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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &#x26; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20230016</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230016</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Pediatric Cardiomyopathies: Establishing Genotype-Phenotype Relationship as a Determinant in Prognosis and Therapy: A Review of the Literature</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7935-7966</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Torbey</surname><given-names>Ana Flavia Malheiros</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/> <role>Conception</role> <role>design of the research</role> <role>Writing of the manuscript</role> <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5969-8226</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Souza</surname><given-names>Aurea Lucia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref> <role>Conception</role> <role>design of the research</role> <role>Writing of the manuscript</role> <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8963-8622</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Azeka</surname><given-names>Estela</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref> <role>Conception</role> <role>design of the research</role> <role>Writing of the manuscript</role> <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1334-3216</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Spada</surname><given-names>Maraisa Fachini</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>6</sup></xref> <role>Conception</role> <role>design of the research</role> <role>Writing of the manuscript</role> <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#xE1;rio Ant&#xF4;nio Pedro</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento Materno Infantil</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense &#x2013; Hospital Universit&#xE1;rio Ant&#xF4;nio Pedro &#x2013; Departamento Materno Infantil, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#xF3;s Gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Ci&#xEA;ncias Cardiovasculares</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#xF3;s Gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Ci&#xEA;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#xF3;i</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niteroi, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o do Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>5</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo (HC/FMUSP), S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>6</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">NHS Foundation Trust</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Birmingham Women&#x27;s and Children&#x27;s Hospitals</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Birmingham</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="GB">United Kingdom</country>
<institution content-type="original">Birmingham Women&#x27;s and Children&#x27;s Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham &#x2013; United Kingdom</institution></aff></contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Ana Flavia Malheiros Torbey</bold> &#x2022; Universidade Federal Fluminense Hospital Universit&#xE1;rio Ant&#xF4;nio Pedro &#x2013; Departamento Materno Infantil &#x2013; Rua Marques do Paran&#xE1;, 303. Postal Code <postal-code>24033-900</postal-code>, Centro, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brazil. E-mail: <email>anaflaviamalheiros@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn></author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>17</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<volume>3</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e20230016</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>26</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>14</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>14</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2023</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p></license></permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Cardiomyopathies constitute a heterogeneous group of diseases with varying etiologies and clinical presentation. Advances in genetic testing have made it possible to establish genotype-phenotype relationships, determine prognosis, and choose specific treatments in the pediatric population. Therefore, the objective of this review is to assist clinical reasoning and underscore the importance of etiological diagnosis in different disease phenotypes.</p></abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Cardiomyopathies</kwd>
<kwd>Child</kwd>
<kwd>Adolescent</kwd>
<kwd>Diagnosis</kwd>
<kwd>Phenotype</kwd></kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="6"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="66"/></counts></article-meta></front>
<body>
<fig id="f3">
<caption>
<title>The main characteristics of each phenotype of pediatric cardiomyopathy. CMP: cardiomyopathy.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-gf03.tif"/></fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Pediatric cardiomyopathies constitute a heterogeneous group of alterations in the myocardium with different phenotypes and etiologies. Clinical presentation ranges from asymptomatic individuals to children with heart failure, arrhythmias, and sudden death. It is the main indication for heart transplantation after one year of age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>The etiology may involve secondary causes, for example, infectious, inflammatory, or autoimmune diseases or the use of medications (anthracyclines); however, genetic causes play an important role in pediatric cardiomyopathies. Currently, with the wider availability of genetic tests, the establishment of the genotype-phenotype relationship has made it possible to determine prognosis and provide specific therapies for this group of patients, thus modifying the natural history of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Although rare in pediatrics, cardiomyopathies are accompanied by significant morbidity and mortality, requiring specialized attention to this condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Therefore, the objective of this review is to assist clinical reasoning and underscore the importance of seeking etiological diagnosis in different phenotypes of pediatric cardiomyopathy.</p>
<sec>
<title>Epidemiology</title>
<p>Population studies have estimated an incidence of around 1:100,000 cases per year of cardiomyopathy in children and adolescents. These studies were carried out in Europe, North America, and Australia, and there is still a lack of epidemiological data from Brazil and Latin America.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> In children under 1 year of age, the diagnosis of cardiomyopathy is more frequent, with an incidence of 8.3 cases per 100,000 children per year; hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) occurs 3 times more in this age group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>These data may possibly be underestimated, given the impact of pediatric heart failure observed in recent years, cardiomyopathies being a common cause of heart failure, along with congenital heart diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>The main phenotypes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>) in pediatrics are dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and HCM, followed by less frequent phenotypes such as non-compaction cardiomyopathy (NCCM), restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM), and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>The main phenotypes of cardiomyopathies and their characteristics in children and adolescents</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="20%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCB">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Phenotype</th>
<th align="right" valign="middle">Etiology</th>
<th align="right" valign="middle">Clinical findings</th>
<th align="right" valign="middle">Treatment</th>
<th align="right" valign="middle">Prognosis</th></tr></thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Dilated</bold><break/><inline-graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-ingf01.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Genetic mutations</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Inborn errors of metabolism</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Neuromuscular diseases</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Syndromes</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Secondary to viral, autoimmune, and inflammatory diseases and medications</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Asymptomatic</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Signs and symptoms of decompensated heart failure</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Arrhythmias</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Treatment of heart failure</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Mechanical circulatory support devices</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Survival at 5 years is 50% to 60%</p></list-item></list></td></tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E7CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Hypertrophic</bold><break/><inline-graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-ingf02.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Genetic mutations</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Inborn errors of metabolism</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Glycogen storage diseases or glycogen disorders</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Lysosomal storage disorders</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Neuromuscular diseases</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Syndromes</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Asymptomatic</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Progressive heart failure</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Sudden death</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Improve left ventricular outflow tract gradient</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Decrease risk of sudden death</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Surgical reduction of the interventricular septum</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Survival at 5 years is 95% in sarcomeric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with clinical presentation after the first year of life and 40% in inborn errors of metabolism</p></list-item></list></td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Non-compaction</bold><break/><inline-graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-ingf03.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Genetic mutations</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Asymptomatic</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Signs and symptoms of heart failure</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Arrhythmias</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Thromboembolism</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Treatment of heart failure</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Treatment of arrhythmias</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Prevention of thromboembolic events</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Survival at 5 years is around 80%</p></list-item></list></td></tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E7CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Restrictive</bold><break/><inline-graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-ingf04.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><break/>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Genetic mutations</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Errors of metabolism</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Secondary to chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and bone marrow transplantation</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Decompensated heart failure</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Arrhythmia</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Sudden death</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Treatment of arrhythmia</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Decrease the risk of sudden death</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Limited; heart transplant-free survival at 5 years is around 30%</p></list-item></list></td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Arrhythmogenic</bold><break/><inline-graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-ingf05.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Genetic mutations</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Asymptomatic, with abnormal electrocardiogram findings</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Ventricular tachycardia</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Sudden death</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Treatment of arrhythmia</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Decrease the risk of sudden death</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Limited; more than 50% of pediatric patients require a transplant within 5 years</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap>
