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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230014</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Toxic Cardiomyopathies: Alcohol, Amphetamines, and Anabolic Steroids</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1654-4531</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Villacorta</surname>
						<given-names>Humberto</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data AND Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Avila</surname>
						<given-names>Monica S.</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data AND Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5170-0144</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Souza</surname>
						<given-names>Germano Emilio Conceição</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data AND Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Savaris</surname>
						<given-names>Simone Louise</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data AND Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>6</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Braga</surname>
						<given-names>Gustavo Arruda</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data AND Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2284-8251</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Martins</surname>
						<given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data AND Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>7</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Clínicas</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Clínicas Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Alemão Oswaldo Cruz</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Alemão Oswaldo Cruz, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Regional de São José dos Campos</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São José dos Campos</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Regional de São José dos Campos, São José dos Campos, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5">
				<label>5</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Regional do Litoral Norte</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Caraguatatuba</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Regional do Litoral Norte, Caraguatatuba, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff6">
				<label>6</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff7">
				<label>7</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Dasa Complexo Hospitalar de Niterói</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Dasa Complexo Hospitalar de Niterói - Pesquisa Clínica, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Wolney de Andrade Martins Universidade Federal Fluminense - Medicina Clínica - Rua Marques do Paraná, 303, Sexto Andar. Postal Code 24030-215, Niterói, RJ - Brazil E-mail: <email>wolney_martins@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>10</day>
				<month>07</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>3</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230014</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>23</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>03</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>03</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Toxic cardiomyopathies include those caused by drug abuse, as well as chemotherapy agents. This review addresses cardiomyopathies induced by alcoholism, amphetamines, and anabolic steroids, focusing on their pathophysiology, clinical presentation, treatment, and prognosis. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy is frequent and predominates in males. It is dose-dependent, with a probable genetic predisposition. Women are susceptible at lower doses of alcohol intake. The disease ranges from a subclinical asymptomatic form to the typical form of dilated cardiomyopathy with systolic dysfunction and heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). Diagnosis is based on history and exclusion of other etiologies. Treatment is similar to other forms of heart failure, and prognosis depends on cessation of alcoholism. The use of amphetamines has increased, as has the incidence of secondary cardiomyopathy. The majority of patients are young and male. The pathophysiology is multifactorial. Diagnosis is based on history. During the acute phase, there is adrenergic hyperactivity. Treatment is similar to other etiologies of HFrEF. Not infrequently, patients progress to cardiogenic shock and require circulatory support and indication for heart transplantation. Cardiomyopathy secondary to use of anabolic steroids usually occurs in young men. Anabolic steroids have a direct or indirect impact on the cardiovascular system, through their risk factors. Presentation can range from asymptomatic to cardiogenic shock. It is imperative to discontinue anabolic steroid use and institute guidelines-based therapies, usually with reverse remodeling and favorable prognosis.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
				<kwd>Amphetamines</kwd>
				<kwd>Anabolic Agents</kwd>
				<kwd>Substance-Related Disorders</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="12"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="48"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Toxic or chemical cardiomyopathies comprise a group of secondary diseases that affect the myocardium through different mechanisms. This group includes cardiomyopathies caused by the abuse of licit and illicit drugs and drugs commonly used in clinical practice. In this review, we will emphasize cardiomyopathies induced by alcoholism, use of amphetamines, and anabolic steroids.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Alcoholic cardiomyopathy</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Concepts and history</title>
					<p>Ethyl alcohol, also known as ethanol or simply “alcohol”, is the most consumed drug in the history of humanity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Alcohol consumption is currently high, with a global distribution, and there are signs that consumption has increased among young people and adults, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The acute and chronic effects of alcohol on different organs are characteristics that make excessive consumption harmful to health. High and prolonged consumption mainly affects the liver, which is the organ responsible for metabolizing alcohol; the gastrointestinal system; the central and peripheral nervous system; and the cardiovascular system. The effects of alcohol on the heart can lead, in the final stages, to a phenotype of dilated cardiomyopathy, with impaired left ventricular (LV) systolic function and heart failure (HF), a condition known as alcoholic cardiomyopathy.</p>
					<p>Alcoholic cardiomyopathy was first described in 1877, and the term “alcoholic heart disease” was coined by William Mackenzie, in his treatise <italic>Study of the Pulse</italic> , in 1902.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> According to epidemiological data, alcoholic cardiomyopathy represents one of the main non-ischemic etiologies of HF in the western world.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The development of alcoholic cardiomyopathy seems to be related to the amount of alcohol ingested daily and the duration of the period of alcohol abuse. Although the exact amount and time of abuse are not well determined, consumption above 80 g/day, for at least 5 years, is associated with an increased risk of developing cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> displays the volumes of different types of alcoholic beverages equivalent to a standard dose of alcohol, according to the World Health Organization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A standard dose is the unit of measurement that defines the amount of pure ethanol contained in alcoholic beverages. It is equivalent, in general, to the same amount of alcohol and corresponds to different volumes, depending on the alcoholic strength of the beverage.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1">
							<label>Table 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Standard dose of alcohol according to the World Health Organization (WHO)</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Organ</th>
										<th>Beer</th>
										<th>Wine</th>
										<th>Distilled spirits</th>
										<th>Standard dose (pure alcohol)</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td><italic>WHO</italic></td>
										<td align="center"><italic>330 mL</italic></td>
										<td align="center"><italic>100 mL</italic></td>
										<td align="center"><italic>30 mL</italic></td>
										<td align="center"><italic>10 to 12 g</italic></td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1">
									<p>*Considering the alcohol content of beer as 4%, wine as 12%, and distilled spirits as 40%. Source: World Health Organization. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref>
									</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Epidemiology</title>
