padrão de mismatch). Os defeitos de perfusão resultam da cicatrização do ventrículo ou do acometimento reversível da microcirculação. Miocárdio hibernante, outras formas de miocardite, doenças reumatológicas com envolvimento cardíaco, e algumas cardiomiopatias genéticas também podem causar absorção anormal de 18F-FDG. A ausência de captação extracardíaca diminui a especificidade da PET para CS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Novos estudos mostram que a análise simultânea de RMC e FDG/PET aumenta a sensibilidade no diagnóstico de SC e leva a uma menor taxa de falsos positivos, tendo um efeito sinérgico, permitindo detectar pacientes em estágios pré-clínicos precocemente e guiando tratamento, em que o início da imunossupressão pode ser mais benéfico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> É importante lembrar, que em pacientes já em uso de imunossupressores ou em fase de remissão espontânea da SC, um PET negativo para inflamação não exclui seu diagnóstico.</p>
			<p>A biópsia endomiocárdica é considerada o padrão-ouro para o diagnóstico de sarcoidose cardíaca, cujos marcos histológicos são granulomas não necróticos (caseosos) e células gigantes (epitelioides) isoladas com ou sem infiltração linfocítica/granulocítica circundante combinada com fibrose miocárdica, e sem eosinofilia extensa ou necrose de miócitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> No entanto, como o envolvimento do coração é geralmente focal e irregular, ela tem uma sensibilidade muito baixa, sendo positiva em apenas 20% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Embora haja relatos de sensibilidade superior à relatada quando as biópsias são realizadas sob direcionamento por outro exame de imagem, muitos centros preferem a biópsia extracardíaca (quando possível) com argumentos de melhor sensibilidade e segurança.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Cabe ressaltar que o achado de granuloma não caseoso, bem como infiltração de linfócitos e acúmulo de macrófagos também encontrados na sarcoidose cardíaca, pode estar implicado em doenças infecciosas, ocupacionais, tóxicas, neoplásica, vasculites e até mesmo na miocardite de células gigantes ou miocardiopatia dilatada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
			<p>O diagnóstico de SC requer uma combinação de modalidades clínicas, histológicas e de imagem. Até o momento, os dois critérios diagnósticos mais usados para SC foram publicados pela Sociedade Japonesa de Sarcoidose e outras doenças granulomatosas (adaptado em 2019 - <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>) e a Heart Rhythm Society (HRS – publicado em 2014).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> No entanto, essas diretrizes foram baseadas principalmente em consenso de especialistas e lhes falta validação de estudos prospectivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> A mais recente recomendação brasileira sobre o tema, publicada em 2022, acompanha a última recomendação da sociedade japonesa (2019) para diagnóstico de sarcoidose cardíaca, seja ela acompanhada ou não de lesão sarcoide extracardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1002">
					<label>Tabela 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Japanese Society of Sarcoidosis (2017). Recomendações da SJC para o diagnóstico da sarcoidose cardíaca. Critérios para envolvimento cardíaco</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="100%">
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Os achados cardíacos devem ser avaliados com base nos critérios maiores e nos menores. Achados clínicos que satisfazem os seguintes 1) ou 2) sugerem fortemente a presença de comprometimento cardíaco.</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>1. Dois ou mais dos cinco principais (a) e (e) são atendidos.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>2. Um dos cinco critérios principais (a) e (e) somados a dois ou mais critérios menores (f) a (h) são atendidos.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Critérios maiores</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>a. Bloqueio atrioventricular de alto grau (incluindo bloqueio atrioventricular completo) ou arritmia ventricular fatal (p. ex., taquicardia ventricular sustentada e fibrilação ventricular)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>b. Afilamento basal do septo ventricular ou anatomia anormal da parede ventricular (aneurisma ventricular, afinamento do septo ventricular superior ou médio, espessamento da parede ventricular regional)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>c. Disfunção contrátil do ventrículo esquerdo (fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo inferior a 50% ou alteração de contratilidade segmentar)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>d. Cintilografia com citrato 67Ga ou PET 18F-FDG revela acúmulo anormalmente alto de marcadores no coração</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>e. A RM com gadolínio revela atraso no contraste do miocárdio</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Critérios menores</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>f. Achados anormais de ECG: arritmias ventriculares (taquicardia ventricular não sustentada, multifocais ou frequentes contrações ventriculares prematuras), desvio do eixo ou ondas Q anormais</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>g. Defeitos de perfusão na cintilografia de perfusão miocárdica</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>h. Biópsia endomiocárdica: infiltração de monócitos e fibrose intersticial miocárdica moderada ou grave.