<p>DCM occurs in approximately 50% of patients and HCM is responsible for just over a third of cases in this age group. The annual incidence of these phenotypes is estimated to be between 0.8 and 1 per 100,000 children.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>NCCM is the third most diagnosed among children and adolescents, followed by RCM and ACM. The incidence of NCCM can range from 5% to 10%, as observed in the Australian Registry, and RCM corresponds to approximately 5% of pediatric cardiomyopathies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>ACM is a very rare disorder in childhood, with an estimated prevalence of 1:2000 to 1:5000 in adults, in most published series; in pediatrics, however, its real incidence is not known, and studies are limited to case series.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>The importance of classification</title>
<p>Used to promote understanding and systematic discussion of diseases, classification systems organize cardiomyopathies into logical groups, which share the same morphology, physiology, and biochemistry, also providing standardization of nomenclature.</p>
<p>Among the current classifications, the following stand out: 1) the American Heart Association classification (2006), which divides cardiomyopathies into primary (solely or predominantly confined to the myocardium) and secondary (part of systemic diseases); 2) the European Society of Cardiology classification (2008), based on ventricular morphology and function, sub-classifying each phenotype into familial (in the presence of more than one affected family member) and non-familiar (idiopathic and acquired); and 3) the MOGES classification endorsed by the World Heart Federation (2013), which stages cardiomyopathy according to the morphofunctional phenotype (M), organ involvement (O), genetic and familial inheritance (G), etiology (E), and functional status (S).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Clinical-diagnostic reasoning in pediatric cardiomyopathies</title>
<p>The clinical presentation of cardiomyopathies in children and adolescents ranges from asymptomatic individuals to patients with symptoms of heart failure, arrhythmias, precordial pain, syncope, and sudden death. They can manifest from the neonatal period until the end of adolescence, which makes diagnosis challenging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
<p>Given that the etiology is highly varied, acquired causes must initially be ruled out. Through personal history, it is possible to identify recent infections that may indicate a condition of myocarditis or even signs and symptoms of autoimmune, inflammatory, and metabolic diseases, directing specific approach and treatments. Past cancer treatment and exposure to cardiotoxic chemotherapy drugs should be investigated. The age of symptom onset is fundamental to investigation of etiology, because infants present with inborn errors of metabolism more frequently than older children.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
<p>Family history is essential, and some patients may be diagnosed early thanks to family history, even in the absence of symptoms, due to family screening. The importance of this early diagnosis is due to the possibility of primary prevention of sudden death, which may be the first and only symptom in some cases. Furthermore, family history of at least three generations with the construction of a pedigree is supported by level of evidence A. Obtaining a pedigree makes it possible to observe the pattern of inheritance (autosomal dominant, recessive, or X-linked) and identify which family members are at risk of being affected by the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>Physical examination should consider alterations beyond the cardiovascular system, since, during childhood, the presence of syndromic causes, inborn errors of metabolism, and neuromuscular diseases are more frequent than in adults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Thus, developmental delay, hypotonia, hepatosplenomegaly, and dysmorphisms can assist in the etiological investigation. A multidisciplinary approach with a pediatrician, pediatric neurologist, clinical geneticist, and pediatric cardiologist is often necessary.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref> displays the sequence of clinical reasoning in pediatric patients with cardiomyopathies.</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Sequence of clinical reasoning in the approach to pediatric cardiomyopathies. CMP: cardiomyopathy; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; ECG: electrocardiogram; Echo: echocardiogram.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-gf01.tif"/></fig>
<p>The dosage of biomarkers assists clinical reasoning. Troponin is generally elevated in inflammatory cardiomyopathies, such as myocarditis, and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and its precursor (NT-proBNP) indicate evolution to heart failure. Higher levels are associated with worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>The morphofunctional phenotype should be determined using available cardiac imaging tools such as electrocardiogram; echocardiogram with color Doppler, tissue Doppler (to assess diastolic dysfunction), and speckle tracking (to assess early systolic dysfunction and subclinical systolic dysfunction); and cardiac magnetic resonance, which characterizes myocardial tissue and detects edema and fibrosis. It is worth noting that the measurements obtained must be expressed in z-scores for proper interpretation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
<p>The search for etiological diagnosis is essential since there are scenarios where specific treatment is available, improving the prognosis. This investigation should be based on the cardiac phenotype and associated systemic changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>When indicating genetic tests, it is important for the patient and the family to receive adequate counseling carried out by a trained professional, who will explain the possible results that can be found and the impact they could have on the lives of patients and family members.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>)</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Possible results during genetic investigation. CMP: cardiomyopathy.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-gf02.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Dilated cardiomyopathy</title>
<p>DCM is defined by the presence of dilation of the cardiac chambers associated with ventricular dysfunction. It can be classified as primary and secondary. The main primary causes are familial/genetic, mitochondrial diseases, and neuromuscular diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Among the genetic causes, genes related to proteins of the sarcomere, cytoskeleton, nuclear membrane, and desmosomes have already been described. Mutations in LMNA, MYH, TNNT2, SCN5A, and TTN are the most related to the phenotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Secondary causes are inflammatory/infectious, toxic, metabolic, storage diseases, nutritional disorders, heart disease, and lung disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>The clinical picture may vary in DCM, from asymptomatic children and adolescents to the presentation of congestive heart failure or cardiogenic shock requiring ventilatory support, as well as short- or long-term mechanical circulatory assistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
<p>For diagnostic investigation, the following are recommended: chest radiography, to assess the degree of cardiomegaly; electrocardiogram, which can reveal the degree of left ventricular overload, presence of arrhythmias, and atrioventricular block; echocardiogram with color Doppler that will confirm the degree of dilation of the ventricular chambers, presence of congenital heart disease, and atrioventricular valve insufficiency. Holter can detect episodes of supraventricular and ventricular tachycardia, as well as atrioventricular blocks. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging assists in the detection of inflammatory processes, edema, and fibrosis and may quantify myocardial impairment and even prognosis when fibrosis is extensive. Tomography angiography assists in the differential diagnosis of anomalous left coronary artery and aortic coarctation when diagnosis is difficult using other imaging methods. Initial laboratory tests in the investigation and evaluation of DCM include evaluation of the exome, electrolytes, BNP, troponin, complete blood count, renal function, hepatic function, thyroid function, and serologies and PCR of cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, Coxsackie A and B, COVID-19, parvovirus-b19, Epstein-Barr, chikungunya, and Chagas. Endomyocardial biopsy is used for diagnostic clarification and is considered the gold standard; however, the patient&#x27;s clinical condition must be evaluated at the moment it is to be performed, as it can lead to deterioration of the clinical condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
<p>Treatment depends on the etiology of the DCM and the attempt to improve the patient&#x27;s symptoms. In general, patients with congestive heart failure require a multidisciplinary team consisting of physicians, a nutritionist, a physiotherapist, a nurse, a psychologist, and a social worker so that they can provide the necessary support for patients, especially when they are hospitalized, as therapy can be long and require titration of medications in order to obtain adequate success in the evolution.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
<p>In relation to evolution and prognosis, the actuarial survival curve reveals that 50% to 60% of patients are free of heart transplantation and/or death at 5 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Therefore, DCM is a pathology that requires early diagnosis and therapeutic intervention to improve survival and quality of life.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</title>
<p>In the pediatric population, HCM is a heterogeneous group, including etiologies such as classic mutations in sarcomere proteins, inborn errors of metabolism, neuromuscular diseases, and syndromes. The diverse etiologies along with age at presentation explain the vast clinical manifestation, from asymptomatic patients to patients with progressive heart failure and sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>In its classic form, which is isolated and not associated with syndromes and other diseases (70% to 75% of cases),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> the main pathogenesis of HCM is due to mutations in sarcomere proteins. The most common inheritance pattern is autosomal dominant with variable penetrance and expressivity. Pathogenic mutations are identified in half of the cases,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> and the majority are missense, resulting in functional loss of the protein. Genes commonly involved in the hypertrophic phenotype encode myofilament proteins and include MYH7, MYBPC3, MYL2, MYL 3, TNNT2, TNNI 3, TPM1, and ACTC1. Recently, similar phenotypes were associated with genes that encode Z-disc proteins and calcium signaling proteins, such as CSRP3, ACTN2, and PLN, thus making the term sarcomeric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy more comprehensive to include these variants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>Non-sarcomeric HCM, also called phenocopies, comprise a group of distinct etiologies, including inborn errors of metabolism, Pompe disease (mutations in the GAA gene), Danon disease (X-linked variant in the LAMP2 gene), PRKAG2 cardiomyopathy (mutations in the PRKAG2 gene), lysosomal storage diseases such as mucopolysaccharidosis (Hurler and Hunter syndromes, both X-linked recessive), Fabry disease (mutations in the GLA gene), neuromuscular diseases such as Friedreich ataxia (mutation in the X25 gene), and syndromic diseases such as Noonan syndrome (mutations in the PTPN11, SOS1, and RAF1 genes and other RASopathies).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