					<p>In reference centers for the treatment of alcoholism, the prevalence of alcoholic cardiomyopathy ranges from 21% to 32% of cardiomyopathies, but it may be higher in populations with an elevated prevalence of alcoholism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> There is evidence that many patients may have subclinical heart disease. In one study, necropsy of patients with alcoholism revealed signs of cardiomyopathy in patients without clinical manifestations of heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The prevalence of alcoholic cardiomyopathy is higher in men, due to the greater prevalence of alcoholism in the male sex.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> However, women reach a higher maximum alcohol concentration than men for the same amount of alcohol ingested. This is probably due to the greater proportion of body water in men and the greater proportion of body fat in women. Moreover, women have a lower quantity of enzymes that metabolize alcohol. As a result, women may develop alcoholic cardiomyopathy earlier and with lower daily intakes of alcohol compared to men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Pathophysiology</title>
					<p>The benefit-harm ratio of alcohol in relation to the cardiovascular system remains rather controversial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Initial studies suggested cardiovascular benefits with the ingestion of moderate doses, but recent studies have suggested that even small amounts can be harmful.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> The recent literature predominantly shows that the harm is dose-dependent; nonetheless, moderate alcohol consumption should not be recommended to obtain cardiovascular benefits. There is concrete evidence that alcohol can have a toxic effect on cardiomyocytes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> through different mechanisms, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref> . Acute consumption of large amounts of alcohol can lead to inflammation and myocardial injury, detected by troponin elevations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Cardiac arrhythmias may occur, especially atrial fibrillation, in a situation known as “holiday heart syndrome”. Chronic alcohol abuse can lead to myocyte hypertrophy, apoptosis, necrosis, dysfunction of intracellular structures, changes in contractile proteins and calcium homeostasis, mitochondrial degeneration, and myocardial fibrosis. As a result, an initial phenotype of myocardial hypertrophy is observed, with evolution to dilated cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f01">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– The deleterious effects of alcohol on the myocardium. Source: Figure created by the author, using, BioRender.com, with permission.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf01.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Although the effects of alcohol on the myocardium are proven, there seems to be a genetic predisposition for the development of alcoholic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In one study, sequencing of genes related to dilated cardiomyopathy performed in 141 patients with alcoholic cardiomyopathy, 716 patients with dilated cardiomyopathy of other etiologies, and 445 healthy controls revealed that patients with alcoholic cardiomyopathy had more pathogenic variants in genes related to the development of dilated cardiomyopathy, such as the TTNtv variant, than healthy controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> The frequency of pathogenic variants was similar between alcoholic cardiomyopathy and non-alcoholic dilated cardiomyopathy. The left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy with TTNtv and excessive alcohol intake was 8.7% lower than that of patients without TTNtv or excessive alcohol intake. However, patients with alcoholic cardiomyopathy and TTNtv did not differ from those without TTNtv in response to HF treatment. Additional robust studies are needed to further clarify the role of genetics.</p>
					<p>Other environmental factors, in conjunction with alcohol, could contribute to the development of cardiomyopathy. Both alcohol and its metabolites, such as acetaldehyde, are proven to be toxic to the myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Other factors possibly involved (albeit without definitive proof) in the genesis of alcoholic cardiomyopathy include malnutrition, thiamine deficiency, electrolyte deficiency, and selenium deficiency.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A hypothesis raised by German researchers related the presence of antifoam additives present in beer, such as arsenic and cobalt, to the development of alcoholic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> This hypothesis gained strength with the case of “Quebec beer-drinkers cardiomyopathy”. In the 1960s, there was an epidemic of cardiomyopathies in Canada, in heavy beer drinkers. The phenotype was that of a dilated cardiomyopathy, but it had a peculiar characteristic, namely, purplish skin coloration and high initial mortality rate (42%). Furthermore, pericardial effusion and low-output HF were common. This cardiomyopathy disappeared when breweries discontinued the practice of adding cobalt to beer to stabilize foam formation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Natural history and clinical presentation</title>
					<p>The natural history is not completely understood due to the absence of cohorts with long follow-up, initial asymptomatic period, and social issues, which lead individuals to hide their alcoholism problem in the early stages. In the final phase, we have a pattern of dilated cardiomyopathy, with LV systolic dysfunction. The progression of the disease from the normal cardiac phase to the dilated phase is still not well understood. Some studies suggest an initial phase with a hypertrophy phenotype and diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> In fact, diastolic dysfunction is found in about 30% of cases of patients with a history of chronic alcohol abuse, in the absence of systolic dysfunction or LV hypertrophy, correlating with the duration and amount of alcohol consumed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> However, other authors found ventricular dilation as an earlier alteration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Patients may be asymptomatic at an early stage. Unfortunately, the symptoms appear at an advanced stage of cardiac injury. The symptoms and signs are the same as the classic ones for HF, and they do not differ from HF of other etiologies. Cardiac symptoms may be accompanied by signs of liver impairment, malnutrition, and neurological disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diagnosis and prognosis</title>
					<p>To date, there is no typical clinical or histological aspect of alcoholic cardiomyopathy. Diagnosis is basically by exclusion, based on clinical history. A history of chronic alcohol abuse in the absence of other etiologies of dilated cardiomyopathy suggests diagnosis of alcoholic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Chest radiography findings are the same as in other causes of cardiomyopathy, such as cardiomegaly, pulmonary congestion, and pleural effusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The electrocardiogram is also not typical and may contain ST-segment and T-wave changes, low voltage in the presence of extensive fibrosis, bundle branch blocks, and cardiac arrhythmias. Biomarkers such as natriuretic peptides and high sensitivity troponins may be elevated and should be interpreted in the same way as for other HF etiologies. Echocardiography can contribute to the exclusion of other causes of HF and define the phenotypic pattern of LV hypertrophy, dilatation, diastolic dysfunction, or systolic dysfunction, which may precede the onset of symptoms. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging may show areas of delayed enhancement, indicating myocardial fibrosis ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref> ). Although there is no specific pattern of alcoholic cardiomyopathy on cardiac resonance imaging, it can be useful to exclude other etiologies. Improvement of cardiac function with alcohol abstinence strengthens the diagnosis of alcoholic cardiomyopathy.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02">
							<label>Figure 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging of a patient with alcoholic cardiomyopathy and stage D heart failure. Note the presence of delayed enhancement (arrows) indicating extensive fibrosis. Source: Author’s collection.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf02.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Alcoholic cardiomyopathy appears to have better prognosis than idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Evolution depends substantially on abstinence from alcohol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> We suggest observation of the clinical cases presented below, with their different evolutions, according to whether they ceased or continued alcohol consumption.</p>
