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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230025</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Viewpoint</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer Immunotherapy and CAR-T Cell–Related Myocarditis</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3453-8488</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Macedo</surname>
						<given-names>Ariane Vieira Scarlatelli</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5969-8226</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Grippa</surname>
						<given-names>Aurea</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0712-2604</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Luz</surname>
						<given-names>Katia Regina Medeiros</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-9955-5074</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Nunes</surname>
						<given-names>Nathalia Coelho de Castro</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0894-1131</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mangini</surname>
						<given-names>Sandrigo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>6</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ciências Médicas</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ciências Médicas da Santa Casa de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">UFF</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro, UFF, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Complexo Hospitalar de Niterói</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">DASA</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niterói, DASA, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Coração do Brasil</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Rede D’or</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Brasília</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital do Coração do Brasil, Rede D’or, Brasília, DF – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5">
				<label>5</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Clínicas</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff6">
				<label>6</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Ariane Vieira Scarlatelli Macedo • Faculdade de Ciências Médicas da Santa Casa de São Paulo – Departamento de Medicina – R. Jaguaribe, 155. Postal Code 01224-001, Vila Buarque, São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>arianevsm@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>20</day>
				<month>07</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>07</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>3</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230025</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>13</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>14</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>14</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Immunotherapy</kwd>
				<kwd>Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors</kwd>
				<kwd>Adoptive Immunotherapy</kwd>
				<kwd>Myocarditis</kwd>
				<kwd>Neoplasms</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="4"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="15"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>Modern cancer immunotherapy has revolutionized oncology, and its indications have expanded rapidly. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) activate the immune system, and they include monoclonal antibodies that block cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4), programmed death receptor 1 (PD-1) and programmed death ligand-1, or lymphocyte activation gene 3, which act as “brakes” in the activation of T cells and immune cells. Responses are generally long-lasting and are optimized by combination therapy. However, the toxicities of these agents are caused by disruption of T-cell immune tolerance, manifesting as autoimmune events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> More recently, chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T cell) therapies have emerged as an innovative immunological treatment for patients suffering from advanced and refractory oncohematological neoplasms. Infusion of modified T cells, exposing chimeric receptors on the cell surface, leads to an immune response against tumor cells.</p>
		<sec>
			<title>Immune checkpoint inhibitors</title>
			<p>The incidence of myocarditis in patients using ICI is low, around 1%. However, several series describe mortality between 30% and 40%. This is the primary reason that every effort is made for myocardial protection and early identification of signs of inflammatory response onset, in addition to understanding of T cell and macrophage stimulation and cytokine production.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The onset of the lesion is most frequently observed observed early after the first dose of immunotherapy with a median time to onset of 30 days, with an average resolution of 90 to 120 days.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Patients over 60 years of age are the most affected in the majority of series.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Patients with suspected ICI-associated myocarditis may develop from asymptomatic conditions with increased biomarkers to severe presentations including cardiogenic shock, ventricular arrhythmias, and sudden death. Dyspnea and asthenia are the most common complaints related to ICI-associated myocarditis; chest pain may also occur.