<p>Among other causes of myocardial hypertrophy in childhood, HCM secondary to hyperinsulinism stands out, which occurs in neonates with pancreatic adenoma or children of diabetic mothers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>In the pediatric age group, the classic sarcomeric form of the disease differs from the other forms by affecting the heart alone, without neurological and/or musculoskeletal involvement. The onset of the condition may occur during fetal life, but diagnosis is commonly made in adolescence or early adulthood. Clinical manifestation ranges from completely asymptomatic patients (who are diagnosed during family screening or investigation for other diseases) to patients with heart murmur, precordial pain, palpitations, syncope, and sudden death (aborted or not).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>Left ventricular hypertrophy leads to diastolic dysfunction responsible for left atrial enlargement and predisposes to tachyarrhythmias. In 5% to 10% of patients, chronic ventricular dysfunction, in later stages of the disease, leads to progressive ventricular dilation and systolic dysfunction, changing the phenotype to something morphologically similar to DCM, a phenomenon known as burned-out HCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Classic signs and symptoms of heart failure, although rarely seen in childhood, can thus be a result of disease progression, and should be evaluated in these cases.</p>
<p>Diseases of the microvasculature, with perfusion disorders and reversible myocardial ischemia, and dynamic obstruction of the left ventricular outflow tract are consequences of myocardial hypertrophy, and they explain symptoms such as precordial pain, dyspnea, pre-syncope, and syncope during exertion, mainly during high-intensity physical activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
<p>In patients with other types of HCM, however, the clinical presentation tends to be more expressed in the first year of life, allowing for earlier diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>In Noonan syndrome, for example, half of the patients are diagnosed up to 6 months of age. Characteristics on physical examination, such as facial dysmorphisms and developmental delay, are warning signs for diagnosis of the syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Approximately 70% of patients present HCM that may be accompanied by congenital heart disease, such as supravalvular pulmonary stenosis, mitral valve dysplasia, and interatrial and interventricular communication.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>The clinical manifestation of type II glycogen storage disease, better known as Pompe disease, varies and depends on the age when the condition begins. In infantile Pompe disease, severe myocardial hypertrophy is accompanied by muscle hypotonia and hepatomegaly, which can lead to death in the first year of life if enzyme replacement therapy is not instituted.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
<p>In Danon disease, myocardial hypertrophy is accompanied by intellectual deficit, myopathy, and pre-excitation on electrocardiogram. Rapid disease progression and refractory arrhythmias are common.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>The prognosis of HCM in childhood varies, depending on the age of presentation and disease etiology. In general, the 5-year survival rate of patients with sarcomeric HCM who present after the first year of life is around 95%. On the other hand, early clinical presentation (before one year of age) and inborn errors of metabolism are associated with limited prognosis, and it is estimated that only 40% of patients diagnosed with inborn errors of metabolism will be alive and free of heart transplantation in 5 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Heart failure with systolic dysfunction at diagnosis, observed in patients with Noonan syndrome, for example, is also associated with worse prognosis, with mortality of 20% during the first 12 months of life. Other known risk factors are low weight, abnormal left ventricular shortening fraction, and end-diastolic posterior wall thickness.</p>
<p>The main cause of death in this age group is still heart failure, but the risk of sudden death cannot be ruled out. Identifying pediatric patients at high risk of ventricular tachycardia remains a matter of debate, as specific patterns of arrhythmia related to sudden death have not been well described in childhood. Recently, a European group proposed a risk stratification model for sudden death in patients with non-syndromic HCM phenotype between 1 and 16 years of age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> The parameters associated with an elevated risk of sudden death in 5 years were age, sex, weight, interventricular septal thickness, left atrial diameter, left ventricular outflow tract gradient, non-sustained ventricular tachycardia, and syncope of unknown origin. Subsequently, a group from Canada proposed a similar model and included the presence of a pathogenic or probably pathogenic variant as an important risk factor. Positive genotype almost doubles the risk of sudden death in 5 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
<p>The management of HCM is based on controlling the symptoms, improving the left ventricular outflow tract gradient, and reducing the risk of sudden death.</p>
<p>In the classic non-syndromic form of the disease, beta-blockers are the first line of treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Decreased heart rate promotes greater ventricular filling during diastole and consequently decreases the dynamic obstruction of the outflow. Moreover, it decreases myocardial oxygen demand. In patients with refractory symptoms and disease of the microvasculature, calcium channel blockers can be associated with betablockers, with significant improvement in precordial pain. Competitive sports and explosive exercise should be avoided.</p>
<p>Cardioverter-defibrillator implantation is recommended as primary prevention in patients with a history of tachyarrhythmia or aborted sudden death. In cases of secondary prevention, the indication of cardioverter-defibrillator implantation in the pediatric population is still a matter of debate, and, in general, two or more risk factors would be necessary. Despite recent advances in the recognition of risk factors for sudden death in childhood, there is still a lack of evidence regarding differences between adult and pediatric populations. The following recently published child risk calculator models can assist clinicians in decision-making: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://pimacycalculator.com">https://pimacycalculator.com</ext-link> and <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://hcmriskkids.org">https://hcmriskkids.org</ext-link>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
<p>Surgical reduction of the interventricular septum (myomectomy) has demonstrated a significant decrease in the left ventricular outflow tract gradient, and it also has the benefit of decreasing anterior movement of the mitral valve and mitral regurgitation, promoting significant improvement in symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>In HCM associated with inborn errors of metabolism, specific therapies are available. In Pompe disease, for example, enzyme replacement therapy has been shown to be effective in reducing and even reversing the phenotype, if it presents early onset. In mucopolysaccharidoses, enzyme replacement therapy and bone marrow transplantation are also associated with better prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Non-compaction cardiomyopathy</title>
<p>NCCM is morphologically characterized by a myocardium with trabeculations and deep recesses that communicate with the ventricular cavity. It is most often in the left ventricle, but it also affects the right ventricle. It is believed that a failure in the embryogenesis of compaction of the layers of the myocardium leads to the characteristic phenotype of NCCM. Its etiology is mainly genetic, with alterations found in genes that control functions of the sarcomere, cytoskeleton, and mitochondria. The pattern of inheritance is also diverse (autosomal dominant, X-linked recessive, and mitochondrial).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>In children, NCCM is usually a mixed phenotype, where there is association with other heart diseases, most commonly DCM and HCM and congenital heart diseases, whereas, in adults, the NCCM phenotype is usually isolated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>The clinical presentation follows the associated phenotype; thus, signs of heart failure are more common in patients with DCM, whereas asymptomatic children usually have isolated NCCM. Other clinical findings may include precordial pain, syncope, changes in cardiac auscultation, arrhythmias, and thromboembolism, which occur in any age group, including the fetus, making diagnosis by fetal echocardiography possible.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
<p>There has been much discussion about the differential diagnosis between the presence of physiological trabeculations and NCCM. There are different diagnostic criteria for echocardiography and magnetic resonance, the most accepted being the Jenni criteria for echocardiography and the Petersen criteria for cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; the first determines a ratio between non-compacted and compacted myocardium greater than 2 and the second greater than 2.3. Thus, its morphological diagnosis is often a challenge, and the follow-up of the patient&#x27;s evolution is important to determine the onset of symptoms, differentiating it from a physiological finding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
<p>Therapy should focus on clinical presentation, namely, treatment of heart failure, arrhythmias, and prevention of thromboembolic events. There is currently no specific medical or surgical therapy for NCCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
<p>Genetic investigation is recommended, and it is positive in around 45% of cases. The definition of the etiology provides family screening and risk of recurrence among couples who wish to have other children.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Worse prognosis with risk of death or heart transplantation has been observed in patients younger than one year old, with heart failure or ventricular arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Restrictive cardiomyopathy</title>
<p>RCM is characterized by the non-compliance of the ventricles, most frequently the left ventricle, as they resist diastolic filling, leading to diastolic dysfunction, elevated end-diastolic pressure and dilated atria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
<p>The epidemiology of this pathology is still unclear, but studies indicate that people of all ages can be affected, and children have worse prognosis. Among this group, female children seem to be more affected. The etiology of RCM is variable. It can be genetic, with involvement of sarcomeric or non-sarcomeric genes, or secondary, caused either by systemic diseases such as amyloidosis and endocardial fibroelastosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
<p>RCM can be classified as infiltrative, non-infiltrative, storage disease, and endomyocardial disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