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Diretrizes para o diagnóstico de sarcoidose cardíaca</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>1. Grupo de diagnóstico histológico (aqueles com achados positivos na biópsia do miocárdio): a sarcoidose cardíaca é diagnosticada histologicamente quando a biópsia endomiocárdica ou as amostras cirúrgicas demonstram granulomas não caseosos.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>2. Grupo de diagnóstico clínico (aquele com achados negativos da biópsia do miocárdio ou aqueles que não foram submetidos à biópsia do miocárdio): o paciente é diagnosticado clinicamente como sarcoidose cardíaca (1) quando granulomas não caseosos são encontrados em outros órgãos que não o coração, e achados clínicos fortemente sugestivos de comprometimento cardíaco anteriormente mencionado estão presentes; ou (2) quando o paciente demonstra no quadro clínico achados fortemente sugestivos de sarcoidose pulmonar ou oftálmica; pelo menos dois dos cinco achados característicos laboratoriais de sarcoidose (linfadenopatia hilar bilateral, atividade sérica alta de ECA ou níveis séricos elevados de lisozima, sIL-2R sério alto, acúmulo significativo de marcadores na cintilografia com citrato 67Ga ou PET 18F-FDG, alta porcentagem de linfócitos CD4/CD8, razão &gt;3,5 no líquido do LBA). Os achados de imagem sugerem fortemente o envolvimento cardíaco anteriormente mencionado.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Diretrizes de diagnóstico para sarcoidose cardíaca isolada</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Pré-requisitos</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>1. Não serem observadas características clínicas da sarcoidose em outros órgãos além do coração (o paciente deve ser examinado detalhadamente para avaliar envolvimentos respiratórios, oftalmológicos e cutâneos de sarcoidose. Quando o paciente é sintomático, outras etiologias que podem afetar os órgãos correspondentes devem ser descartadas.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>2. A cintilografia com 67Ga ou o PET 18F-FDG não revela acúmulo anormal de marcadores em nenhum outro órgão que não o coração.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>3. A tomografia computadorizada do tórax não demonstra nos pulmões ou linfadenopatia hilar e mediastinal (eixo menor &gt;10 mm).</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Grupo de diagnóstico histológico</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>1. A sarcoidose cardíaca isolada é diagnosticada histologicamente quando a biópsia endomiocárdica ou as amostras cirúrgicas demonstram granuloma não caseoso.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Grupo de diagnóstico clínico</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>1. A sarcoidose cardíaca isolada é diagnosticada clinicamente quando o critério (d) e pelo menos três outros critérios maiores (a) e (e) são satisfeitos. Quando o paciente atende a pelo menos quatro critérios de envolvimento cardíaco que não incluam o critério (d) ou quando o paciente atende os critérios (b) e (d) mais um dos critérios restantes, suspeita-se que o paciente tenha sarcoidose cardíaca isolada.</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1002">
							<p>ECA: enzima conversora de angiotensina; ECG: eletrocardiograma; LBA: lavado broncoalveolar; PET 18F-FDG: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons 18F-fluorodesoxiglicose; RM: ressonância magnética. Adaptada de Terasaki et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref>
							</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Apesar de convergirem no conceito de que a biópsia endomiocárdica é o método mais preciso para o diagnóstico, outras ferramentas de diagnóstico secundárias podem auxiliar no diagnóstico e permitir avaliação não ou minimamente invasiva para o diagnóstico de sarcoidose cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Nesse sentido, ganham especial relevância os achados de cintilografia miocárdica, RMC e PET-CT com 18F-FDG. Aliás, a aplicação simultânea da RMC com o PET-CT já vem sendo estudada com boa acurácia diagnóstica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Ainda que os avanços dos métodos de imagem tenham permitido uma nova forma de estabelecer o diagnóstico da SC – dispensando algumas vezes a biópsia endomiocárdica (padrão-ouro), a suspeição clínica mais acurada ainda se faz muito necessária, uma vez que o raciocínio diagnóstico parte desta para a confirmação diagnóstica com exames complementares. Nesse sentido, programas de reconhecimento e protocolos de triagem são essenciais para atingir o desejado diagnóstico precoce, permitindo assim o tratamento oportuno desta condição antes que se torne fatal (principalmente devido a morte arrítmica).</p>