					<p>One study observed improved cardiac function in patients who were completely abstinent or who reduced their alcohol consumption to &lt; 60 g of alcohol per day. On the other hand, cardiac function deteriorated in most patients who did not change their alcohol consumption pattern.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> In one of the largest cohorts of patients with alcoholic cardiomyopathy, one third of patients died or required heart transplantation; one third showed disease stability; and one third showed recovery of heart function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Predictors of severe cardiac events were absence of prescription of beta-blockers, atrial fibrillation, and QRS width &gt; 120 ms.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Treatment</title>
					<p>Abstinence from alcohol is the mainstay of treatment for alcoholic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> It may be necessary to use medications that reduce alcohol compulsion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> In services specialized in controlling alcohol abuse, complete abstinence is achieved in 50% to 60% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> HF syndrome should be treated in the same way as in other etiologies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Thus, beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers, spironolactone, and diuretics are indicated in cases of congestion. Digoxin can be used as a second line of treatment. New drugs such as sacubitril/valsartan and SGLT2 inhibitors, although not specifically tested in the context of cardiomyopathies, appear to be beneficial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> In the PARADIGM-HF study,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> which compared sacubitril/valsartan with enalapril, 158 patients had alcoholic cardiomyopathy, and the benefits were similar to other etiologies. In relation to SGLT2 inhibitors, empagliflozin has been shown to reduce alcohol-induced myocardial injury by inhibiting mitochondrial apoptosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Patients with nutritional deficiencies may need to correct these abnormalities, with replacement of vitamins and administration of minerals such as selenium and zinc.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Clinical case 1</title>
					<p>A 53-year-old male patient had stage C HF of alcoholic etiology. In 2015, the patient was hospitalized 3 times during a 6-month period for decompensated HF, with New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional class IV. The electrocardiogram after initial treatment showed sinus rhythm, heart rate of 88 bpm, incomplete left bundle branch block, and first-degree atrioventricular block ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref> ). At that moment, the patient was already using carvedilol at a maximum dose. The echocardiogram showed severe LV systolic dysfunction, with LVEF of 15%, calculated by Simpson’s method ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 4</xref> ). At the first outpatient visit, NT-proBNP was 2800 pg/mL. The patient was able to achieve complete abstinence from alcohol. He was medicated with carvedilol, reaching the maximum dose without complications; enalapril maleate 10 mg every 12 hours; spironolactone 25 mg/day; and furosemide, with higher initial doses, later reduced to 40 mg/day. As the patient’s heart rate remained 88 bpm, despite the maximum dose of carvedilol, ivabradine 5 mg every 12 hours was started. He had a favorable evolution, with adequate heart rate control, improvement in functional class, improvement in dyspnea, and regression of edema in the lower limbs, with no hospitalizations during the following 4 years. There was a decrease in NT-proBNP to 1200 pg/mL after 6 months and to 450 pg/mL at one year. An echocardiogram performed in 2019, 4 years after treatment, showed improvement in LV myocardial function, with LVEF of 41%. The patient is currently in NYHA functional class II.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Electrocardiogram of a patient with alcoholic cardiomyopathy and stage C heart failure, showing sinus rhythm, heart rate of 88 bpm, incomplete left bundle branch block, and first-degree atrioventricular block. At the time, the patient was already receiving medication for heart failure, including a maximum dose of carvedilol. Source: Author’s collection.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf03.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Transthoracic echocardiogram of a patient with alcoholic cardiomyopathy and stage C heart failure. Source: Author’s collection.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf04.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Clinical case 2</title>
					<p>A 42-year-old male patient with HF and a history of chronic alcoholism had been using alcohol heavily since the age of 20 years. At the first visit to the outpatient clinic, he was in NYHA functional class IV, with orthopnea, lower limb edema (+++/4+), pathological jugular swelling, hepatomegaly, and moderate ascites. The electrocardiogram showed sinus rhythm, QRS axis shifted to the left, and discrete Q waves in DII, DIII, and aVF. He had a previous coronary angiography with epicardial coronary arteries free of obstructive lesions. Echocardiogram showed LV diastolic and systolic diameters of 63 mm and 57 mm, respectively, with LVEF of 21%. His NT-proBNP was 8426 pg/mL. He was medicated with carvedilol, reaching the maximum dose of 25 mg every 12 hours; enalapril maleate 10 mg every 12 hours; spironolactone 25 mg/day; and furosemide. There was an improvement in functional class and regression of lower limb edema. The patient evolved favorably during 6 months, in NYHA functional class II, and NT-proBNP dropped to 3900 pg/mL. In a consultation during the ninth month of follow-up, he showed a worsening of the condition, with worsening of functional class and return of the lower limb edema. His family reported poor adherence to treatment due to a relapse in excessive alcohol consumption. He evolved with refractory HF, having been hospitalized, and died during this hospitalization.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Amphetamine-induced cardiomyopathy</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>Amphetamines are synthetic drugs that act directly on the central nervous system, stimulating its activity. Examples of amphetamines are methamphetamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine, also known as MDMA or “ecstasy”. The use of these stimulant drugs has increased in recent years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> An estimated 34 million people used amphetamines in 2020, representing 0.7% of the global population. Record amounts of amphetamine were seized globally in 2020, dominated by methamphetamine, in addition to the significant increase in the number of people being treated for methamphetamine-related disorders in North America in the past years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Cardiovascular complications are the main causes of death, and they have been found in up to 75% of patients who abuse methamphetamine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> They include malignant arterial hypertension, arrhythmias, aortic dissection, myocardial infarction secondary to vasospasm, stroke, and cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The incidence of methamphetamine-induced heart disease has increased from 1.8% to 5.6%. These patients tend to be younger, and the majority are male.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pathophysiology</title>
				<p>The pathophysiology of methamphetamine-associated cardiomyopathy is multifactorial, with direct and indirect myocardial damage characterized by increased production of free radicals promoting oxidative stress, cellular apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, alteration of gene expression and intracellular defects in calcium homeostasis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 5</xref> summarizes some pathophysiological mechanisms for the development of methamphetamine-induced heart disease.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f05">
						<label>Figure 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Physiopathology of amphetamine-induced cardiomyopathy. dysfx: dysfunction. Source: Adapted from Reddy et al <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref>
							</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf05.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Diagnosis</title>