<p>As the ventricles are not dilated and the ventricular thickness is normal, systolic function is preserved in the early stages of the disease, in most cases, and may be reduced in more advanced stages.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
<p>The clinical presentation consists of symptoms that rapidly progress to heart failure, arrhythmia, syncope, and sudden death. The prognosis is limited, and pediatric patients are quickly referred for heart transplantation. It is the cardiomyopathy with the worst prognosis in childhood, where 2 out of 3 children are candidates for heart transplantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy</title>
<p>ACM describes a heterogeneous group, and the complex of genetic and inflammatory disorders are manifested by atrial and/or ventricular arrhythmias, often of a malignant nature, mainly in early childhood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Classically, the most common form is arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy; however, the phenotype with predominance of the left ventricle has recently been described.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
<p>Among the genetic causes, alterations in the proteins that encode the cardiac desmosome stand out, and the main genes affected are PKP2, DSP, DSG2, DSP, and JUP. Genetic inheritance is normally autosomal dominant with variable penetrance. Age at presentation and sex seem to have a direct influence, with reduced penetrance in younger patients and a higher incidence in male patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recently, a phenotype that simulates myocarditis has been described, characterized by precordial pain, increased troponin, and changes in cardiac resonance with the presence of delayed enhancement. It is called the hot phase, and its diagnosis should be considered in families with frequent cases of myocarditis. This clinical presentation has a strong genotype-phenotype correlation with the DSP gene.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
<p>Diagnosis is made by a combination of criteria based on scientific evidence proposed by the Task Force Working Group of the European Society of Cardiology, including changes in the size and function of the right ventricle confirmed by imaging, presence of fibrosis on myocardial biopsy, alterations on the electrocardiogram (including repolarization disorders, bundle branch block, arrhythmias, frequent extrasystoles), and family history.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
<p>Drug treatment with the use of beta-blockers and other antiarrhythmics has been shown to be fundamental to reduce the risk of cardiac arrest and also for the treatment of heart failure. The use of diuretics and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors can also help control symptoms of heart failure. Lifestyle changes and implantable cardioverter-defibrillator are indicated to decrease the risk of sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>New therapies</title>
<p>The genotype-phenotype relationship of pediatric cardiomyopathies has provided an understanding of their clinical presentation and prognosis. In children and adolescents, the genetic architecture of cardiomyopathies has its own complex characteristics that differ from the adult population. In recent decades, in an attempt to cure cardiomyopathies and other genetic diseases, new technologies have been developed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Enzyme replacement therapies available for Pompe and Fabry diseases modify the natural history of the disease, improving the prognosis of these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>Knowledge of molecular alterations has made new therapeutic targets possible. Thus, new classes of drugs that act by modulating cardiac myosin (protein modulators) are also emerging and have already proven effective in alleviating symptoms of heart failure, decreasing arrhythmias, and stabilizing the phenotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
<p>Several genetic manipulation strategies (gene therapy) have been created, including genome editing, gene replacement, silencing of specific alleles, exon skipping, and spliceosome-mediated RNA trans-splicing. Many of these technologies have already proven effective in animal models, and clinical trials in humans are being conducted successfully.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
<p>In addition, knowledge of the genotype can stratify the risk of sudden death due to malignant arrhythmias, with early cardioverter-defibrillator implantation indicated for mutations in the FLNC and LMNA genes in ACM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>Pediatric cardiomyopathies are a heterogeneous group with diverse etiology, clinical presentation, and phenotypes. They can often be diagnosed in asymptomatic individuals during screening tests (echocardiography and electrocardiogram) for sports participation, preoperative exams, and routine pediatric consultation. They should also be a constant concern in the multidisciplinary follow-up of patients with neuromuscular diseases, mitochondrial diseases, inborn errors of metabolism, genetic diseases (mainly RASopathies), and structural heart diseases, even the most common ones. Continuing education for pediatricians (and subspecialists), family physicians, neurologists, pulmonologists, and cardiologists plays an essential role in referring these potential patients to groups specializing in cardiomyopathies at local reference centers.</p>
<p>Detailed clinical investigations focused on each phenotype are necessary to provide specialized clinical care. Considerations regarding family history, especially in relation to sudden cardiac death and non-ischemic cardiomyopathies documented in 2 or 3 parental generations, assist in planning investigation and follow-up. Most cardiomyopathies can manifest at any stage of life; however, some clinical and echocardiographic red flags may allow early identification and therapeutic approach. The timeline of cardiological evaluation for screening should be customized according to the underlying disease, family history, and clinical presentation of each child. The construction of a pedigree during the initial consultations of pediatric evaluation has proven to be an excellent tool for alerting and understanding these pathologies.</p>
<p>Despite the high morbidity and mortality of the disease in childhood, advances in genetic studies, family counseling, and new specialized therapies have shown promise and brought hope to this population.</p>
</sec></body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
<p><bold>Sources of funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Study association</bold></p>
<p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Ana Fl&#xE1;via Malheiros and Aurea L&#xFA;cia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de Souza, from Programa de P&#xF3;s Gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Ci&#xEA;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn></fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revis&#xE3;o</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Miocardiopatias Pedi&#xE1;tricas: Estabelecendo Rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o Gen&#xF3;tipo-Fen&#xF3;tipo como Determinante no Progn&#xF3;stico e Terap&#xEA;utica, uma Revis&#xE3;o da Literatura</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7935-7966</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Torbey</surname><given-names>Ana Flavia Malheiros</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/> <role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o</role> <role>desenho da pesquisa</role> <role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role> <role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5969-8226</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Souza</surname><given-names>Aurea Lucia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>2</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9"><sup>3</sup></xref> <role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o</role> <role>desenho da pesquisa</role> <role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role> <role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8963-8622</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Azeka</surname><given-names>Estela</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10"><sup>4</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11"><sup>5</sup></xref> <role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o</role> <role>desenho da pesquisa</role> <role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role> <role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1334-3216</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Spada</surname><given-names>Maraisa Fachini</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12"><sup>6</sup></xref> <role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o</role> <role>desenho da pesquisa</role> <role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role> <role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role></contrib>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense &#x2013; Hospital Universit&#xE1;rio Ant&#xF4;nio Pedro &#x2013; Departamento Materno Infantil, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#xF3;s Gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Ci&#xEA;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff9">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">omplexo Hospitalar de Niteroi, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff10">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o do Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff11">
<label>5</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo (HC/FMUSP), S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff12">
<label>6</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Birmingham</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="GB">Reino Unido</country>
<institution content-type="original">Birmingham Women&#x27;s and Children&#x27;s Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham &#x2013; Reino Unido</institution></aff></contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Ana Flavia Malheiros Torbey</bold> &#x2022; Universidade Federal Fluminense Hospital Universit&#xE1;rio Ant&#xF4;nio Pedro &#x2013; Departamento Materno Infantil &#x2013; Rua Marques do Paran&#xE1;, 303. CEP <postal-code>24033-900</postal-code>, Centro, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brasil. E-mail: <email>anaflaviamalheiros@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn></author-notes>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Cardiomiopatias</kwd>
<kwd>Crian&#xE7;a</kwd>
<kwd>Adolescentes</kwd>
<kwd>Diagn&#xF3;stico</kwd>
<kwd>Fen&#xF3;tipo</kwd></kwd-group></front-stub>
<body>
<fig id="f6">
<caption>
<title>As principais caracter&#xED;sticas de cada fen&#xF3;tipo das miocardiopatias pedi&#xE1;tricas. CDI: cardioversor desfibrilador implant&#xE1;vel; ECO: ecocardiografia; MCP: miocardiopatia; RMC: resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdu&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>As miocardiopatias pedi&#xE1;tricas constituem um grupo heterog&#xEA;neo de altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es no mioc&#xE1;rdio onde h&#xE1; diferentes fen&#xF3;tipos e etiologias. A apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica varia desde indiv&#xED;duos assintom&#xE1;ticos a crian&#xE7;as com insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca, arritmias e morte s&#xFA;bita. &#xC9; a principal indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de transplante card&#xED;aco ap&#xF3;s um ano de idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>A etiologia pode envolver causas secund&#xE1;rias como doen&#xE7;as infecciosas, inflamat&#xF3;rias, autoimunes ou por uso de medica&#xE7;&#xF5;es (antraciclinas); entretanto, as causas gen&#xE9;ticas representam importante papel nas miocardiopatias pedi&#xE1;tricas. Atualmente com a maior disponibilidade de testes gen&#xE9;ticos, o estabelecimento da rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o gen&#xF3;tipo-fen&#xF3;tipo vem ocorrendo, sendo poss&#xED;vel determinar progn&#xF3;stico e proporcionar terap&#xEA;uticas espec&#xED;ficas para este grupo de pacientes, que modificam a hist&#xF3;ria natural da doen&#xE7;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Apesar de rara na pediatria, a miocardiopatia &#xE9; acompanhada de importante morbimortalidade, sendo necess&#xE1;ria aten&#xE7;&#xE3;o especializada a esta condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Portanto, esta revis&#xE3;o tem por objetivo auxiliar no racioc&#xED;nio cl&#xED;nico e alertar para a import&#xE2;ncia da busca pelo diagn&#xF3;stico etiol&#xF3;gico nos diferentes fen&#xF3;tipos da miocardiopatia pedi&#xE1;trica.</p>
