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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &amp; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20220087</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20220087</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Critical Analysis and Applicability of Imaging Methods in Monitoring and Diagnosing Ventricular Dysfunction in Patients with Cancer</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mesquita</surname>
						<given-names>Claudio Tinoco</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research; Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8809-8783</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Melo</surname>
						<given-names>Marcelo Dantas Tavares de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research; Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7006-7348</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Leal</surname>
						<given-names>Ariane Binoti Pacheco</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research; Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1777-477X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Almeida</surname>
						<given-names>André Luiz Cerqueira de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research; Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universitário Antonio Pedro/Ebserh</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Universitário Antonio Pedro/Ebserh – Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Paraíba</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">João Pessoa</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Multiscan Inteligência Diagnóstica</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Vila Velha</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Multiscan Inteligência Diagnóstica, Vila Velha, ES – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5">
				<label>5</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Feira de Santana</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Feira de Santana</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, BA – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Claudio Tinoco Mesquita • R. Mario Santos Braga, 30. Postal Code 24020-140, Centro, Niterói, RJ – Brazil E-mail: <email>claudiotinocomesquita@id.uff.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>18</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Oct-Dec</season>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>2</volume>
			<issue>4</issue>
			<fpage>386</fpage>
			<lpage>394</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>14</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>19</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>19</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Cardio-oncology is a subspecialty of cardiology that has become necessary as a consequence of the favorable impact of cancer treatment, which increases patients’ survival rates, but makes them more prone to the cardiovascular side effects of cancer therapies in the short and long term. The presence of predisposing factors such as pre-existing cardiovascular disease, cardiovascular risk factors, genetic predisposition, previous antineoplastic therapies, and increased patient age is associated with a higher risk of cardiotoxicity in cancer treatment and may aggravate its complications. The use of imaging methods is fundamental in the management and detection of complications in cancer treatment. Echocardiography is considered the standard method for assessing left ventricular function and should be used in all patients. Magnetic resonance imaging is the best alternative for evaluation in patients with other associated conditions, especially advanced coronary disease, and in cases where it is difficult to obtain adequate echocardiographic images. Nuclear medicine offers options for patients for whom the use of echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging is limited and for patients whose clinical and laboratory assessments conflict. Judicious use of imaging techniques leads to better patient outcomes during cancer treatment.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
				<kwd>Computed Tomography</kwd>
				<kwd>Magnetic Resonance</kwd>
				<kwd>Scintigraphy</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiotoxicity</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="12"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="38"/>
				<page-count count="9"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Cardio-oncology is a subspecialty of cardiology that has become necessary as a consequence of the favorable impact of cancer treatment, which increases patients’ survival rates, but makes them more prone to the cardiovascular side effects of cancer therapies in the short and long term. The presence of predisposing factors such as pre-existing cardiovascular disease, cardiovascular risk factors, genetic predisposition, previous antineoplastic therapies, and increased patient age is associated with a higher risk of cardiotoxicity in cancer treatment and may aggravate its complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The new European Society of Cardiology guideline defines cancer therapy-related toxicity in different stages. The mildest form of involvement is identified by the presence of elevated cardiac biomarkers (such as cardiac troponin) and/or abnormalities in cardiac strain with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) in asymptomatic patients. Accordingly, it is possible to observe that, for the detection of abnormalities resulting from cancer treatment, it is necessary to continuously monitor symptoms, biomarkers, and changes in imaging tests. The correct understanding of the use of these methods and their applicability, advantages, disadvantages, and limitations is crucial for good outcomes in cancer treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>General principles for using cardiovascular imaging methods in assessment of cardiotoxicity</title>