				<p>The clinical picture of patients generally presents with signs and symptoms of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). One study analyzed the clinical characteristics of patients with methamphetamine-induced heart disease and found a young population, with a mean age of 30.3 years, that was 93% male. Eighty-three percent were in NYHA functional class III or IV. Other signs and symptoms included angina pectoris, palpitations, cough, and hemoptysis. The study reported 1 episode of cardiogenic shock, 1 case of infective endocarditis, and 1 patient with stroke. The majority of the patients used other illicit drugs associated with methamphetamine, such as marijuana, heroin and cocaine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The main electrocardiographic findings were tachyarrhythmias. Additionally, other findings were described, such as deviation of the electrical axis to the right, T wave inversion in the lateral wall, pulmonale P wave, LV hypertrophy, prolongation of the QT interval, among others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Regarding biomarkers, BNP and NT-proBNP are generally elevated in this population and related to the severity of HFrEF. Ventricular dysfunction is the most evident alteration on the echocardiogram, often with very severe LV dysfunction and dilation. Another finding is dilation of the left atrium and right ventricle. Ventricular function may also be impaired. Some patients have shown thrombi in the ventricles, and pericardial and pleural effusion may be common, with a frequency measured between 40% and 50% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Comparing the echocardiographic findings of young adults with other dilated cardiomyopathies, patients with methamphetamine-induced heart disease had a significantly larger left atrium and right ventricle, lower LVEF, and higher frequency of mitral regurgitation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>There is no consensus on the diagnostic criteria for amphetamine-induced cardiomyopathy. Young patients with a clinical picture of HFrEF and history of drug abuse should have a urine analysis for screening. An assessment of the coronary arteries should be performed to rule out atherosclerotic coronary artery disease, and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging can also be useful to rule out other etiologies such as deposit diseases, myocarditis, amyloidosis, and others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment</title>
				<p>In the acute phase of intoxication, patients have exacerbated adrenergic activation, which may be associated with a hypertensive crisis. Benzodiazepines can attenuate agitation and sympathetic stimulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Patients in cardiogenic shock may require some short-term mechanical circulatory support as a bridge to decision or recovery. Optimized therapy for HFrEF should be administered to chronic patients, as recommended in the guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Seeing that the incidence of thrombotic complications is common in these patients, anticoagulation should be performed, but there is no consensus on its timing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				<p>These patients are not candidates for heart transplantation until they have been abstinent for 6 months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> They may, however, be candidates for a long-term device as a bridge to candidacy until the abstinence period has been completed.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Outcomes</title>
				<p>It has been reported that HF secondary to methamphetamine use is a more severe form of cardiomyopathy, with severely reduced LVEF and a more dilated LV,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> in addition to a greater association with hospital readmission. One study reported 57% readmission at least once during a mean follow-up of 17.7 months, most within 3 months of discharge.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Predictors of rehospitalizations for HF included reduction in LVEF, elevated systolic pulmonary artery pressure, stroke, and mood or anxiety disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The likelihood of recovering heart function and improving symptoms was significantly higher in patients who discontinued methamphetamine abuse, with a lower incidence of death, non-fatal stroke, and hospital readmissions for HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Anabolic steroid-induced cardiomyopathy</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>Anabolic steroids are drugs that are chemically and pharmacologically related to testosterone; their main effect is the development of muscle mass. The term anabolic refers to a hormone or substance capable of enhancing the growth of tissues, such as skeletal muscle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Testosterone was biochemically described and synthesized in the early 1930s, and a series of synthetic variations have been produced since then. The use of testosterone or other anabolic steroids by athletes began in the 1940s to 1950s, and it has grown considerably. Current data show that the use of anabolic steroids is not restricted to bodybuilders or high-performance athletes. In addition to competitive athletes, use among non-athletes is growing, with a higher prevalence observed in males.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> It is estimated that around 4 million people use anabolic steroids in the United States alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> In Brazil, a study revealed that the prevalence of anabolic steroid use may vary from 2.1% to 31.6%, depending on the cohort studied; these higher numbers were obtained in a study carried out among students and teachers of physical education.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Athletes and non-athletes use anabolic steroids in order to improve their performance and increase strength and muscle mass, but these substances can cause adverse effects in different organs and tissues, including the central nervous system, liver, and cardiovascular system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> The pattern of use varies greatly in different groups, depending on the type of substance used, routes of administration, dosages, cyclic patterns, duration, and association with other drugs.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Effects on the cardiovascular system</title>
				<p>Numerous case reports have been described associating the use of anabolic steroids with cardiovascular events, such as myocardial infarction, stroke, and death. Furthermore, data have been reported demonstrating increased blood pressure levels, changes in the lipid profile with increased total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol and reduced HDL-cholesterol levels, LV hypertrophy, and systolic and diastolic ventricular dysfunction. Prolonged use of anabolic steroids may also result in increased peripheral vascular resistance, dose-dependent ventricular hypertrophy, and worsening of myocardial contractility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 6</xref> displays a summary of the effects of anabolic steroids on the cardiovascular system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f06">
						<label>Figure 6</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Effects of anabolic steroids on the cardiovascular system. Source: Adapted from Milevski SV.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf06.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pathophysiology</title>
				<p>The mechanisms responsible for the negative effects on the cardiovascular system are still not very well understood. Direct damage to myocytes and endothelial cells, reduced intracellular calcium levels, and an increase in apoptosis factors have been described as possible mechanisms. It has also been suggested that anabolic steroids have a negative effect on the system of vasodilation related to nitric oxide, contributing to the occurrence of vasoconstriction and increased peripheral vascular resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Among the cases of healthy young athletes who had adverse effects as consequences of anabolic steroid abuse, the most frequent cardiovascular events include acute myocardial infarction, sudden death, atrial fibrillation, ventricular fibrillation, and the development of dilated cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment and prevention of anabolic steroid-induced cardiomyopathy</title>
				<p>Abuse of anabolic steroids can cause cardiomyopathy and lead to severe LV systolic dysfunction. Fortunately, in most cases it is possible to reverse the dysfunction, at least partially, after discontinuing the use of anabolic steroids.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> The treatment of patients who present with HF due to anabolic steroids must follow the current recommendations of the guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> The knowledge of the cardiovascular risks associated with the use of these substances is essential to diagnostic suspicion and adequate treatment. In cases of heart disease related to anabolic steroids, it is fundamental to discontinue the use of the substance in order to reverse the condition. Therefore, efforts must be made to educate health professionals, especially physical education teachers, and the population as a whole regarding the harmful effects of using these substances and reinforce that the best way to avoid complications is to refrain from using anabolic steroids inappropriately, without medical indication.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
	</body>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Miocardiopatias Tóxicas: Álcool, Anfetaminas e Anabolizantes</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1654-4531</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Villacorta</surname>
						<given-names>Humberto</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados E Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Avila</surname>