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The combination of ICI appears to be an important risk factor compared to monotherapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			<p>For the diagnosis of ICI-associated myocarditis, electrocardiogram (ECG) and troponin are initial methods. Although it does not demonstrate a specific pattern, ECG is altered in approximately 90% of the cases. The presentation of arrhythmias after the initiation of ICI is highly suggestive and may include atrial and ventricular arrhythmias and atrioventricular blocks. Troponin is the most relevant biomarker in this context, and it has already been shown that its admission, peak, and discharge values are predictive of major events. Even in patients with a favorable course, troponin can remain elevated for weeks or months after the beginning of immunosuppressive therapy, which can be explained by the long half-life of ICI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Due to the frequent association with myositis (30%), creatine phosphokinase test should be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Likewise, the natriuretic peptides BNP and NT-proBNP (myocardial stress markers) may increase, and they have prognostic value when they remain at high levels in spite of treatment. The echocardiogram provides important information, especially regarding ventricular function. Nonetheless, half of patients may have normal ventricular function; accordingly, the use of more refined techniques, such as global longitudinal strain assessment, seems to add additional information for diagnosis and prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) is the most used non-invasive technique for diagnosis of myocarditis, applying the modified Lake Louise criteria, including delayed enhancement techniques and T1 and T2 parametric maps; however, despite its high specificity, it has low sensitivity, with delayed enhancement being present in only 48% of cases, making it impossible to rule out diagnosis with a negative test.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Based on these limitations of non-invasive methods, endomyocardial biopsy plays an important role in confirming the diagnosis and should be considered in patients with suspected myocarditis due to ICI, especially when non-invasive tests do not establish the diagnosis; the infiltrate pattern involves lymphocytes (CD3) and macrophages (CD68) and, when there is a high degree (above 50 cells/field), it has a prognostic role, suggesting a fulminant pattern<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Clinical and imaging findings for diagnosing ICI-associated myocarditis</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="50%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>Chest pain</td>
								<td>14% to 37%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Dyspnea/fatigue</td>
								<td>71% to 76%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Myasthenic-like syndrome</td>
								<td>11% to 30%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Altered ECG</td>
								<td>46% to 89%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Ventricular arrhythmia</td>
								<td>&lt; 27%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Supraventricular arrhythmia</td>
								<td>&lt; 30%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Conduction disorders</td>
								<td>&lt; 17%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Cardiac arrest</td>
								<td>7% to 9%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Increased troponin</td>
								<td>46% to 94%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Increased natriuretic peptides</td>
								<td>65% to 100%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Cardiac magnetic resonance</td>
								<td> </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Delayed enhancement</td>
								<td>23% to 48%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>T2 mapping</td>
								<td>26%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Echocardiogram</td>
								<td> </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Reduced LVEF</td>
								<td>49% to 50%</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Myositis</td>
								<td>23% to 30%</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>ECG: electrocardiogram; ICI: immune checkpoint inhibitors; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction. Adapted from Lehmann et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref>
							</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f01">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Flowchart for monitoring, diagnosing, and treating ICI-associated myocarditis. CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; ECG: electrocardiogram; EMB: endomyocardial biopsy; HF: heart failure ICI: immune checkpoint inhibitors; IV: intravenous. Adapted from Stein-Merlob et al.1</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230025-gf01.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Treatment of myocarditis has been extrapolated from therapies for noncardiac toxicities associated with ICI, including cessation of ICI, supportive care, and corticosteroid therapy. Adverse events related to the immune system are usually treated with prednisone. In the case of myocarditis, higher doses of steroids (for example, intravenous methylprednisolone 1 g) have been advocated. In addition to corticosteroids, other immunosuppressive therapies primarily targeting T lymphocytes have been tested for ICI-related myocarditis in a small number of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> These therapies have included abatacept and Janus kinase inhibitors (tofacitinib and ruxolitinib). Nonetheless, it is understood that not all cases of ICI-associated myocarditis are similar, and there is a subgroup that does not require aggressive treatment. There are studies of prospective cohorts in patients with suspected myocarditis, based on asymptomatic increases in troponin and confirmed by endomyocardial biopsy, who did not receive or require initiation of immunosuppressive therapies and in some cases remained on immunotherapy with good clinical evolution.