				<p>There are fundamental points about the use of imaging methods in the assessment of cardiotoxicity. Firstly, clinical evaluation prior to the beginning of cancer treatment is important to identify and treat cardiovascular risk factors and pre-existing cardiovascular diseases. Based on this information, a strategy involving adequate prevention and monitoring of patients should be developed for early identification of potential complications of cancer treatment (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>). In addition to monitoring complications during cancer treatment, a strategy should also be drawn up for long-term patient follow-up, as a significant number of complications may arise after an active phase of cancer treatment. The use of reproducible, easily accessible techniques that have expertise and local familiarity and that cause the least number of risks for the patient should be taken into account when defining which technique should be used in the follow-up of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– General principles for managing patients in cardio-oncology.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Echocardiogram</title>
				<p>Chemotherapy-related cardiotoxicity, despite the recent growing interest, was first described in 1967.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> For analyzing patients who will begin treatment with potentially cardiotoxic drugs, an overvaluation of the ejection fraction as a criterion of chemotherapy-related cardiotoxicity has been observed. This leads to a loss of diagnostic accuracy, since, depending on the treatment performed, the target lesion is unique. Therefore, the first Brazilian position statement on the use of multimodal cardiovascular imaging considers cardiotoxicity as any injury to the cardiovascular system within a pathophysiological plausibility, which could range from pulmonary hypertension (desatinib), QT prolongation (arsenic trioxide), venous thrombosis (thalidomide), coronary disease (5-fluorouracil), myocarditis (checkpoint inhibitors), and others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The knowledge acquired in recent decades has allowed for changes in some important paradigms, including the classification of type I and type II cardiotoxicity. In the latter, the myocardial injury is said to be reversible (trastuzumab, for example), whereas, in the former, it is irreversible (anthracyclines). In 2010, Cardinale et al. demonstrated that, among patients with cardiotoxicity due to anthracyclines undergoing pharmacological intervention during the first 2 months, 64% had lesion reversibility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Therefore, the aforementioned classification is in disuse. The first echocardiographic definition of chemotherapy-related cardiotoxicity in a clearer and more objective manner was proposed in 2014, described as an absolute drop in LVEF by 10 percentage points to values below 53%, assessed by the modified Simpson’s biplane method, for example, a reduction of LVEF from 61% to 50%. Reassessment of LVEF after 2 to 3 weeks is recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The rationale for recommending this reassessment is associated with two main points: a) the intrinsic temporal variability of the method, which can vary by up to 10 percentage points using the 2-dimensional technique;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> b) the clinical conditions of patients with cancer, who usually present great variability of left ventricular (LV) preload and afterload, for example, dehydration, tachycardia, polypharmacy, anemia, infections, surgeries, diarrhea, vomiting, bleeding, exacerbated inflammatory response, etc. Accordingly, an attempt is made to minimize the effects of method variability. There is a concept that every systolic dysfunction presents associated diastolic dysfunction and that this precedes the reduced ejection fraction, mainly due to the pathophysiological model of the ischemia cascade. However, to the surprise of imaging specialists, the use of diastolic classification to assess cardiotoxicity according to the latest guideline of the American Society of Echocardiography remains controversial to this day, probably due to the clinical dynamics of these patients, in which there is constant lability of LV preload and afterload during treatment, as mentioned above.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Recently, in a cohort with breast cancer, it was demonstrated that a persistent change or worsening of diastolic dysfunction had little association with the subsequent risk of developing systolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> In 1998, the clinical application of myocardial strain analysis was demonstrated for the first time.