						<given-names>Monica S.</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados E Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5170-0144</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Souza</surname>
						<given-names>Germano Emilio Conceição</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados E Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5002"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Savaris</surname>
						<given-names>Simone Louise</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados E Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6002"><sup>6</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Braga</surname>
						<given-names>Gustavo Arruda</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados E Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2284-8251</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Martins</surname>
						<given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados E Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7002"><sup>7</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo Faculdade de Medicina Hospital das Clínicas Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Alemão Oswaldo Cruz, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Regional de São José dos Campos, São José dos Campos, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5002">
				<label>5</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Regional do Litoral Norte, Caraguatatuba, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff6002">
				<label>6</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff7002">
				<label>7</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Dasa Complexo Hospitalar de Niterói - Pesquisa Clínica, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">Correspondência: Wolney de Andrade Martins Universidade Federal Fluminense - Medicina Clínica - Rua Marques do Paraná, 303, Sexto Andar. CEP 24030-215, Niterói, RJ - Brasil E-mail: wolney_martins@hotmail.com</corresp>
				<fn id="fn1002">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>As miocardiopatias tóxicas incluem aquelas causadas pelo abuso de drogas, assim como quimioterápicos. Nesta revisão abordam-se as miocardiopatias secundárias ao alcoolismo, às anfetaminas e aos esteroides anabolizantes (EA), com foco na fisiopatologia, quadro clínico, tratamento e prognóstico. A miocardiopatia alcoólica é frequente e predomina no sexo masculino. É dose-dependente, com provável predisposição genética. As mulheres são susceptíveis em doses menores de ingestão de álcool. A doença varia de subclínica assintomática até a forma típica de miocardiopatia dilatada com disfunção sistólica e insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFEr). O diagnóstico é baseado na história e exclusão de outras etiologias. O tratamento é semelhante às outras formas de insuficiência cardíaca e o prognóstico depende da cessação do alcoolismo. O uso de anfetaminas tem aumentado assim como a incidência da miocardiopatia secundária. Os pacientes são majoritariamente jovens e masculinos. A fisiopatologia é multifatorial. O diagnóstico baseia-se na história. Na fase aguda há hiperatividade adrenérgica. O tratamento é semelhante às outras etiologias de ICFEr. Não raramente, pacientes evoluem para choque cardiogênico com necessidade de suporte circulatório e indicação de transplante cardíaco. A miocardiopatia secundária ao uso de EA ocorre geralmente em homens jovens. Os EA impactam o sistema cardiovascular de forma direta ou indireta, através de seus fatores de risco. Pode se apresentar desde assintomáticos até choque cardiogênico. É imperativa a descontinuação do EA e a instituição das terapias baseadas nas diretrizes, usualmente com remodelamento reverso e bom prognóstico.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Cardiomiopatia Alcoólica</kwd>
				<kwd>Anfetaminas</kwd>
				<kwd>Anabolizantes</kwd>
				<kwd>Transtornos Relacionados ao Uso de Substâncias</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>As miocardiopatias tóxicas ou químicas compreendem grupo de doenças secundárias que acometem o miocárdio por mecanismos distintos. Incluem-se nesse grupo as miocardiopatias causadas pelo abuso de drogas lícitas e ilícitas e os fármacos de uso comum na prática clínica. Nesta revisão daremos ênfase às miocardiopatias secundárias ao alcoolismo, ao uso de anfetaminas e aos esteroides anabolizantes (EA).</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Miocardiopatia alcóolica</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Conceitos e histórico</title>
						<p>Álcool etílico, também conhecido como etanol ou apenas “álcool”, é a droga mais consumida na história da humanidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Nos dias atuais, o consumo de álcool é elevado, tem distribuição global e há sinais de aumento do consumo tanto entre jovens como entre adultos, especialmente durante a pandemia de COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Os efeitos agudos e crônicos do álcool sobre diversos órgãos são características que tornam seu consumo excessivo prejudicial à saúde. O consumo elevado e prolongado acomete principalmente o fígado, órgão responsável por sua metabolização; o sistema gastrointestinal; o sistema nervoso central e periférico; e o sistema cardiovascular. Os efeitos do álcool sobre o coração podem levar, em estágios finais, a um fenótipo de miocardiopatia dilatada, com prejuízo da função sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo (VE) e insuficiência cardíaca (IC), quadro conhecido como miocardiopatia alcoólica (MCPa).</p>
						<p>A MCPa foi inicialmente descrita em 1877 e o termo “ <italic>doença cardíaca alcoólica</italic> ” foi criado por Willian Mackenzie, em seu tratado “ <italic>Study of the Pulse</italic> ”, em 1902.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> De acordo com dados epidemiológicos, a MCPa representa uma das principais etiologias não isquêmicas de IC no mundo ocidental.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O desenvolvimento da MCPa parece estar relacionado à quantidade de álcool ingerida diariamente e à duração do período de abuso do álcool. Embora a exata quantidade e tempo de abuso não estejam bem determinados, um consumo acima de 80 g/dia, por pelo menos 5 anos, está associado ao aumento do risco de desenvolver a miocardiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref> mostra o volume de diversos tipos de bebidas alcoólicas equivalentes à dose padrão de álcool, de acordo com a Organização Mundial da Saúde.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Dose padrão é a unidade de medida que define a quantidade de etanol puro contido nas bebidas alcoólicas. Equivale, em geral, à mesma quantidade de álcool e corresponde a volumes diferentes, dependendo do teor alcoólico da bebida.</p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t1002">
								<label>Tabela 1</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Dose padrão de álcool de acordo com a Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS)</title>
								</caption>
								<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
									<colgroup>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
									</colgroup>
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th align="left">Órgão</th>
											<th>Cerveja / Chopp</th>
											<th>Vinho</th>
											<th>Destilados</th>
											<th>Dose-padrão (álcool puro)</th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td><italic>OMS</italic></td>
											<td align="center"><italic>330 mL</italic></td>
											<td align="center"><italic>100 mL</italic></td>
											<td align="center"><italic>30 mL</italic></td>
											<td align="center"><italic>10-12 g</italic></td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
								<table-wrap-foot>
									<fn id="TFN1002">
										<p>*Considerando o teor alcoólico de uma cerveja 4%, vinho 12% e destilado 40%. Fonte: World Health Organization. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref>
										</p>
									</fn>
								</table-wrap-foot>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Epidemiologia</title>
						<p>Em centros de referência para tratamento de alcoolismo, a prevalência de MCPa varia de 21% a 32% das miocardiopatias, mas pode ser maior em populações com elevada prevalência de alcoolismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Há evidências de que muitos pacientes podem ter doença cardíaca subclínica. Em um estudo, necropsia de pacientes alcoólatras revelou sinais de miocardiopatia em pacientes sem manifestações clínicas de doenças cardíacas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A prevalência de MCPa é maior nos homens devido à maior prevalência do alcoolismo no sexo masculino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> No entanto, as mulheres atingem concentração máxima alcoólica maior que a dos homens para uma mesma quantidade de álcool ingerida. Isso ocorre, provavelmente, devido a maior proporção de água corporal nos homens e maior proporção de gordura nas mulheres. Além disso, as mulheres têm menor quantidade de enzimas que metabolizam o álcool. Como resultado, as mulheres podem desenvolver MCPa mais precocemente e com menores doses diárias de ingestão de álcool, em comparação aos homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Fisiopatologia</title>