<sec>
<title>Epidemiologia</title>
<p>Estudos populacionais estimam uma incid&#xEA;ncia em torno de 1:100.000 casos ao ano de miocardiopatia em crian&#xE7;as e adolescentes. Estes estudos foram realizados na Europa, Am&#xE9;rica do Norte e Austr&#xE1;lia, havendo ainda uma falta de dados epidemiol&#xF3;gicos do Brasil e Am&#xE9;rica Latina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Em crian&#xE7;as com idade inferior a um ano, o diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardiopatia &#xE9; mais frequente, com uma incid&#xEA;ncia de 8,3 casos para cada 100.000 crian&#xE7;as ao ano; a miocardiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica (MCH) ocorre 3 vezes mais nesta faixa et&#xE1;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Possivelmente, esses dados podem estar subestimados, visto o impacto da insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca pedi&#xE1;trica observado nos &#xFA;ltimos anos, sendo as miocardiopatias uma causa comum para a insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca, juntamente com as cardiopatias cong&#xEA;nitas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os principais fen&#xF3;tipos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>) na pediatria s&#xE3;o a miocardiopatia dilatada (MCD) e a MCH, seguidos de fen&#xF3;tipos menos frequentes como a miocardiopatia n&#xE3;o compactada (MCNC), miocardiopatia restritiva (MCR) e miocardiopatia arritmog&#xEA;nica (MCA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Principais fen&#xF3;tipos das miocardiopatias e suas caracter&#xED;sticas em crian&#xE7;as e adolescentes</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="20%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color:#98ADCB">
<th align="left" valign="middle">Fen&#xF3;tipo</th>
<th align="right" valign="middle">Etiologia</th>
<th align="right" valign="middle">Achados cl&#xED;nicos</th>
<th align="right" valign="middle">Tratamento</th>
<th align="right" valign="middle">Progn&#xF3;stico</th></tr></thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Dilatada</bold><break/><inline-graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-ingf01-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es gen&#xE9;ticas</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Erros inatos do metabolismo</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Doen&#xE7;as neuromusculares</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>S&#xED;ndromes</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Secund&#xE1;ria a doen&#xE7;as virais, autoimunes, inflamat&#xF3;rias e medica&#xE7;&#xF5;es</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Assintom&#xE1;ticos</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Sinais e sintomas de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca descompensada</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Arritmias</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Tratamento de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Dispositivos de suporte circulat&#xF3;rio mec&#xE2;nico</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Sobreviv&#xEA;ncia em 5 anos &#xE9; de 50% a 60%</p></list-item></list></td></tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E7CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Hipertr&#xF3;fica</bold><break/><inline-graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-ingf02-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es gen&#xE9;ticas</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Erros inatos do metabolismo</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Doen&#xE7;as de armazenamento ou uso inadequado do glicog&#xEA;nio</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Doen&#xE7;as de armazenamento do lisossomo</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Doen&#xE7;as neuromusculares</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>S&#xED;ndromes</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Assintom&#xE1;ticos</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca progressiva</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Morte s&#xFA;bita</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Melhora do gradiente de via de sa&#xED;da de ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o do risco de morte s&#xFA;bita</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o cir&#xFA;rgica do septo interventricular</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Cardiodesfibrilador implant&#xE1;vel</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Sobreviv&#xEA;ncia em 5 anos &#xE9; de 95% em miocardiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica sarcom&#xE9;rica com apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica depois do primeiro ano de vida e 40% em erros inatos do metabolismo</p></list-item></list></td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>N&#xE3;o compactada</bold><break/><inline-graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-ingf03-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es gen&#xE9;ticas</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Assintom&#xE1;ticos</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Sinais e sintomas de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Arritmias</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Tromboembolismo</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Tratamento de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Tratamento de arritmias</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eventos tromboemb&#xF3;licos</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Sobreviv&#xEA;ncia em 5 anos &#xE9; em torno de 80%</p></list-item></list></td></tr>
<tr style="background-color:#E7CCBF">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Restritiva</bold><break/><inline-graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-ingf04-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es gen&#xE9;ticas</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Erros do metabolismo</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Secund&#xE1;ria &#xE0; quimioterapia, radioterapia e transplante de medula &#xF3;ssea</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca descompensada</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Arritmia</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Morte s&#xFA;bita</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Tratamento de arritmia</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eventos tromboemb&#xF3;licos</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Encaminhamento precoce para transplante</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Reservado, sobrevida livre de transplante card&#xED;aco em 5 anos &#xE9; em torno de 30%</p></list-item></list></td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Arritmog&#xEA;nica</bold><break/><inline-graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-ingf05-pt.tif"/></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es gen&#xE9;ticas</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Assintom&#xE1;ticos com achados anormais no eletrocardiograma</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Taquicardia ventricular</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Morte s&#xFA;bita</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Tratamento de arritmia</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o do risco de morte s&#xFA;bita</p></list-item>
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Cardiodesfibrilador implant&#xE1;vel</p></list-item></list></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item>
<label>&#x2013;</label>
<p>Reservado, com mais de 50% dos pacientes pedi&#xE1;tricos precisando de transplante em 5 anos.</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap>
<p>A MCD ocorre em cerca de 50% dos pacientes e a MCH &#xE9; respons&#xE1;vel por pouco mais de um ter&#xE7;o dos casos nessa faixa et&#xE1;ria. Estima-se que a incid&#xEA;ncia anual desses fen&#xF3;tipos est&#xE1; entre 0,8 e 1 em 100.000 crian&#xE7;as.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>A MCNC &#xE9; a terceira mais diagnosticada entre crian&#xE7;as e adolescentes, seguida das MCR e MCA. A incid&#xEA;ncia da MCNC pode variar de 5% a 10%, como observado no Registro Australiano. A MCR corresponde a cerca de 5% das miocardiopatias pedi&#xE1;tricas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>A MCA &#xE9; uma desordem muito rara na inf&#xE2;ncia, com preval&#xEA;ncia estimada em adultos de 1:2000 a 1:5000 na maioria das s&#xE9;ries publicadas, por&#xE9;m na pediatria n&#xE3;o se conhece sua real incid&#xEA;ncia, com estudos limitados a s&#xE9;rie de casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>A import&#xE2;ncia da classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>Utilizados para promover compreens&#xE3;o e discuss&#xE3;o sistem&#xE1;tica de doen&#xE7;as, os sistemas de classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o organizam as miocardiopatias em grupos l&#xF3;gicos, que compartilham a mesma morfologia, fisiologia e bioqu&#xED;mica, proporcionando tamb&#xE9;m padroniza&#xE7;&#xE3;o da nomenclatura.</p>
<p>Dentre as classifica&#xE7;&#xF5;es atuais destacam-se: 1) a da American Heart Association (2006), que divide as miocardiopatias em prim&#xE1;rias (restrita ou predominante do mioc&#xE1;rdio) e secund&#xE1;rias (parte de doen&#xE7;as sist&#xEA;micas); 2) a da European Society of Cardiology (2008), baseada na morfologia e fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular, sub-classificando cada fen&#xF3;tipo em familiar (quando h&#xE1; a presen&#xE7;a de mais de um membro da fam&#xED;lia acometido) e n&#xE3;o-familiar (idiop&#xE1;ticas e adquiridas); e 3) a endossada pela World Heart Federation - classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de MOGES (2013), que estadia a miocardiopatia de acordo com o fen&#xF3;tipo morfofuncional (M), envolvimento de outros &#xF3;rg&#xE3;os (O), padr&#xE3;o de heran&#xE7;a gen&#xE9;tica e familiar (G), etiologia (E) e <italic>status</italic> funcional do paciente (S).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Racioc&#xED;nio cl&#xED;nico-diagn&#xF3;stico nas miocardiopatias pedi&#xE1;tricas</title>
<p>A apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica das miocardiopatias em crian&#xE7;as e adolescentes varia de indiv&#xED;duos assintom&#xE1;ticos a pacientes com sintomas de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca, arritmias, dor precordial, s&#xED;ncope e morte s&#xFA;bita. Pode manifestar-se desde o per&#xED;odo neonatal at&#xE9; o final da adolesc&#xEA;ncia, o que torna seu diagn&#xF3;stico um desafio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
<p>Como a etiologia &#xE9; muito variada, deve-se inicialmente afastar causas adquiridas. Atrav&#xE9;s da hist&#xF3;ria pessoal, &#xE9; poss&#xED;vel identificar infec&#xE7;&#xF5;es recentes que podem apontar para um quadro de miocardite ou mesmo sinais e sintomas de doen&#xE7;as autoimunes, inflamat&#xF3;rias e metab&#xF3;licas, direcionando abordagem e tratamentos espec&#xED;ficos. O passado de tratamento para c&#xE2;ncer e a exposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o a quimioter&#xE1;picos cardiot&#xF3;xicos devem ser investigados. A idade de in&#xED;cio dos sintomas &#xE9; fundamental para buscar a etiologia, pois lactentes apresentam-se com erros inatos do metabolismo mais frequentemente do que crian&#xE7;as maiores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