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Only after the first decade of the 2000s, the first studies supported the use of LV global strain as a tool capable of diagnosing subclinical myocardial injury and predicting a drop in LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The CECCY Trial demonstrated that the use of beta-blockers to prevent cardiotoxicity was associated with an incidence of cardiotoxicity of 13.5% to 14.5%. Although carvedilol did not lead to a reduction in the early incidence of reduced LVEF, there was a significant reduction in troponin levels and in diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> On the other hand, in the first randomized, multicenter study evaluating the clinical impact of guiding therapy by 2-dimensional longitudinal strain in one arm and by the drop in ejection fraction using the 3-dimensional method in the other (SUCCOUR Trial), the patients who were treated in the strain arm had more pharmacological intervention and higher ejection fraction at the end of the study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In the Brazilian context of positions and guidelines, we have the Second Brazilian Guidelines on Cardio-oncology<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> and the First Brazilian Position Statement on the Use of Multimodal Imaging in Cardio-oncology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Both documents agree on the criteria for follow-up during chemotherapy; they differ, however, on the cutoff point for subclinical cardiotoxicity. The guideline maintained the 15% relative drop in LV global longitudinal strain, while the position statement adopted a cutoff point of 12%, in line with the SUCCOUR Trial, given that it is the most robust study to evaluate the impact of drug intervention guided by the decrease in strain. The critical analysis of these documents is part of the burden of clinical individualization, which translates into cardio-oncology in more cardiotoxic chemotherapy treatment. In other words, if anthracyclines are being used, the image monitoring periods will be guided by that class of medication; if tyrosine kinase inhibitors are used, this class will guide monitoring. Until the publication of these 2 documents, echocardiogram was recommended before treatment and every 3 months in most classes of chemotherapy, with the exception of anthracyclines, with the subsequent echocardiograms at 2 months, 6 months, 1 year, and then annually. It may be performed earlier if the total dose of doxorubicin exceeds 240 mg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>, and it is recommended to repeat the echocardiogram at each 50 mg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> increment in the total cumulative dose. Another situation where there is no clarity is monitoring during the use of checkpoint inhibitors. To date, no study has been able to demonstrate the role of echocardiography in predicting cardiotoxicity or myocarditis in this class. In this context, when facing suspicion, it is strongly recommended to perform cardiac resonance. Over the past years, another form of toxicity has been noticed, namely, the excess of imaging tests without clinical impact, especially in patients at a low risk for cardiotoxicity (young patients, no cardiovascular risk factors, low doses of anthracyclines, absence of radiotherapy). In 2022, the European Society of Cardiology published the update to its cardio-oncology guideline.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> In this document, there is a change of perspective on monitoring patients with cancer who are exposed to chemotherapy. Instead of monitoring according to the cardiotoxic agent, the recommendation is to monitor through clinical stratification using the HFA-ICOS score, which classifies the risks of cardiotoxicity as low, moderate, high, and very high. Only patients with high/very high risk should be referred to a cardiologist (class I) before starting treatment. Regarding systematic and serial echocardiograms, there has been a change in the performance of the exam, based on clinical stratification, with a baseline echocardiogram being recommended before the start of chemotherapy in all patients. However, serial performance throughout treatment will be guided by the patients’ stratification according to the HFA-ICOS score. This rationale is extremely consistent from a clinical and cost-effectiveness point of view. On the other hand, the practicality of using it in daily clinical practice has become challenging, due to the uniqueness of each cancer treatment and each patient’s risk stratification (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). This European update has brought an interesting severity classification, considering the patient’s functional status or the echocardiogram imaging data in asymptomatic patients.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Cancer therapy-related cardiotoxicity</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="4"><bold>Symptomatic (HF)</bold></td>
									<td>Mild</td>
									<td>Patient with mild symptoms, without worsening during cancer treatment</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Moderate</td>
									<td>Outpatient requiring diuretic therapy and HF medication</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Severe</td>
									<td>Hospitalized patient</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Very severe</td>
									<td>Patient requiring inotropic agents or mechanical circulatory support; or under assessment for heart transplantation</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="3"><bold>Asymptomatic</bold></td>
									<td>Mild</td>
									<td>Ejection fraction ≥ 50% and new relative drop by more than 15% in LV global longitudinal strain; and/or increase in myocardial injury biomarkers</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Moderate</td>
									<td>New drop in ejection fraction to values between 40% and 49%, associated or not with elevated biomarkers and decreased LV global longitudinal strain</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Important</td>