			<p>É mais fácil e deve ser lembrado que a suspeita diagnóstica deve sempre surgir em pacientes com a doença extracardíaca que apresente sinais e sintomas cardíacos. De outro modo, é prudente considerar indicativo para pesquisa o achado de bloqueio atrioventricular (BAV) 2º ou 3º grau inexplicáveis, arritmias ventriculares sustentadas ou a presença de insuficiência cardíaca com disfunção ventricular, descartada cardiopatia isquêmica ou chagásica.</p>
			<p>Na opinião dos autores, não há como realizar um diagnóstico de SC sem uma abordagem multimodal. Talvez, com a adoção de <italic>red-flags</italic>, como as propostas neste artigo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">Tabela 2</xref>), associada a um exame de imagem sugestivo e uma prova de inflamação miocárdica ativa, possamos fazer mais diagnósticos, sem a necessidade de análises histopatológicas endomiocárdicas, que estão muito pouco disponíveis em nosso meio.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2002">
					<label>Tabela 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– “Red flags” da sarcoidose cardíaca</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="100%">
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="left">“Red flags” da sarcoidose cardíaca</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Apresentação clínica</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Morte súbita cardíaca</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Apresentação sugestiva de taquicardiomiopatia</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>ECG/ Holter 24H</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>BAV de 2º e/ou 3º grau</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Q patológicas sem doença isquêmica</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Arritmias ventriculares frequentes e/ou polimórficas</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Alternância (Holter) de BAV avançado com arritmias ventriculares frequentes</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Ecocardiograma</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Afilamento da região basal do septo interventricular</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Aneurisma septal</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Alteração contrátil segmentar de padrão não-coronariano</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>CPM/67Ga</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Padrão de distribuição reversa (captação no repouso)</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Captação com gálio de áreas ativas</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Ressonância magnética cardíaca</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Edema miocárdico (mapa T2) ou realce tardio com gadolínio em regiões basais de VE e septal de VD preservando região subendocárdica</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>“Hug sign” no VD (realce contínuo na parede livre e septo de VD)</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Realce tardio transmural, excluindo doença isquêmica ou cardiopatia chagásica</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>18F-FDG PET/CT</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>“Padrão de mismatch” e captação extracardíaca associada</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td><bold>Sinais extra-cardíacos</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>
									<list list-type="bullet">
										<list-item>
											<p>Lesões granulomatosas extracardíacas</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2002">
							<p>BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VD: ventrículo direito; ECG: eletrocardiograma.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Sabemos que os camaleões são mais fáceis de ser encontrados à noite, quando perdem a capacidade de se camuflar. Quem sabe esse seja o motivo de não encontramos tanto essa cardiomiopatia camaleônica: o fato de estarmos no escuro, precisando iluminar nossos critérios diagnósticos e afastar os diagnósticos diferenciais que ela mimetiza tão bem.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f01002">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Fluxograma diagnóstico de sarcoidose cardíaca; Diretriz Brasileira de Miocardites e Pericardites; Montera et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; TC: tomografia computadorizada; PET 18F-FDG: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons 18F-fluorodesoxiglicose.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230027-gf01-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label/>
					<p>Vinculação acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label/>
					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>