<p>A hist&#xF3;ria familiar &#xE9; essencial, e gra&#xE7;as a ela, alguns pacientes podem ser diagnosticados precocemente, mesmo na aus&#xEA;ncia de sintomas, devido ao rastreio familiar. A import&#xE2;ncia deste diagn&#xF3;stico precoce deve-se &#xE0; possibilidade da preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o prim&#xE1;ria da morte s&#xFA;bita, a qual pode ser o primeiro e &#xFA;nico sintoma em alguns casos. Al&#xE9;m disso, &#xE9; N&#xED;vel de Evid&#xEA;ncia A a realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o da hist&#xF3;ria familiar de ao menos tr&#xEA;s gera&#xE7;&#xF5;es com a constru&#xE7;&#xE3;o do heredograma. A obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o do heredograma torna poss&#xED;vel a observa&#xE7;&#xE3;o do padr&#xE3;o de heran&#xE7;a (autoss&#xF4;mico dominante, recessivo ou ligado ao X) e a identifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de quais os membros da fam&#xED;lia est&#xE3;o em risco de serem afetados pela doen&#xE7;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>O exame f&#xED;sico deve buscar altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es al&#xE9;m do sistema cardiovascular, visto que, na inf&#xE2;ncia, a presen&#xE7;a de causas sindr&#xF4;micas, erros inatos do metabolismo e doen&#xE7;as neuromusculares s&#xE3;o mais frequentes que nos adultos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Assim, atraso no desenvolvimento, hipotonia, presen&#xE7;a de hepatoesplenomegalia e dismorfismos podem auxiliar na investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o etiol&#xF3;gica. Muitas vezes &#xE9; necess&#xE1;ria uma abordagem multiprofissional com pediatra, neurologista pedi&#xE1;trico, geneticista cl&#xED;nico e cardiologista pedi&#xE1;trico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref> mostra a sequ&#xEA;ncia do racioc&#xED;nio cl&#xED;nico nos pacientes pedi&#xE1;tricos com miocardiopatias.</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Sequ&#xEA;ncia do racioc&#xED;nio cl&#xED;nico na abordagem das miocardiopatias pedi&#xE1;tricas. ECG: eletrocardiograma; ECO: ecocardiograma; MCP: miocardiopatia; RMC: resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>A dosagem dos biomarcadores auxilia no racioc&#xED;nio cl&#xED;nico: a troponina geralmente est&#xE1; elevada em miocardiopatias inflamat&#xF3;rias, como a miocardite e o pept&#xED;deo natriur&#xE9;tico cerebral (BNP) e seu precursor (NT-proBNP) indicam a evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o para insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca. N&#xED;veis mais elevados est&#xE3;o associados a pior progn&#xF3;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>O fen&#xF3;tipo morfofuncional deve ser determinado utilizando-se das ferramentas de cardioimagem dispon&#xED;veis como eletrocardiograma, ecocardiograma (ECO) com Doppler colorido, Doppler tecidual (para avaliar disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica) e speckle tracking (para avaliar precocemente disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica subcl&#xED;nica), e a resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca que caracteriza o tecido mioc&#xE1;rdico, detecta edema e fibrose. Vale destacar que, as medidas obtidas devem ser expressas em z-scores para uma adequada interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
<p>A busca pelo diagn&#xF3;stico etiol&#xF3;gico &#xE9; essencial j&#xE1; que existem cen&#xE1;rios onde o tratamento espec&#xED;fico est&#xE1; dispon&#xED;vel, melhorando o progn&#xF3;stico. Essa investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o deve ser baseada no fen&#xF3;tipo cardiol&#xF3;gico e nas altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es sist&#xEA;micas associadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>Ao se indicar a realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de testes gen&#xE9;ticos &#xE9; importante que o paciente e a fam&#xED;lia recebam o aconselhamento adequado realizado por profissional capacitado, onde ser&#xE3;o explicados os poss&#xED;veis resultados que podem ser encontrados e o impacto gerado na vida do paciente e da fam&#xED;lia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Poss&#xED;veis resultados durante a investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o gen&#xE9;tica. MCP: miocardiopatia.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230016-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Miocardiopatia dilatada</title>
<p>A MCD &#xE9; definida pela presen&#xE7;a de dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o das c&#xE2;maras card&#xED;acas associada &#xE0; disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular. Pode ser classificada em prim&#xE1;ria e secund&#xE1;ria. As principais causas prim&#xE1;rias s&#xE3;o: familiar/gen&#xE9;tica, doen&#xE7;as mitocondriais e doen&#xE7;as neuromusculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Dentre as causas gen&#xE9;ticas j&#xE1; foram descritos genes relacionados &#xE0;s prote&#xED;nas do sarc&#xF4;mero, citoesqueleto, membrana nuclear e desmossomos. Muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es na LMNA, MYH, TNNT2, SCN5A e TTN s&#xE3;o as mais relacionadas ao fen&#xF3;tipo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>As causas secund&#xE1;rias s&#xE3;o: inflamat&#xF3;rias/infecciosas, t&#xF3;xicas, metab&#xF3;licas, doen&#xE7;as de dep&#xF3;sito, dist&#xFA;rbios nutricionais, doen&#xE7;as card&#xED;acas e doen&#xE7;as pulmonares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
<p>O quadro cl&#xED;nico pode variar na MCD desde crian&#xE7;as e adolescentes assintom&#xE1;ticos at&#xE9; apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca congestiva ou choque cardiog&#xEA;nico com necessidade de suporte ventilat&#xF3;rio, bem como assist&#xEA;ncia circulat&#xF3;ria mec&#xE2;nica de curta ou longa dura&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o diagn&#xF3;stica, recomenda-se radiografia de t&#xF3;rax para avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o do grau de cardiomegalia; eletrocardiograma que pode revelar o grau de sobrecarga ventricular esquerda, presen&#xE7;a de arritmias e bloqueio atrioventriculares; e ecocardiograma com Doppler colorido que ir&#xE1; confirmar o grau de dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o das c&#xE2;maras ventriculares, presen&#xE7;a de cardiopatia cong&#xEA;nita e de insufici&#xEA;ncia de valvas atrioventriculares. O Holter pode detectar epis&#xF3;dios de taquicardia supraventricular e ventricular, bem como bloqueios atrioventriculares. A resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca auxiliar&#xE1; na detec&#xE7;&#xE3;o de processos inflamat&#xF3;rios, edema e fibrose, podendo quantificar o comprometimento mioc&#xE1;rdico e mesmo progn&#xF3;stico quando a fibrose for extensa. A angiotomografia auxilia no diagn&#xF3;stico diferencial de coron&#xE1;ria an&#xF4;mala esquerda e de coarcta&#xE7;&#xE3;o de aorta quando outros m&#xE9;todos de imagem apresentam dificuldade no diagn&#xF3;stico. Os exames laboratoriais iniciais na investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o e na avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da MCD incluem avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o com exoma, eletr&#xF3;litos, BNP, troponina, hemograma, fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal, hep&#xE1;tica, tireoidiana, sorologias e PCR de citomegalov&#xED;rus, toxoplasmose, Coxsackie A e B, coronav&#xED;rus-19, parvov&#xED;rus-b19, Epstein-Barr, chikungunya e Chagas. A bi&#xF3;psia endomioc&#xE1;rdica &#xE9; utilizada na elucida&#xE7;&#xE3;o diagn&#xF3;stica, considerada como padr&#xE3;o ouro, no entanto, deve-se avaliar a condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica do paciente no momento de sua realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o, pois pode levar &#xE0; deteriora&#xE7;&#xE3;o do quadro cl&#xED;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
<p>O tratamento depende da etiologia da MCD e na busca da melhora dos sintomas do paciente. Em geral, pacientes portadores de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca congestiva necessitam de uma equipe multidisciplinar constitu&#xED;da por m&#xE9;dicos, nutricionista, fisioterapeuta, enfermeira, psic&#xF3;loga e assistente social para que possa dar o suporte necess&#xE1;rio para os pacientes, principalmente quando internados, pois a terap&#xEA;utica pode ser longa no sentido de necessidade de titula&#xE7;&#xE3;o das medica&#xE7;&#xF5;es para que se possa obter o sucesso adequado na evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE0; evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o e ao progn&#xF3;stico, a curva de sobrevida actuarial revela que os pacientes em 5 anos est&#xE3;o livres de transplante card&#xED;aco e/ou &#xF3;bito em 50% a 60%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Portanto, a MCD &#xE9; uma patologia que necessita diagn&#xF3;stico e interven&#xE7;&#xE3;o terap&#xEA;utica precoce para melhora da sobrevida e da qualidade de vida.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Miocardiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica</title>
<p>Na popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o pedi&#xE1;trica, a MCH &#xE9; um grupo heterog&#xEA;neo, incluindo etiologias como muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xE1;ssicas nas prote&#xED;nas do sarc&#xF4;mero, erros inatos do metabolismo, doen&#xE7;as neuromusculares e s&#xED;ndromes. As diversas etiologias juntamente com a idade na apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o explicam a vasta manifesta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica, desde pacientes assintom&#xE1;ticos at&#xE9; pacientes com fal&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca progressiva e morte s&#xFA;bita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na sua forma cl&#xE1;ssica, isolada e n&#xE3;o associada a s&#xED;ndromes e outras doen&#xE7;as (70% a 75% dos casos),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> a MCH tem como principal patog&#xEA;nese muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es nas prote&#xED;nas do sarc&#xF4;mero. O padr&#xE3;o de heran&#xE7;a mais comum &#xE9; o autoss&#xF4;mico dominante com penetr&#xE2;ncia e expressividade vari&#xE1;vel. Muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es patog&#xEA;nicas s&#xE3;o identificadas em metade dos casos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> e s&#xE3;o, em sua maioria, <italic>missense</italic>, resultante em perda funcional da prote&#xED;na. Os genes comumente envolvidos no fen&#xF3;tipo hipertr&#xF3;fico codificam as prote&#xED;nas do miofilamento e incluem MYH7, MYBPC3, MYL2, MYL 3, TNNT2, TNNI 3, TPM1 e ACTC1. Recentemente, fen&#xF3;tipos semelhantes foram associados a genes que codificam prote&#xED;nas do disco Z e prote&#xED;nas sinalizadoras de c&#xE1;lcio como CSRP3, ACTN2 e PLN, tornando o termo miocardiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica sarcom&#xE9;rica mais abrangente para ent&#xE3;o incluir essas variantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>As MCH n&#xE3;o sarcom&#xE9;ricas, tamb&#xE9;m denominadas de fenoc&#xF3;pias, compreendem um grupo de etiologia distinta, incluindo os erros inatos do metabolismo, doen&#xE7;a de Pompe (muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es no gene GAA), doen&#xE7;a de Danon (variante no gene LAMP2 ligada ao X), a PRKAG2 miocardiopatia (muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es no gene PRKAG2), as doen&#xE7;as de armazenamento do lisossomo como mucopolissacaridose (s&#xED;ndromes de Hurler e de Hunter &#x2013; ambas recessivas ligadas ao X) e a doen&#xE7;a de Fabry (muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es no gene GLA); as doen&#xE7;as neuromusculares como a ataxia de Friedreich (muta&#xE7;&#xE3;o no gene X25) e as doen&#xE7;as sindr&#xF4;micas como a s&#xED;ndrome de Noonan (muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es nos genes PTPN11, SOS1, RAF1 e outras RASopathias).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