						<p>Permanece bastante controversa a relação dos benefícios <italic>versus</italic> malefícios do álcool sobre o sistema cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Estudos iniciais sugeriam benefícios cardiovasculares com a ingestão de doses moderadas, mas estudos recentes sugerem que mesmo quantidades pequenas podem ser prejudiciais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Há predomínio na literatura recente que os malefícios são dose-dependente, mas ainda assim, não se deve recomendar consumo moderado de álcool para obtenção de benefícios cardiovasculares. Há evidências concretas de que o álcool pode ter efeito tóxico sobre o cardiomiócito<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> por diversos mecanismos, como demonstrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref> . Consumo agudo de grande quantidade de álcool pode levar a inflamação e injúria miocárdica, detectadas por elevações de troponina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Arritmias cardíacas podem ocorrer, principalmente fibrilação atrial, situação conhecida como “ <italic>holiday heart syndrome</italic> ”, ou seja, a síndrome cardíaca do final de semana. O abuso crônico de álcool pode levar à hipertrofia, apoptose e necrose de miócitos, disfunção de estruturas intracelulares, alterações de proteínas contráteis e da homeostase do cálcio, degeneração mitocondrial e fibrose miocárdica. Como resultado, observa-se um fenótipo inicial de hipertrofia miocárdica, com evolução para miocardiopatia dilatada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f01002">
								<label>Figura 1</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Efeitos deletérios do álcool para o miocárdio. Fonte: Figura criada pelo autor, utilizando BioRender.com, sob autorização.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf01-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>Embora os efeitos do álcool sobre o miocárdio estejam comprovados, parece haver uma predisposição genética para o desenvolvimento de MCPa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Em um estudo, o sequenciamento de genes relacionados à miocardiopatia dilatada realizado em 141 pacientes com MCPa, 716 pacientes com miocardiopatia dilatada de outras etiologias e 445 controles saudáveis, revelou que os pacientes com MCPa tinham mais variantes patogênicas em genes relacionados ao desenvolvimento de miocardiopatia dilatada como, por exemplo, a variante TTNtv, do que controles saudáveis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> A frequência de variantes patogênicas foi similar entre MCPa e miocardiopatias dilatadas não alcoólicas. Pacientes com miocardiopatia dilatada com TTNtv e ingestão excessiva de álcool apresentaram fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) 8,7% menor do que aqueles sem TTNtv ou ingestão excessiva de álcool. No entanto, pacientes com MCPa e TTNtv não diferiram daqueles sem TTNtv em resposta ao tratamento para IC. Estudos robustos adicionais são necessários para melhor elucidar o papel da genética.</p>
						<p>Outros fatores ambientais, em conjunto com o álcool, poderiam contribuir para o desenvolvimento da miocardiopatia. Tanto o álcool, quanto seus metabólitos, como o acetaldeído, são comprovadamente tóxicos ao miocárdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Outros fatores possivelmente envolvidos – embora sem comprovação definitiva – na gênese da MCPa são má nutrição, deficiência de tiamina, deficiência de eletrólitos e deficiência de selênio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Uma hipótese gerada por pesquisadores alemães relaciona a presença de aditivos antiespuma presentes na cerveja, como arsênio e cobalto, ao desenvolvimento de MCPa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Essa hipótese ganha força com o caso da “miocardiopatia dos bebedores de cerveja de Quebec”. Na década de 1960, houve uma epidemia de miocardiopatias no Canadá, em bebedores com elevado consumo de cerveja. O fenótipo era de uma miocardiopatia dilatada, mas tinha uma característica especial, que era a coloração arroxeada da pele e alta taxa de mortalidade inicial (42%). Além disso, era comum derrame pericárdico e IC de baixo débito. Essa miocardiopatia desapareceu quando as cervejarias interromperam a prática de adicionar cobalto à cerveja, para estabilizar a formação de espuma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>História natural e quadro clínico</title>
						<p>A história natural não é completamente entendida devido à ausência de coortes com longo seguimento, período inicial assintomático e questões sociais, que levam os indivíduos a esconderem seu problema de alcoolismo nas fases iniciais. Na fase final, temos um padrão de miocardiopatia dilatada, com disfunção sistólica do VE. A progressão da doença da fase cardíaca normal até a fase dilatada ainda não é bem compreendida. Alguns estudos sugerem uma fase inicial com fenótipo de hipertrofia e disfunção diastólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> De fato, disfunção diastólica é encontrada em cerca de 30% dos casos de indivíduos com história de abuso crônico de álcool, na ausência de disfunção sistólica ou hipertrofia de VE, correlacionando-se com a duração e quantidade de álcool consumida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> No entanto, outros autores encontraram a dilatação ventricular como alteração mais precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Os indivíduos podem ser assintomáticos em uma fase inicial. Infelizmente os sintomas surgem em estágio adiantado da lesão cardíaca. Os sintomas e sinais são os clássicos da IC e não diferem de IC de outras etiologias. Os sintomas cardíacos podem vir acompanhados de sinais de comprometimento hepático, má nutrição e distúrbios neurológicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Diagnóstico e prognóstico</title>
						<p>Até o presente, não existe um aspecto clínico ou histológico típico de MCPa. O diagnóstico é basicamente de exclusão, feito com base na história clínica. Uma história de abuso crônico de álcool na ausência de outras etiologias de miocardiopatia dilatada sugere o diagnóstico de MCPa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Os achados na radiografia do tórax são os mesmos de outras causas de miocardiopatias, como cardiomegalia, congestão pulmonar e derrame pleural.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O ECG também não é típico e pode conter alterações de segmento ST e onda T, baixa voltagem na presença de grande fibrose, bloqueios de ramo e arritmias cardíacas. Biomarcadores, como peptídeos natriuréticos e troponinas de alta sensibilidade podem estar elevados e devem ser interpretados da mesma forma que para outras etiologias de IC. O ecocardiograma pode contribuir para a exclusão de outras causas de IC e define o padrão fenotípico de hipertrofia, dilatação, disfunção diastólica ou disfunção sistólica do VE, que podem preceder o aparecimento de sintomas. A ressonância magnética cardíaca pode mostrar áreas de realce tardio, indicando fibrose miocárdica ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref> ). Apesar de não haver um padrão específico de MCPa em imagens de ressonância cardíaca, ela pode ser útil para excluir outras etiologias. A melhora da função cardíaca com a abstinência ao álcool fortalece o diagnóstico de MCPa.</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f02002">
								<label>Figura 2</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Ressonância magnética cardíaca de paciente portador de miocardiopatia alcoólica, com insuficiência cardíaca estágio D. Observar presença de realce tardio (setas) indicando extensa fibrose. Fonte: acervo do autor.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf02-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>A MCPa parece ter melhor prognóstico que a miocardiopatia dilatada idiopática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A evolução depende em grande parte da abstinência ao álcool.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Sugerimos observar os casos clínicos apresentados na sequência, com suas diferentes evoluções, de acordo com a suspensão ou manutenção do consumo de álcool.</p>
						<p>Em um estudo, observou-se melhora da função cardíaca em pacientes em total abstinência ou nos que reduziram a quantidade de consumo para &lt; 60 g de álcool por dia. Por outro lado, a função cardíaca se deteriorou na maioria dos pacientes que não mudaram seu padrão de consumo alcoólico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Em uma das maiores coortes de pacientes com MCPa, um terço dos pacientes morreu ou necessitou de transplante cardíaco; um terço apresentou estabilidade da doença; e um terço apresentou recuperação da função cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Os preditores de eventos cardiológicos graves foram ausência de prescrição de betabloqueadores, fibrilação atrial e largura do QRS &gt; 120 ms.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Tratamento</title>