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> These cases further highlight the clinical heterogeneity of ICI-associated myocarditis and the critical importance of establishing criteria to guide treatment. Furthermore, potential tumor growth after aggressive immunosuppression must be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> The main challenge is re-exposure. There are still no robust data to support this decision, and conduct must be individualized. It is recommended to consider, together with the oncologist, the therapeutic options available to the patient and the severity of the event that occurred.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>CAR-T cell</title>
			<p>Clinical trials of CAR-T cell therapy have reported low rates of cardiotoxicity, possibly due to patient selection. However, subsequent retrospective cohort studies have observed major adverse cardiovascular events in 10% to 20% of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Cardiac injury associated with CAR-T cell therapy is associated with the development of cytokine release syndrome (CRS), and the signs and symptoms of cardiotoxicity include hypotension, tachycardia, arrhythmias (including atrial, ventricular, and prolonged QT), and symptoms of heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Because patients with CRS grade ≥ 2 are more likely to develop cardiotoxicity, a general approach to managing CRS is applied with additional specific cardiac interventions as needed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> In addition to intravenous fluids, vasopressors, and oxygen supplementation as needed, the IL-6 antagonist tocilizumab should be considered for moderate to severe CRS. Repeated doses of these agents may be necessary, and steroids are recommended in cases that are refractory to IL-6 antagonists. Additionally, patients with grade 3 or 4 CRS should be transferred to intensive care for continued monitoring, control of arrhythmias and circulatory shock, and non-invasive positive pressure or mechanical ventilation as needed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref> displays a flowchart of surveillance and treatment for CAR-T cell–related cardiotoxicity.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f02">
					<label>Figure 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Flowchart for monitoring and treating CAR-T cell–associated cardiotoxicity. ECG: electrocardiogram; ECHO: echocardiogram; CRS: Cytokine release syndrome. Adapted from Camilli et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref>
						</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230025-gf02.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>The cardiac immune microenvironment is modified throughout cancer therapy, especially when using ICI/CAR-T cell therapy, proving to be more prone to disordered stimulation of T cells and macrophages. Thus, myocardial infiltration with lymphocytes and cytokines occurs. Questions regarding individual genetic predisposition remain an object of study and show a promising field in better understanding the predisposition and protection of patients undergoing immunotherapy.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
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					<subject>Ponto de Vista</subject>
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				<article-title>Avanços no Diagnóstico e Tratamento das Miocardites Ligadas à Imunoterapia do Câncer e a CAR-T Cell</article-title>
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					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
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					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
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					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0712-2604</contrib-id>
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				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ciências Médicas da Santa Casa de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro, UFF, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niterói, DASA, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital do Coração do Brasil, Rede D’or, Brasília, DF – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5002">
				<label>5</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff6002">
				<label>6</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"> Correspondência: Ariane Vieira Scarlatelli Macedo • Faculdade de Ciências Médicas da Santa Casa de São Paulo – Departamento de Medicina – R. Jaguaribe, 155. CEP 01224-001, Vila Buarque, São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: arianevsm@yahoo.com.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Imunoterapia</kwd>
				<kwd>Inibidores de Checkpoint Imunológico</kwd>
				<kwd>Imunoterapia Adotiva</kwd>
				<kwd>Miocardite</kwd>
				<kwd>Neoplasias</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>A imunoterapia moderna contra o câncer revolucionou a oncologia e suas indicações se expandiram rapidamente. Os inibidores de checkpoint imunológico (ICI) ativam o sistema imunológico e incluem anticorpos monoclonais que bloqueiam o antígeno-4 do linfócito T citotóxico (CTLA-4), o receptor de morte programada 1 (PD-1) e o ligante de morte programada-1, ou o gene 3 de ativação de linfócitos, que agem como “freios” na ativação de células T e células imunes. As respostas geralmente são duráveis e são otimizadas por terapia combinada. No entanto, as toxicidades desses agentes são causadas pela interrupção da tolerância imunológica das células T, manifestando-se como eventos autoimunes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>Mais recentemente, as terapias com células T do receptor de antígeno quimérico (CAR-T cell) surgiram como um tratamento imunológico inovador para pacientes que sofrem de neoplasias onco-hematológicas avançadas e refratárias. A infusão de células T modificadas, expondo receptores quiméricos na superfície celular, leva a uma resposta imune contra as células tumorais.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Inibidores de checkpoint imunológico</title>