									<td>New drop in ejection fraction to values below 40%</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p>HF: heart failure, LV: left ventricle; biomarkers: troponin. Adapted table.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
								</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>This classification is important not only for prognostic stratification, but also for guiding therapy, which differentiates it from previous documents that did not categorize asymptomatic and symptomatic patients.</p>
				<p>The incorporation of new technologies for monitoring cancer therapy-related cardiotoxicity, such as longitudinal global strain, allows for subclinical detection and more accurate monitoring during cardioprotective intervention (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– A 67-year-old patient with inoperable abdominal leiomyosarcoma who used docetaxel with gemcitabine as first line, then doxorubicin with dacarbazine, and currently using ifosfamide. In April 2019, she was asymptomatic, and a beta-blocker was prescribed due to subclinical cardiotoxicity (drop in global longitudinal strain greater than 15%), but the patient did not use the medication, returning 5 months later with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction. At that time, the patient was medicated with enalapril and carvedilol, evolving with clinical and echocardiographic improvement. ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; GLS: global longitudinal strain; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Finally, although several studies have demonstrated that the assessment of LVEF by 3-dimensional echocardiography is quite robust, with values approaching the gold standard of cardiac volumetry (magnetic resonance imaging of the heart),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> there is no demonstration of the superiority of monitoring cardiotoxicity using 3-dimensional LVEF in relation to the technique of LV global longitudinal strain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Nevertheless, we must adopt a critical view of the subject, since cardio-oncology is a relatively recent science. In the other clinical scenarios, the assessment of LVEF using the 3-dimensional technique is a more accurate tool when available. Therefore, we must use as much information as we have available, always combining it with clinical rationale, seeking to improve the survival of these patients, mitigating risks and morbidities.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Nuclear cardiology</title>
				<sec>
					<title>a) Radionuclide ventriculography in the monitoring of ventricular dysfunction</title>
					<p>At the basis of cardio-oncology, the use of nuclear medicine has been one of the structuring forms of the ventricular function assessment protocol. Schwartz et al. used radionuclide ventriculography (often known as multigated acquisition or MUGA) to monitor patients treated with doxorubicin to detect small changes in LV function, in order to avoid elevated doses of doxorubicin and thus prevent significant cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> In a pioneering manner, they demonstrated that the routine use of radionuclide ventriculography was associated with a reduced incidence of clinical heart failure to 2.8%, compared to 20.8% in patients receiving standard care without imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Since then, the assessment of ventricular function has been routinely performed in patients treated with anthracyclines, and radionuclide ventriculography is now part of the assessment in a diverse range of patients. For its best use, it is necessary to understand its operational characteristics. The main advantages of radionuclide ventriculography are great intra- and inter-observer reproducibility, semi-automatic processing, widely available performance in nuclear medicine services, accuracy, little dependence on the operator, and the absence of contraindications related to renal dysfunction or allergy. The limitations to radionuclide ventriculography include the use of radiation (especially due to its repeated use) and the fact that the assessment of ventricular function is not accompanied by a structural analysis of the heart, the pericardium, the valves, or the state of the myocardium, as in magnetic resonance imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> It is important to emphasize the fact that the LVEF values obtained by echocardiogram are not consistent with those from radionuclide ventriculography. Some authors found that echocardiogram provides higher LVEF values than radionuclide ventriculography, which could lead echocardiogram to underestimate cardiotoxicity. It is very important to be aware of the specificities of imaging methods and be familiar with them for proper use.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> In general, radionuclide ventriculography is best used in the following situations: when LVEF values on the echocardiogram are difficult to obtain (poor acoustic window); when LVEF values conflict with other results of clinical or laboratory tests or with clinical evaluation, as radionuclide ventriculography is more accurate and less dependent on operator proficiency; and when the LVEF value obtained by echocardiogram will lead to a significant change in the cancer treatment, such as interruption of a first-line cancer drug, in order to confirm the need for a change in strategy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref> shows the example of a patient whose echocardiogram showed doubtful LVEF values making radionuclide ventriculography necessary to define management.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– A 52-year-old patient undergoing treatment for breast cancer with doxorubicin and trastuzumab. After the second cycle, the echocardiogram showed a worsening of the left ventricular ejection fraction from 67% to 45%. Radionuclide ventriculography confirmed that left ventricular ejection fraction had dropped to less than 50% (49%), leading to temporary suspension of trastuzumab.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf03.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>b) 123I-MIBG scintigraphy in the detection of cardiotoxicity</title>