						<p>A abstinência ao álcool é a base do tratamento da MCPa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Pode ser necessário o uso de medicamentos que diminuem a compulsão por álcool.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Em serviços especializados no controle do abuso de álcool, abstinência completa é alcançada em 50% a 60% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A síndrome de IC deve ser tratada da mesma forma que em outras etiologias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Assim, estão indicados betabloqueadores, inibidores da enzima de conversão ou bloqueadores de receptor de angiotensina, espironolactona e diuréticos em casos de congestão. Digoxina pode ser usada como segunda linha de tratamento. Novos medicamentos, como sacubitril/valsartana e inibidores de SGLT2, embora não testados especificamente no contexto das miocardiopatias, parecem ser benéficos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> No estudo PARADIGM-HF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> em que sacubitril/valsartana foi comparado ao enalapril, 158 pacientes eram portadores de MCPa e tiveram benefícios semelhantes às outras etiologias. Já em relação aos inibidores de SGLT2, demonstrou-se que a empagliflozina reduz a injúria miocárdica induzida pelo álcool, através da inibição da apoptose mitocondrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Pacientes com deficiências nutricionais podem necessitar de correções dessas anormalidades, com reposição de vitaminas e administração de minerais como selênio e zinco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Caso clínico 1</title>
						<p>Paciente de 53 anos de idade, do sexo masculino, com quadro de IC estágio C, de etiologia alcoólica. No ano de 2015, o paciente teve 3 internações por IC descompensada em 6 meses, classe funcional IV da New York Heart Association (NYHA). O ECG após tratamento inicial mostrava ritmo sinusal, frequência cardíaca (FC) de 88 bpm, bloqueio incompleto do ramo esquerdo e bloqueio atrioventricular de primeiro grau ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 3</xref> ). Nesse momento já em uso de carvedilol em dose máxima. O ecocardiograma mostrava grave disfunção sistólica do VE, com FEVE calculada pelo método de Simpson de 15% ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 4</xref> ). NT-proBNP na primeira consulta no ambulatório foi de 2.800 pg/mL. O paciente conseguiu obter abstinência completa do álcool. Foi medicado com carvedilol e atingiu dose máxima, sem complicações; maleato de enalapril 10 mg de 12/12 horas; espironolactona 25 mg/dia; e furosemida, com doses iniciais mais elevadas, tendo sido reduzida posteriormente para 40 mg/dia. Como permanecia com FC de 88 bpm, apesar de dose máxima de carvedilol, foi iniciado ivabradina 5 mg de 12/12 horas. Apresentou evolução favorável, com controle adequado da FC, melhora de classe funcional, melhora da dispneia e regressão do edema de membros inferiores e sem hospitalização nos 4 anos seguintes. Houve queda do NT-proBNP para 1.200 pg/mL após 6 meses e para 450 pg/mL em um ano. Ecocardiograma feito em 2019, 4 anos após o tratamento, mostrou melhora da função miocárdica de VE, com FEVE de 41%. Atualmente encontra-se em classe funcional II da NYHA.</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f03002">
								<label>Figura 3</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Eletrocardiograma de portador de miocardiopatia alcoólica e insuficiência cardíaca estágio C evidenciando ritmo sinusal, frequência cardíaca de 88 bpm, bloqueio do ramo esquerdo incompleto e bloqueio atrioventricular de primeiro grau. Nesse momento, paciente já estava medicado para insuficiência cardíaca, incluindo dose máxima de carvedilol. Fonte: acervo do próprio autor.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf03-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f04002">
								<label>Figura 4</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Ecocardiograma transtorácico de paciente portador de miocardiopatia alcoólica e insuficiência cardíaca estágio C. Fonte: acervo do próprio autor.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf04-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Caso clínico 2</title>
						<p>Homem de 42 anos, com quadro de IC e história de alcoolismo crônico. Fazia uso excessivo de álcool desde os 20 anos de idade. Na primeira consulta no ambulatório estava em classe funcional IV da NYHA, com ortopneia, edema de membros inferiores (+++/4+), turgência jugular patológica, hepatomegalia e ascite moderada. ECG mostrava ritmo sinusal, eixo elétrico ÂQRS desviado para a esquerda e discretas ondas Q em DII, DIII e aVF. Tinha angiocoronariografia prévia com coronárias epicárdicas livres de lesões obstrutivas. Ecocardiograma mostrava diâmetros diastólico e sistólico do VE de 63 mm e 57 mm, respectivamente, com FEVE de 21%. Apresentou NT-proBNP de 8.426 pg/mL. Foi medicado com carvedilol e chegou à dose máxima de 25 mg de 12/12 horas; maleato de enalapril 10 mg de 12/12 horas; espironolactona 25 mg/dia; e furosemida. Houve melhora da classe funcional e regressão do edema de membros inferiores. O paciente evoluiu favoravelmente por 6 meses, em classe funcional II da NYHA e queda do NT-proBNP para 3.900 pg/mL. Em consulta no 9° mês de acompanhamento, apresentou piora do quadro, com piora da classe funcional e retorno do edema de membros inferiores. Família informou má adesão ao tratamento devido à recaída no consumo excessivo de álcool. Evoluiu com IC refratária, tendo sido hospitalizado, e faleceu nessa hospitalização.</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Miocardiopatia por anfetaminas</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Introdução</title>
					<p>Anfetaminas são drogas sintéticas que agem diretamente no sistema nervoso central, estimulando a sua atividade. Exemplos de anfetaminas são a metanfetamina e a metilenodioximetanfetamina, também conhecida por MDMA ou “ <italic>ecstasy</italic> ”. O uso dessas drogas estimulantes tem aumentado nos últimos anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Estima-se que 34 milhões de pessoas usaram anfetaminas em 2020, representando 0,7% da população global. Quantidades recordes de anfetaminas foram apreendidas em 2020 em nível global, dominadas pela metanfetamina, além do aumento significativo no número de pessoas em tratamento para distúrbios das metanfetaminas na América do Norte nos últimos anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>As complicações cardiovasculares são as principais causas de morte, tendo sido encontradas em até 75% dos abusadores de metanfetaminas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Elas incluem hipertensão arterial maligna, arritmias, dissecção de aorta, infarto do miocárdio secundário a vasoespasmo, acidente vascular cerebral e miocardiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A incidência da cardiopatia induzida por metanfetamina aumentou de 1,8% para 5,6%, sendo que esses pacientes tendem a ser mais jovens e majoritariamente masculinos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Fisiopatologia</title>
					<p>A fisiopatologia da miocardiopatia associada à metanfetamina é multifatorial, com danos miocárdicos diretos e indiretos caracterizados pelo aumento de produção de radicais livres promovendo estresse oxidativo, apoptose celular, disfunção mitocondrial, alteração da expressão genética e defeitos intracelulares da homeostase do cálcio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 5</xref> resume alguns mecanismos fisiopatológicos para o desenvolvimento da cardiopatia induzida pelas metanfetaminas.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f05002">
							<label>Figura 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Fisiopatologia da miocardiopatia pelas anfetaminas. Adaptado de Reddy et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref>
								</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf05-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diagnóstico</title>