				<p>A incidência de miocardite nos pacientes em uso de ICI é baixa, cerca de 1%. Entretanto, diversas séries descrevem a mortalidade entre 30% e 40%, sendo este o cerne de todo esforço para a proteção miocárdica e identificação precoce dos sinais de instalação de resposta inflamatória, compreensão da estimulação das células T e macrófagos, e produção de citocinas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Observa-se a instalação da lesão precocemente após a primeira dose de imunoterapia com um período médio de instalação de 30 dias com resolução média em 90 a 120 dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Os pacientes acima dos 60 anos são os mais acometidos na maioria das séries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Pacientes com suspeita de miocardite associada a ICI podem desenvolver desde quadros assintomáticos com elevação de biomarcadores até apresentações graves incluindo choque cardiogênico, arritmias ventriculares e morte súbita. Dispneia e astenia são as queixas mais comuns relacionadas à miocardite associada a ICI; dor torácica também pode ocorrer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A combinação de ICIs parece ser um importante fator de risco em comparação à monoterapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Para o diagnóstico da miocardite associada a ICI, o eletrocardiograma (ECG) e a troponina são métodos iniciais. Apesar de não demonstrar um padrão específico, o ECG está alterado em quase 90% dos casos e a apresentação de arritmias após início do ICI é altamente sugestiva, podendo incluir arritmias atriais, ventriculares e bloqueios atrioventriculares. A troponina é o biomarcador mais relevante neste contexto, já tendo sido demonstrado que seus valores na admissão, pico e alta são preditivos de eventos maiores. Mesmo em pacientes com curso favorável, a troponina pode permanecer elevada por semanas ou meses após o início da terapia imunossupressora, o que pode ser explicado pela meia vida longa dos ICIs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Pela frequente associação de miosite (30%), a pesquisa de creatinofosfoquinase (CPK) deve ser considerada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Da mesma forma, os peptídeos natriuréticos, BNP e NT-proBNP (marcadores de estresse miocárdico), podem aumentar e apresentam valor prognóstico quando mantidos em níveis elevados, a despeito do tratamento. O ecocardiograma fornece informação importante, especialmente em relação à função ventricular. No entanto, metade dos pacientes pode apresentar função ventricular normal; neste sentido, a utilização de técnicas mais refinadas, como a avaliação do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global parece agregar informação adicional para o diagnóstico e prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> A ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) é a técnica não-invasiva mais utilizada para o diagnóstico de miocardite, através dos critérios de Lake Louise modificados, incluindo as técnicas de realce tardio e mapas paramétricos T1 e T2; no entanto, apesar de elevada especificidade, apresenta baixa sensibilidade, estando o realce tardio presente em apenas 48% dos casos, não sendo possível afastar o diagnóstico com exame negativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Com base nesse cenário de limitação dos métodos não-invasivos, a biópsia endomiocárdica apresenta papel de destaque para confirmação do diagnóstico e deve ser considerada nos pacientes com suspeita de miocardite por ICI, especialmente quando os exames não-invasivos não estabelecem o diagnóstico; o padrão de infiltrado envolve linfócitos (CD3) e macrófagos (CD68) e, quando presentes em alto grau (acima de 50 células/campo), apresenta papel prognóstico, sugerindo padrão fulminante<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1002">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Achados clínicos e de imagem para diagnóstico de miocardite associada a ICI</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Dor torácica</td>
									<td>14% a 37%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Dispneia / fadiga</td>
									<td>71% a 76%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Síndrome miastênica <italic>like</italic></td>
									<td>11% a 30%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>ECG alterado</td>
									<td>46% a 89%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Arritmia ventricular</td>
									<td>&lt; 27%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Arritmia supraventricular</td>
									<td>&lt; 30%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Distúrbios de condução</td>
									<td>&lt; 17%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Parada cardíaca</td>
									<td>7% a 9%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Troponina aumentada</td>
									<td>46% a 94%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Peptídeos natriuréticos aumentados</td>
									<td>65% a 100%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Ressonância magnética cardíaca</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Realce tardio</td>
									<td>23% a 48%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Mapa T2</td>