					<p>Changes in LV contractility function are relatively late in the cascade of damage secondary to cancer treatment. Earlier means of detecting cardiotoxicity have been proposed, such as the use of hyperstimulation of the adrenergic system, which is secondary to ventricular damage caused by antineoplastic agents. The tracer 123-iodine metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) has demonstrated value in identifying patients with hyperstimulation of the adrenergic system and who are at increased risk of adverse events when suffering from heart failure with reduced LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> An experimental study demonstrated that, after treatment with doxorubicin, cardiac 123I-MIBG uptake was significantly reduced 2 weeks later, followed by a decrease in LV end-diastolic volume and increased 18F-FDG uptake at 4 weeks, and, finally, by an increase in LV end-systolic volume and a decrease in LVEF at 6 weeks. Imaging of cardiac innervation is, thus, the earliest marker of anthracycline cardiotoxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> In Brazil, Guimarães et al. demonstrated that, in women with breast cancer undergoing chemotherapy, the evaluation of cardiac sympathetic activity with 123I-MIBG was an early marker of cardiotoxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> These data were recently reinforced by a systematic review with 12 studies using 123I-MIBG that indicated the value of the technique as an earlier method than echocardiogram in detecting cardiotoxicity; however, due to the methodological variability of the studies, further studies are recommended to confirm these findings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>c) 18F-FDG PET CT in the assessment of cardiotoxicity</title>
					<p>Increased myocardial uptake of 18-fluorine fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) appears to be a marker of early myocardial damage in cancer therapy. Experimental studies using radiotherapy in the cardiac area have shown that high uptake of FDG in an irradiated field appears to be related to myocardial damage in the microcirculation associated with mitochondrial damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Positron emission tomography (PET) with 18F-FDG is mentioned in the cardio-oncology position statement of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology as a means of diagnosing cardiotoxicity induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors, since it makes it possible to detect, evaluate the extent, and even quantify the inflammatory process of multiple cardiovascular conditions, such as myocarditis, pericarditis, and vasculitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 4</xref> displays how the main applications of nuclear medicine in cancer-related cardiotoxicity have expanded beyond the assessment of LV function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Main applications of nuclear medicine in the detection and monitoring of cancer therapy-related cardiotoxicity. 23I-MIBG: 123-iodine metaiodobenzylguanidine; 18F-FDG: 18-fluorine fluorodeoxyglucose; MIBI: sestamibi; NH3: ammonia; PET CT: positron emission tomography coupled with computed tomography; Rb: rubidium; SPECT: single-photon emission computed tomography; Tc: technetium. Adopted from Mesquita et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref>
								</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf04.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</title>
			<p>The improvement of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging techniques and the increasingly available access have expanded the role of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging into cardio-oncology. Recently, myocardial strain imaging and native T1 and T2 mapping have offered information beyond the quantification of ejection fraction, improving early detection of cardiotoxicity and predicting cardiac dysfunction without the use of contrast and radiation exposure.</p>
			<p>Echocardiography is the first-line approach in the initial assessment of cardiac function, in the risk stratification of pre-existing cardiovascular disease, and in the imaging surveillance of cardiotoxicity during cancer treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> In some situations, echocardiographic evaluation is a challenge, for instance, in patients undergoing treatment for breast cancer who have breast implants, or in patients who have already undergone pulmonary lobectomy due to lung cancer with consequent displacement of the heart (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 5</xref>), making echocardiographic assessment difficult or even impossible.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f05">