					<p>O quadro clínico dos pacientes geralmente se apresenta com sinais e sintomas de insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFEr). Um estudo analisou as características clínicas de pacientes com cardiopatia induzida por metanfetaminas e encontrou uma população jovem, com média de idade de 30,3 anos e 93% do sexo masculino. Oitenta e três por cento se encontrava em classe funcional III ou IV da NYHA. Outros sinais e sintomas incluíram <italic>angina pectoris</italic> , palpitações, tosse e hemoptise. Foram relatados nesse estudo um episódio de choque cardiogênico, um caso de endocardite infecciosa e um paciente com acidente vascular cerebral. A maioria dos pacientes utilizavam outras drogas ilícitas associadas à metanfetamina tais como maconha, heroína e cocaína.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os principais achados eletrocardiográficos foram as taquiarritmias, ademais foram descritos outros achados como o desvio do eixo elétrico para direita; a inversão da onda T na parede lateral; a onda P pulmonale; a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda; o prolongamento do intervalo QT, entre outros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Dentre os biomarcadores, o BNP e o NT-proBNP geralmente estão elevados nessa população e relacionados com a gravidade da ICFEr. A disfunção ventricular é a alteração mais evidente ao ecocardiograma, muitas vezes com disfunção muito grave e dilatação ventricular esquerda. Outro achado encontrado é a dilatação de átrio esquerdo e de ventrículo direito. A função ventricular pode estar comprometida também. Alguns pacientes apresentaram trombos em ventrículos, e o derrame pericárdico e pleural podem ser comuns, com frequência aferida entre 40% e 50% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Comparando os achados ecocardiográficos de jovens adultos com outras miocardiopatias dilatadas, pacientes com cardiopatia induzida por metanfetamina apresentaram átrio esquerdo e ventrículo direito significativamente maiores; menor FEVE; e maior frequência de regurgitação mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Não há consenso sobre os critérios diagnósticos para miocardiopatia secundária às anfetaminas. Pacientes com quadro clínico de ICFEr, jovens, com antecedentes de abuso de drogas deveriam ter uma análise da urina para rastreamento. Uma avaliação das artérias coronárias deve ser realizada para descartar doença arterial coronariana aterosclerótica e a ressonância magnética cardíaca também pode ser útil para afastar outras etiologias como as doenças de depósito, as miocardites, a amiloidose, entre outras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento</title>
					<p>Na fase aguda da intoxicação o paciente se encontra com uma ativação adrenérgica exacerbada podendo estar associada à crise hipertensiva. Benzodiazepínicos podem atenuar a agitação e o estímulo simpático.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Pacientes em choque cardiogênico podem necessitar de algum suporte circulatório mecânico de curta duração como ponte para decisão ou recuperação. A terapia otimizada para ICFEr deve ser administrada aos pacientes crônicos conforme o preconizado nas diretrizes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Visto que a incidência de complicações trombóticas é comum nesses pacientes, a anticoagulação deve ser realizada, mas não existe um consenso sobre o tempo da mesma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Esses pacientes não são candidatos ao transplante cardíaco até estarem em abstinência por 6 meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Entretanto, eles podem ser candidatos a um dispositivo de longa duração como ponte para candidatura até o cumprimento do período de abstinência.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Desfechos</title>
					<p>Foi relatado que a IC secundária à metanfetamina é uma forma mais grave de cardiomiopatia, com FEVE gravemente reduzida com ventrículo esquerdo mais dilatado,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> com uma maior associação à readmissão hospitalar. Um estudo reportou reinternação de 57%, em pelo menos uma vez, durante o acompanhamento médio de 17,7 meses, a maioria dentro de 3 meses após a alta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Os preditores de reospitalizações por IC incluíram redução na FEVE, elevações na pressão sistólica da arterial pulmonar, acidente vascular cerebral e transtornos de humor ou ansiedade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A chance de recuperação da função cardíaca e dos sintomas foi significativamente maior nos pacientes que interromperam o abuso das metanfetaminas, com incidência menor de morte, acidente vascular cerebral não fatal e readmissões hospitalares por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Miocardiopatia por esteroides anabolizantes</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Introdução</title>
					<p>Os esteroides anabolizantes (EA) são drogas química e farmacologicamente relacionadas à testosterona, que têm como efeito principal o desenvolvimento da massa muscular. O termo anabolizante se refere a um hormônio ou substância capaz de potencializar o crescimento de tecidos como o músculo esquelético, por exemplo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> A testosterona foi bioquimicamente descrita e sintetizada no início da década de 1930 e uma série de variações sintéticas foram produzidas a partir de então. O uso da testosterona ou de outros EA por atletas teve início nos anos 1940 a 1950 e tem crescido consideravelmente. Os dados atuais mostram que o uso de EA não está restrito aos “ <italic>bodybuilders”</italic> ou aos atletas de alto rendimento. Além dos atletas de competição, percebe-se o crescimento do uso em não atletas, com maior prevalência entre indivíduos do gênero masculino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Estima-se que cerca de 4 milhões de pessoas façam uso de EA somente nos Estados Unidos da América.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> No Brasil, um estudo revelou que a prevalência do uso de EA pode variar de 2,1% a 31,6%, a depender da coorte estudada, sendo esses números mais altos obtidos em estudo realizado entre estudantes e professores de educação física.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Atletas e não atletas utilizam EA com objetivo de melhorar sua performance, aumentar a força e a massa muscular, porém essas substâncias podem causar efeitos adversos em diferentes órgãos e tecidos, incluindo o sistema nervoso central, o fígado e o sistema cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> O padrão de uso varia muito em diferentes grupos, a depender do tipo de substância utilizada, rotas de administração, dosagens, padrões cíclicos, duração e associação de outras drogas.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos no sistema cardiovascular</title>
					<p>Numerosos relatos de casos têm sido descritos associando o uso de EA com eventos cardiovasculares, como infarto do miocárdio, acidente vascular cerebral e morte. Ademais, dados demonstrando aumento dos níveis pressóricos, alteração do perfil lipídico com aumento do colesterol total e do LDL-colesterol e a redução dos níveis de HDL-colesterol, hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e disfunção ventricular sistólica e diastólica têm sido reportados. O uso prolongado de EA pode também resultar em aumento da resistência vascular periférica, hipertrofia ventricular dose-dependente e piora da contratilidade miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Um resumo dos efeitos dos EA sobre o sistema cardiovascular<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> está apresentado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figura 6</xref> .</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f06002">
							<label>Figura 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Efeitos dos esteroides anabolizantes sobre o sistema cardiovascular. Fonte: adaptado de Milevski SV.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-003-01-e20230014-gf06-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Fisiopatologia</title>
					<p>Os mecanismos responsáveis pelos efeitos negativos no sistema cardiovascular ainda não são muito bem compreendidos. Já foram descritos dentre os possíveis mecanismos o dano direto sobre os miócitos e as células endoteliais, a redução dos níveis de cálcio intracelular e o aumento de fatores de apoptose. Sugere-se também que os EA tenham um efeito negativo no sistema de vasodilatação relacionado ao óxido nítrico, contribuindo para a ocorrência da vasoconstrição e aumento da resistência vascular periférica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Dentre os casos de atletas jovens e saudáveis que tiveram efeitos adversos por consequência do abuso de EA, os eventos cardiovasculares mais frequentes incluem infarto agudo do miocárdio, morte súbita, fibrilação atrial, fibrilação ventricular e o desenvolvimento de cardiomiopatia dilatada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento e prevenção de miocardiopatia por esteroides anabolizantes</title>
					<p>O abuso de EA pode ser uma causa de miocardiopatia e pode cursar com disfunção sistólica grave do ventrículo esquerdo. Felizmente, na maioria das vezes é possível reverter a disfunção – pelo menos de forma parcial – após a suspensão do uso dos anabolizantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> O tratamento dos pacientes que se apresentam com IC por EA deve seguir as atuais recomendações das diretrizes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> O conhecimento dos riscos cardiovasculares associados ao uso destas substâncias é essencial para a suspeita diagnóstica e o seu tratamento adequado. Nos casos de cardiopatia relacionada aos EA, a suspensão do uso da substância é fundamental para a reversão do quadro. Assim, esforços devem ser feitos para educar profissionais da saúde, em especial professores de educação física e a população como um todo sobre os efeitos prejudiciais do uso destas substâncias e reforçar que a melhor forma de evitar as complicações é não usar EA de forma inadvertida, sem que haja indicação médica.</p>
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					<p>Vinculação acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
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			</fn-group>
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				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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