<p>Dentre outras causas de hipertrofia mioc&#xE1;rdica na inf&#xE2;ncia, destaca-se a MCH secund&#xE1;ria ao hiperinsulinismo, que ocorre em neonatos com doen&#xE7;a adenomatosa pancre&#xE1;tica ou filhos de m&#xE3;es diab&#xE9;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na faixa et&#xE1;ria pedi&#xE1;trica, a forma cl&#xE1;ssica sarcom&#xE9;rica da doen&#xE7;a diferencia-se das demais formas por acometer isoladamente o cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o, sem envolvimento neurol&#xF3;gico e/ou m&#xFA;sculo-esquel&#xE9;tico. O in&#xED;cio do quadro pode ocorrer ainda na vida fetal, mas o diagn&#xF3;stico &#xE9; comumente feito na adolesc&#xEA;ncia ou no in&#xED;cio da vida adulta. A manifesta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica abrange desde pacientes completamente assintom&#xE1;ticos (que s&#xE3;o diagnosticados durante rastreio familiar ou enquanto investigados para outras doen&#xE7;as) at&#xE9; pacientes com sopro card&#xED;aco, dor precordial, palpita&#xE7;&#xF5;es, s&#xED;ncope e morte s&#xFA;bita (abortada ou n&#xE3;o).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>A hipertrofia ventricular esquerda leva &#xE0; disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica respons&#xE1;vel pelo aumento do &#xE1;trio esquerdo e predisp&#xF5;e taquiarritmias. Em 5% a 10% dos pacientes, a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular cr&#xF4;nica, em est&#xE1;gios mais tardios da doen&#xE7;a, leva &#xE0; dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o progressiva do ventr&#xED;culo e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica, mudando o fen&#xF3;tipo para algo morfologicamente similar &#xE0; MCD, fen&#xF4;meno conhecido como <italic>burned out</italic> MCH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Sinais e sintomas cl&#xE1;ssicos de fal&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca, apesar de raramente serem vistos na inf&#xE2;ncia, podem ent&#xE3;o ser resultado de progress&#xE3;o da doen&#xE7;a e apreciados nestes casos.</p>
<p>Doen&#xE7;a da microvasculatura, com dist&#xFA;rbios de perfus&#xE3;o e isquemia mioc&#xE1;rdica revers&#xED;vel, e a obstru&#xE7;&#xE3;o din&#xE2;mica da via de sa&#xED;da do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo s&#xE3;o consequ&#xEA;ncias da hipertrofia do mioc&#xE1;rdio e explicam sintomas como dor precordial, dispneia, pr&#xE9;-s&#xED;ncope e s&#xED;ncope durante esfor&#xE7;os principalmente durante atividade f&#xED;sica de alta intensidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
<p>J&#xE1; em pacientes com outros tipos de MCH, a apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica costuma ser mais floreada no primeiro ano de vida possibilitando um diagn&#xF3;stico mais precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na s&#xED;ndrome de Noonan, por exemplo, metade dos pacientes s&#xE3;o diagnosticados at&#xE9; 6 meses de idade. Caracter&#xED;sticas no exame f&#xED;sico como dismorfismos faciais, atraso no desenvolvimento s&#xE3;o sinais de alerta para o diagn&#xF3;stico da s&#xED;ndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Cerca de 70% dos pacientes apresentam MCH que pode ser acompanhada de cardiopatia cong&#xEA;nita como estenose pulmonar supravalvar, displasia da valva mitral e comunica&#xE7;&#xE3;o interatrial e interventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>A manifesta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica da doen&#xE7;a de armazenamento do glicog&#xEA;nio tipo II, mais conhecida como doen&#xE7;a de Pompe, &#xE9; variada e depende da idade de abertura do quadro. Na doen&#xE7;a de Pompe infantil, a hipertrofia severa do mioc&#xE1;rdio &#xE9; acompanhada de hipotonia muscular e hepatomegalia, podendo levar &#xE0; morte ainda no primeiro ano de vida se a terapia de reposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o enzim&#xE1;tica n&#xE3;o for institu&#xED;da.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na doen&#xE7;a de Danon, a hipertrofia do mioc&#xE1;rdio &#xE9; acompanhada de d&#xE9;ficit intelectual, miopatia e padr&#xE3;o de pr&#xE9;-excita&#xE7;&#xE3;o no eletrocardiograma. A r&#xE1;pida progress&#xE3;o da doen&#xE7;a e arritmias refrat&#xE1;rias s&#xE3;o comuns.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>O progn&#xF3;stico de MCH na inf&#xE2;ncia &#xE9; vari&#xE1;vel, dependendo da idade de apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o e etiologia da doen&#xE7;a. Em geral, a taxa de sobreviv&#xEA;ncia em 5 anos de pacientes com MCH sarcom&#xE9;rica que abriram o quadro depois do primeiro ano de vida &#xE9; em torno de 95%. Em contrapartida, apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica precoce (antes de um ano de idade) e presen&#xE7;a de erros inatos do metabolismo est&#xE3;o associados a um progn&#xF3;stico reservado, estimando-se que somente 40% dos pacientes diagnosticados com erro inato do metabolismo estar&#xE3;o vivos e livres de transplante card&#xED;aco em 5 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Fal&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca com disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica ao diagn&#xF3;stico, visto em pacientes com s&#xED;ndrome de Noonan, por exemplo, tamb&#xE9;m est&#xE1; associada a pior progn&#xF3;stico, com mortalidade de 20% nos primeiros 12 meses de vida. Outros fatores de risco conhecidos s&#xE3;o baixo peso, fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de encurtamento do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo anormal e espessura da parede posterior no final da di&#xE1;stole.</p>
<p>A principal causa de morte nessa faixa et&#xE1;ria ainda &#xE9; a fal&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca, por&#xE9;m o risco de morte s&#xFA;bita n&#xE3;o &#xE9; descart&#xE1;vel. Identificar pacientes pedi&#xE1;tricos com risco elevado de taquicardia ventricular ainda permanece um assunto de discuss&#xE3;o, j&#xE1; que padr&#xF5;es espec&#xED;ficos de arritmia relacionados &#xE0; morte s&#xFA;bita n&#xE3;o foram bem descritos na inf&#xE2;ncia. Recentemente um grupo europeu prop&#xF4;s um modelo de estratifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de risco de morte s&#xFA;bita em pacientes com fen&#xF3;tipo de MCH n&#xE3;o sindr&#xF4;micos com idade entre 1 e 16 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Os par&#xE2;metros associados a um elevado risco de morte s&#xFA;bita em 5 anos foram: idade, sexo, peso, espessura do septo interventricular, di&#xE2;metro do &#xE1;trio esquerdo, gradiente na via de sa&#xED;da de ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo, taquicardia ventricular n&#xE3;o sustentada e s&#xED;ncope de origem n&#xE3;o explicada. Posteriormente, um grupo do Canad&#xE1; prop&#xF4;s um modelo semelhante e incluiu a presen&#xE7;a de variante patog&#xEA;nica ou provavelmente patog&#xEA;nica como fator de risco importante. Gen&#xF3;tipo positivo quase dobra o risco de morte s&#xFA;bita em 5 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
<p>O manejo da MCH baseia-se em controle dos sintomas, melhora do gradiente de via de sa&#xED;da de ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo e diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o do risco de morte s&#xFA;bita.</p>
<p>Na forma cl&#xE1;ssica n&#xE3;o sindr&#xF4;mica da doen&#xE7;a, os betabloqueadores s&#xE3;o a primeira linha de tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> A diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o da frequ&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca promove maior enchimento ventricular durante a di&#xE1;stole e consequentemente diminui a obstru&#xE7;&#xE3;o din&#xE2;mica da via de sa&#xED;da. Al&#xE9;m disso, diminui a demanda de oxig&#xEA;nio do mioc&#xE1;rdio. Em pacientes com sintoma refrat&#xE1;rio e doen&#xE7;a da microvasculatura, bloqueadores dos canais de c&#xE1;lcio podem ser associados aos betabloqueadores com melhora significativa da dor precordial. Esportes competitivos e exerc&#xED;cios de natureza explosiva devem ser evitados.</p>
<p>O implante de cardioversor/desfibrilador (CDI) &#xE9; recomendado como preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o prim&#xE1;ria em pacientes com hist&#xF3;ria de taquiarritmia ou morte s&#xFA;bita abortada. Em casos de preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o secund&#xE1;ria, a indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de CDI na popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o pedi&#xE1;trica &#xE9; ainda motivo de debate e, de um modo geral, dois ou mais fatores de risco seriam necess&#xE1;rios. Apesar de recentes avan&#xE7;os no reconhecimento de fatores de risco para morte s&#xFA;bita na inf&#xE2;ncia, ainda h&#xE1; falta de evid&#xEA;ncias sobre diferen&#xE7;as entre a popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o adulta e pedi&#xE1;trica. Modelos de calculadoras de risco entre crian&#xE7;as recentemente publicados podem ajudar m&#xE9;dicos em sua tomada de decis&#xE3;o &#x2013; <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://pimacycalculator.com">https://pimacycalculator.com</ext-link> e <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://hcmriskkids.org">https://hcmriskkids.org</ext-link>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
<p>A redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o cir&#xFA;rgica do septo interventricular (miomectomia) demonstrou diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o importante do gradiente de via de sa&#xED;da de ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo e ainda tem como benef&#xED;cio diminuir movimento anterior da valva mitral e regurgita&#xE7;&#xE3;o mitral, proporcionando melhora significativa dos sintomas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em MCH associadas a erros inatos do metabolismo, terapias espec&#xED;ficas est&#xE3;o dispon&#xED;veis. Na doen&#xE7;a de Pompe, por exemplo, a terapia de reposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o enzim&#xE1;tica tem se mostrado eficaz em reduzir e at&#xE9; mesmo reverter o fen&#xF3;tipo, se apresentar in&#xED;cio precoce. Nas mucopolissacaridoses, terapia de reposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o enzim&#xE1;tica e transplante de medula &#xF3;ssea tamb&#xE9;m est&#xE3;o associados a um progn&#xF3;stico melhor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Miocardiopatia n&#xE3;o compactada</title>
<p>Caracteriza-se morfologicamente por apresentar um mioc&#xE1;rdio com trabecula&#xE7;&#xF5;es e recessos profundos que se comunicam com a cavidade ventricular. &#xC9; mais frequentemente no ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo, por&#xE9;m tamb&#xE9;m acomete o ventr&#xED;culo direito. Acredita-se que uma falha na embriog&#xEA;nese da compacta&#xE7;&#xE3;o das camadas do mioc&#xE1;rdio leve ao fen&#xF3;tipo caracter&#xED;stico da MCNC. Sua etiologia &#xE9; principalmente gen&#xE9;tica, com altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es encontradas em genes que controlam fun&#xE7;&#xF5;es do sarc&#xF4;mero, citoesqueleto e mitoc&#xF4;ndria. O padr&#xE3;o de heran&#xE7;a tamb&#xE9;m &#xE9; diverso (autoss&#xF4;mico dominante, recessivo ligado ao X e mitocondrial).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na crian&#xE7;a, a MCNC geralmente &#xE9; um fen&#xF3;tipo misto, onde h&#xE1; associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o com outras cardiopatias, mais comumente a MCD e MCH e cardiopatias cong&#xEA;nitas, enquanto no adulto o fen&#xF3;tipo de MCNC costuma ser isolado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>A apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica acompanha o fen&#xF3;tipo associado; assim, sinais de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca s&#xE3;o mais comuns no paciente com MCD, enquanto crian&#xE7;as assintom&#xE1;ticas geralmente apresentam MCNC isolada. Outros achados cl&#xED;nicos podem ser dor precordial, s&#xED;ncope, altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es na ausculta card&#xED;aca, arritmias e tromboembolismo e ocorrem em qualquer faixa et&#xE1;ria, incluindo o feto com possibilidade de diagn&#xF3;stico pelo ECO fetal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
<p>Muito se discute sobre o diagn&#xF3;stico diferencial entre a presen&#xE7;a de trabecula&#xE7;&#xF5;es fisiol&#xF3;gicas e a MCNC. Existem diferentes crit&#xE9;rios de diagn&#xF3;stico por ECO e resson&#xE2;ncia, sendo o mais aceito os crit&#xE9;rios de Jenni ao ECO e de Petersen pela resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca; o primeiro determina uma rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre o mioc&#xE1;rdio n&#xE3;o compactado e compactado maior que 2 e o segundo maior que 2,3. Assim, seu diagn&#xF3;stico morfol&#xF3;gico muitas vezes &#xE9; um desafio e o acompanhamento evolutivo do paciente &#xE9; importante para determinar o aparecimento de sintomas, diferenciando de um achado fisiol&#xF3;gico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