					<label>Figure 5</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– A 62-year-old woman with a history of right lower lobectomy due to lung cancer presenting with cardiac arrhythmias. The accentuated displacement of the heart to the right hemithorax seen by locating the chest axial sequence (in a) made echocardiographic evaluation impossible, but there was no limitation to evaluation by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. In b, cine imaging of the short axis of the heart.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf05.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>In patients with a limited echocardiographic window or with doubtful echocardiographic findings, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is recommended, and it is able to add important information to stress imaging in the risk stratification of coronary disease and in the suspicion of acute myocarditis related to cardiotoxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>a) Magnetic resonance imaging in the detection of early myocardial damage</title>
				<p>Waiting for LVEF to drop during cancer treatment may imply irreversible cardiovascular damage and it may be too late for protective measures. The alteration of regional myocardial deformation occurs before myocardial dysfunction in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Accordingly, the use of myocardial strain by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging has shown to be an effective tool not only in the early detection of cardiotoxicity, before the reduction of the ejection fraction, but also a tool capable of identifying patients at risk of developing cardiotoxicity and those with chances of recovery after established cardiotoxicity.</p>
				<p>In a longitudinal study of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, Giusca et al. used fast strain encoded magnetic resonance (fast-SENC) to demonstrate that the percentage of normal myocardium, defined as the number of segments with circumferential and longitudinal strain ≤ −17% divided by 37 (total of segments considered), between 60% and 80% identified patients at risk of developing clinical or subclinical cardiotoxicity, and that early cardioprotective therapies assist in ventricular recovery. On the other hand, patients with a percentage of normal myocardium ≤ 55% had a high risk of cardiotoxicity and a low chance of recovery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Myocardial deformation by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging can also be calculated using post-processing software (feature tracking) from cine images acquired in the standard protocol, even if the specific sequence of myocardial strain has not been performed. Nevertheless, cine images have lower spatial and temporal resolution for strain calculation by feature tracking than echocardiography using speckle tracking.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>b) Magnetic resonance imaging in cardiotoxicity monitoring</title>
				<p>The risk of cardiovascular toxicity should be assessed in all patients before initiating cancer treatment to identify individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular disease or multiple risk factors, thus considering prevention strategies, guiding appropriate cancer treatment in high-risk patients, and ultimately mitigating the risk of myocardial injury and heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The risk of coronary artery disease should be assessed by conventional risk scores, and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is a good option for cardiovascular stratification with stress perfusion imaging and delayed gadolinium enhancement. Furthermore, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is the gold standard for measuring left and right ventricular ejection fraction, volumes, and mass. Its ability to detect small changes with low operator dependence may represent early changes in treatment strategy and the initiation of protective measures, thus reducing myocardial injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Recent data about damage to the right ventricle related to anticancer therapy have also shown the involvement of this chamber, similar to what occurs with the LV. Corroborating these findings, Souza et al. found a decrease in the right ventricular ejection fraction, an increase in diffuse interstitial fibrosis, and a decrease in myocardial mass in 27 women undergoing treatment for breast cancer with anthracyclines, changes similar to those found in the LV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Conventional sequences of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging during the monitoring of patients undergoing cancer treatment add important information associated with cardiotoxicity or cancer-related complications. Acute pericarditis secondary to chemotherapy or mediastinal radiotherapy, or even involvement of the pericardium due to infiltration or metastatic spread, can be diagnosed with the combination of anatomical dark blood sequences, delayed enhancement, and cine imaging. Real-time cine sequences with free breathing and tagging provide additional information in cases of evolution to constrictive pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Although rare, immune checkpoint inhibitor-related myocarditis may be increasingly present in clinical practice due to the increasing use of immunotherapy in the treatment of cancer, and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is particularly important in this scenario, as it is a non-invasive and accurate diagnostic tool. Parametric maps, although not included in the Lake Louise criteria,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> when incorporated, have shown an evident gain in diagnostic accuracy, especially in the context of immune checkpoint inhibitor-related myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>c) New magnetic resonance techniques for detecting cardiotoxicity</title>