									<td>26%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Ecocardiograma</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Redução da FEVE</td>
									<td>49% a 50%</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Miosite</td>
									<td>23% a 30%</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1002">
								<p>ECG: eletrocardiograma; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; ICI: inibidores de checkpoint imunológico. Adaptado de Lehmann et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref>
								</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Fluxograma de vigilância, diagnóstico e tratamento da miocardite associada a ICI. BEM: biopsia endomiocárdica; ECG: eletrocardiograma; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; ICI: inibidores de checkpoint imunológico; IV: intravenoso; RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca; VO: via oral. Adapatado de Stein-Merlob et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
							</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230025-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>O tratamento da miocardite foi extrapolado das terapias para toxicidades não cardíacas associadas a ICI, incluindo a cessação da ICI, tratamento de suporte e terapia com corticosteroides. Os eventos adversos relacionados ao sistema imunológico são tratados, usualmente com prednisona. No caso de miocardite, doses mais altas de esteróides (por exemplo, metilprednisolona intravenosa 1 g) têm sido defendidas. Além dos corticosteróides, outras terapias imunossupressoras visando principalmente os linfócitos T foram testadas para miocardite associada a ICI em um pequeno número de pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Essas terapias incluíram abatacept e inibidores da Janus quinase (tofacitinibe e ruxolitinibe). Entretanto, há o entendimento de que nem todas as miocardites por ICI podem ser semelhantes e há um subgrupo que não necessita de tratamento agressivo. Há estudos de coortes prospectivas em pacientes com suspeita de miocardite com base em aumentos assintomáticos de troponina e confirmada em biópsias endomiocárdicas que não receberam ou exigiram o início de terapias imunossupressoras com boa evolução clínica e em alguns casos mantiveram a imunoterapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Esses casos destacam ainda mais a heterogeneidade clínica da miocardite por ICI e a importância crítica de estabelecer critérios para orientar o tratamento. Além disso, deve-se considerar o potencial crescimento tumoral após imunossupressão agressiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> O principal desafio consiste na reexposição. Ainda não existem dados robustos que suportem essa decisão, devendo a conduta ser individualizada. Recomenda-se levar em consideração, juntamente com o oncologista, as opções terapêuticas disponíveis para o paciente e a gravidade do evento ocorrido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>CAR-T cell</title>
				<p>Ensaios clínicos de terapia com células CAR-T relataram baixas taxas de cardiotoxicidade, possivelmente devido à seleção de pacientes. No entanto, estudos de coorte retrospectivos subsequentes observaram eventos cardiovasculares adversos maiores em 10% a 20% dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A lesão cardíaca associada à terapia CAR-T cell apresenta uma associação com o desenvolvimento de síndrome de liberação de citocinas (SLC) e dentre os sinais e sintomas de cardiotoxicidade podemos destacar a hipotensão, taquicardia, arritmias (incluindo atriais, ventriculares e QT prolongado) e sintomas de insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Como os pacientes com SLC de grau ≥ 2 têm maior probabilidade de desenvolver cardiotoxicidade, uma abordagem geral para o manejo da SLC é usada com intervenções cardíacas específicas adicionais conforme necessário.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Além de fluidos intravenosos, vasopressores e suplementação de oxigênio conforme necessário, o antagonista de IL-6 tocilizumabe deve ser considerado para SLC moderada a grave. Doses repetidas desses agentes podem ser necessárias, e esteroides são recomendados em casos refratários aos antagonistas de IL-6. Além disso, pacientes com SLC grau 3 ou 4 devem ser transferidos para terapia intensiva para monitoramento contínuo, controle de arritmias e choque circulatório, e fornecimento de pressão positiva não invasiva ou ventilação mecânica conforme necessário.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref> apresenta um fluxograma de vigilância e tratamento em relação à cardiotoxicidade por CAR-T cell.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02002">
						<label>Figura 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Fluxograma de vigilância e tratamento da cardiotoxicidade por CAR-T cell. ECG: eletrocardiograma; Eco: ecocardiograma; SLC: síndrome de liberação de citocinas. Adaptado de Camilli et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref>
							</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230025-gf02-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>O microambiente imunológico cardíaco modifica-se ao longo da terapêutica para o câncer, especialmente na utilização de ICI/CAR-T cell, mostrando-se mais propenso à estimulação desordenada das células T e macrófagos. Dessa forma, ocasiona-se a infiltração miocárdica com linfócitos e citocinas. Questionamentos acerca da predisposição genética individual mantêm-se como objetivo de estudo e mostram um campo promissor no melhor entendimento da predisposição e proteção dos indivíduos em imunoterapia.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Vinculação acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>