<p>A terap&#xEA;utica deve ser direcionada &#xE0; apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica, ou seja, tratamento de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca, arritmias e preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eventos tromboemb&#xF3;licos. N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; no momento terapia medicamentosa ou cir&#xFA;rgica espec&#xED;fica para a MCNC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
<p>A investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o gen&#xE9;tica &#xE9; recomendada, com uma positividade em torno de 45%. A defini&#xE7;&#xE3;o da etiologia proporciona o rastreio familiar e risco de recorr&#xEA;ncia entre casais que desejam ter outros filhos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Observou-se pior progn&#xF3;stico com risco de &#xF3;bito ou transplante card&#xED;aco nos pacientes com idade inferior a um ano, presen&#xE7;a de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca ou arritmias ventriculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Miocardiopatia restritiva</title>
<p>A MCR &#xE9; marcada pela n&#xE3;o complac&#xEA;ncia dos ventr&#xED;culos, sendo mais frequentemente o ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo, ao resistirem ao enchimento diast&#xF3;lico, levando &#xE0; disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica, press&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica final elevada e &#xE1;trios dilatados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
<p>A epidemiologia dessa patologia ainda n&#xE3;o &#xE9; bem esclarecida, mas estudos indicam que pessoas de todas as idades podem ser acometidas, sendo que as crian&#xE7;as apresentam pior progn&#xF3;stico. Dentre este grupo, as crian&#xE7;as do sexo feminino parecem ser mais acometidas. A etiologia da MCR &#xE9; vari&#xE1;vel, pode ser gen&#xE9;tica com envolvimento de genes sarcom&#xE9;ricos ou n&#xE3;o sarcom&#xE9;ricos; ou secund&#xE1;ria podendo ser causada tanto por doen&#xE7;as sist&#xEA;micas, como amiloidose e fibroelastose endoc&#xE1;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
<p>A MCR pode ser classificada como infiltrativa, n&#xE3;o infiltrativa, doen&#xE7;a de armazenamento, e doen&#xE7;a endomioc&#xE1;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
<p>Como os ventr&#xED;culos n&#xE3;o est&#xE3;o dilatados e a espessura ventricular apresenta-se normal, a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica &#xE9; preservada nos est&#xE1;gios iniciais da doen&#xE7;a, na maioria dos casos, podendo ser reduzida em est&#xE1;gios mais avan&#xE7;ados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
<p>A apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica consiste em sintomas que evoluem rapidamente para insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca, arritmia, s&#xED;ncope e morte s&#xFA;bita. O progn&#xF3;stico &#xE9; reservado e pacientes pedi&#xE1;tricos rapidamente s&#xE3;o encaminhados ao transplante card&#xED;aco. Esta &#xE9; a miocardiopatia de pior progn&#xF3;stico na inf&#xE2;ncia, onde 2 de cada 3 crian&#xE7;as s&#xE3;o candidatas ao transplante card&#xED;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Miocardiopatia arritmog&#xEA;nica</title>
<p>Este termo descreve um grupo heterog&#xEA;neo e o complexo de desordens gen&#xE9;ticas e inflamat&#xF3;rias que se manifestam por arritmias atriais e/ou ventriculares, muitas vezes de car&#xE1;ter maligno, principalmente na primeira inf&#xE2;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Classicamente, a forma mais comum &#xE9; a miocardiopatia arritmog&#xEA;nica do ventr&#xED;culo direito, entretanto atualmente o fen&#xF3;tipo com predom&#xED;nio do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo vem sendo descrito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
<p>Dentre as causas gen&#xE9;ticas, destacam-se altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es das prote&#xED;nas que codificam o desmossomo card&#xED;aco e os principais genes acometidos s&#xE3;o PKP2, DSP, DSG2, DSP e JUP. A heran&#xE7;a gen&#xE9;tica &#xE9; normalmente autoss&#xF4;mica dominante com penetr&#xE2;ncia variada. A idade de apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o e sexo parecem influenciar diretamente, com penetr&#xE2;ncia reduzida em pacientes mais jovens e incid&#xEA;ncia maior em pacientes do sexo masculino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recentemente, um fen&#xF3;tipo que simula um quadro de miocardite vem sendo descrito, sendo caracterizado por dor precordial, eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o da troponina e altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es na resson&#xE2;ncia card&#xED;aca com presen&#xE7;a de realce tardio. &#xC9; denominada de <italic>hot phase</italic> (fase quente) e seu diagn&#xF3;stico deve ser pensado em fam&#xED;lias com casos frequentes de miocardite. Essa apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica possui forte correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o gen&#xF3;tipo-fen&#xF3;tipo com o gene DSP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
<p>O diagn&#xF3;stico &#xE9; feito por uma jun&#xE7;&#xE3;o de crit&#xE9;rios baseados em evid&#xEA;ncias cient&#xED;ficas propostos pelo Task Force Working Group da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia, entre eles alterca&#xE7;&#xE3;o de tamanho e fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o de ventr&#xED;culo direito confirmado por exame de imagem, presen&#xE7;a de fibrose na bi&#xF3;psia do mioc&#xE1;rdio, altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es no eletrocardiograma (incluindo dist&#xFA;rbios da repolariza&#xE7;&#xE3;o, bloqueio de ramo, arritmias, extrass&#xED;stoles frequentes) e hist&#xF3;ria familiar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
<p>O tratamento medicamentoso com uso de betabloqueadores e outros antiarr&#xED;tmicos tem se mostrado fundamental para diminuir o risco de arritmias ventriculares e tamb&#xE9;m para o tratamento de fal&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca. O uso de diur&#xE9;ticos e inibidores da enzima de convers&#xE3;o da angiotensina tamb&#xE9;m podem auxiliar no controle de sintomas de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca. Mudan&#xE7;as no estilo de vida e CDI est&#xE3;o indicados para diminuir o risco de morte s&#xFA;bita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
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<sec>
<title>Novas terapias</title>
<p>A compreens&#xE3;o da rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o gen&#xF3;tipo-fen&#xF3;tipo das miocardiopatias pedi&#xE1;tricas tem proporcionado um entendimento da sua apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica e progn&#xF3;stico. Em crian&#xE7;as e adolescentes a arquitetura gen&#xE9;tica das miocardiopatias possui caracter&#xED;sticas pr&#xF3;prias e complexas que diferem da popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o adulta. Nas &#xFA;ltimas d&#xE9;cadas, na tentativa de curar miocardiopatias e outras doen&#xE7;as gen&#xE9;ticas, novas tecnologias v&#xEA;m sendo desenvolvidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> As terapias de reposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o enzim&#xE1;tica dispon&#xED;veis para as doen&#xE7;as de Pompe e Fabry modificam a hist&#xF3;ria natural da doen&#xE7;a, melhorando o progn&#xF3;stico destes pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
<p>O conhecimento das altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es moleculares, torna poss&#xED;vel novos alvos terap&#xEA;uticos. Assim, novas classes de drogas que atuam modulando a miosina card&#xED;aca (moduladores de prote&#xED;na) tamb&#xE9;m est&#xE3;o emergindo e j&#xE1; se mostraram eficazes em aliviar sintomas de fal&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca, diminuir arritmias e estabilizar o fen&#xF3;tipo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
<p>Diversas estrat&#xE9;gias de manipula&#xE7;&#xE3;o gen&#xE9;tica (gene terapia) foram criadas, entre elas edi&#xE7;&#xE3;o do genoma, reposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de gene, silenciamento de alelos espec&#xED;ficos, <italic>exon skipping</italic> e <italic>spliceosome-mediated RNA trans-splicing.</italic> Muitas dessas tecnologias j&#xE1; se mostraram eficazes em modelos animais e ensaios cl&#xED;nicos em humanos est&#xE3;o sendo realizadas com sucesso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
<p>Al&#xE9;m disso, o conhecimento do gen&#xF3;tipo, pode estratificar o risco de morte s&#xFA;bita por arritmias malignas, sendo indicado o implante precoce de CDI para as muta&#xE7;&#xF5;es nos genes de FLNC e LMNA na MCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
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<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclus&#xE3;o</title>
<p>As miocardiopatias pedi&#xE1;tricas s&#xE3;o um grupo heterog&#xEA;neo com etiologia, apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica e fen&#xF3;tipos variados. Muitas vezes podem ser diagnosticadas em indiv&#xED;duos ainda assintom&#xE1;ticos em exames (ECO e ECG) de rastreio para participa&#xE7;&#xE3;o desportiva, pr&#xE9;-operat&#xF3;rios e rotina pedi&#xE1;trica. Tamb&#xE9;m deve ser preocupa&#xE7;&#xE3;o constante no acompanhamento multidisciplinar dos pacientes com doen&#xE7;as neuromusculares, mitocondriopatias, erros inatos do metabolismo, doen&#xE7;as gen&#xE9;ticas (principalmente, RASopatias) e cardiopatias estruturais, mesmo as mais comuns. A educa&#xE7;&#xE3;o continuada para pediatras (e subespecialistas), m&#xE9;dicos de fam&#xED;lia, neurologistas, pneumologistas e cardiologistas desempenha papel essencial para o encaminhamento desses pacientes potenciais aos grupos de estudos aplicados em miocardiopatias nos centros de refer&#xEA;ncia locais.</p>
<p>Investiga&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas detalhadas e direcionadas a cada fen&#xF3;tipo s&#xE3;o necess&#xE1;rias para proporcionar uma aten&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica especializada. As considera&#xE7;&#xF5;es a respeito da hist&#xF3;ria familiar, principalmente em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o a morte s&#xFA;bita card&#xED;aca e miocardiopatias n&#xE3;o-isqu&#xEA;micas documentadas em 2 ou 3 gera&#xE7;&#xF5;es parentais, auxiliam no planejamento da investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o e acompanhamento. A maioria das miocardiopatias pode se manifestar em qualquer fase da vida, entretanto alguns <italic>red flags</italic> cl&#xED;nicos e ecocardiogr&#xE1;ficos podem permitir a identifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o precoce e abordagem terap&#xEA;utica. A periodicidade da avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o cardiol&#xF3;gica para rastreio deve ser personalizada de acordo com a doen&#xE7;a de base, a hist&#xF3;ria familiar e a apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica de cada crian&#xE7;a. Resgatar a constru&#xE7;&#xE3;o do heredograma nas consultas iniciais de avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o pedi&#xE1;trica tem se mostrado excelente ferramenta para o alerta e entendimento dessas patologias.</p>
<p>Apesar da alta morbimortalidade imposta pela doen&#xE7;a na inf&#xE2;ncia, avan&#xE7;os em estudo gen&#xE9;tico, aconselhamento familiar e novas terapias especializadas t&#xEA;m se mostrado promissores e trazido esperan&#xE7;as para essa popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o.</p>
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<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo n&#xE3;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
<p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o acad&#xEA;mica</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo &#xE9; parte de tese de doutorado de Ana Fl&#xE1;via Malheiros e Aurea L&#xFA;cia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de Souza pelo Programa de P&#xF3;s Gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Ci&#xEA;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
<p><bold>Aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9;tica e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo n&#xE3;o cont&#xE9;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn></fn-group>
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