				<p>Tissue characterization by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is a promising tool for early identification of cardiotoxicity. Consistent data have shown that edema, inflammation, and extracellular volume expansion occur before myocardial dysfunction in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Increased signal intensity in the myocardium on T2-weighted sequences reveals areas with increased water content that represent myocardial edema. Nonetheless, conventional imaging has some important limitations related to motion artifacts and bright subendocardial rims due to stagnant blood. In contrast, myocardial T2 mapping does not have these limitations and improves edema detection. Some studies have proposed the use of T2 mapping to identify myocardial edema as the first alteration caused by damage to the myocardium related to cardiotoxicity.</p>
				<p>Galan-Arriola et al. correlated histopathological findings of doxorubicin-induced myocardial injury with T1 and T2 mapping, quantification of extracellular volume, and LVEF in an animal model. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging was performed weekly before, during, and after anthracycline treatment, and T2 mapping showed changes prior to T1 mapping, extracellular volume, and LVEF. The histological correlation detected intracardiomyocyte edema without any other evident alteration in the structure of the myocardial tissue, and after suspension of the anthracycline there was no development of clinical or histological alterations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>However, studies in humans have failed to demonstrate the significant role of T2 values in the context of cardiotoxicity. Tahir et al. studied changes in T1 and T2 mapping and myocardial strain in humans in the early detection of cardiotoxicity and found that T1 mapping was better able to detect cardiotoxicity than T2 mapping. The authors believe that this difference is due to the fact that they performed the control cardiac magnetic resonance imaging later and less frequently than Galan-Arriola et al. Therefore, T2 would be smaller or already normalized, while T1 would still be high.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> This could explain why T1 mapping has a stronger data correlation with cardiotoxicity than T2 mapping.</p>
				<p>Native T1 sequence identifies focal and/or diffuse myocardial lesion, without the use of contrast, before it can be detected by late gadolinium enhancement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> In addition, post-contrast T1 mapping offers the added benefit of quantifying extracellular volume already validated for fibrosis measurement. Considering the diffuse pattern of fibrosis most commonly found in this context, T1 mapping and calculation of extracellular volume are better predictors of the presence of fibrosis than delayed enhancement, seeing that focal fibrosis was detected by delayed enhancement in only 6% of patients treated with anthracycline-based chemotherapy (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 6</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f06">
						<label>Figure 6</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Delayed enhancement image without evidence of myocardial fibrosis (in a), but with increased native T1 (in b), in a 53-year-old man undergoing treatment for Hodgkin’s lymphoma with doxorubicin, bleomycin, vinblastine, and dacarbazine, in addition to radiotherapy.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf06.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Multiple studies have demonstrated the potential of myocardial T1 and T2 mapping and calculation of extracellular volume in the early detection of cardiotoxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> However, the great heterogeneity between acquisition sequences, varying even between manufacturers, limit their use in clinical practice, especially in longitudinal comparison of patients. For patients in monitoring for cardiotoxicity, always performing follow-up with the same type of sequence and respecting the same acquisition parameters can mitigate these limitations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>The care of patients with cancer has evolved substantially in the past decades with the majority of patients surviving the initial treatment. The management of patients with cancer involves planning strategies to monitor the potential complications of this treatment, especially in patients who already have cardiovascular risk factors or manifest cardiovascular diseases. Many cancer treatment survivors will experience various problems related to cancer and the treatment thereof, as well as late effects throughout their lives. Therefore, it is crucial to use reliable techniques to monitor ventricular function for successful treatment, thus ensuring adequate life expectancy and quality of life.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of funding: This study was partially funded by CNPq and FAPERJ.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Análise Crítica e Aplicabilidade dos Métodos de Imagem no Monitoramento e Diagnóstico da Disfunção Ventricular em Pacientes com Câncer</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mesquita</surname>
						<given-names>Claudio Tinoco</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa; Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8809-8783</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Melo</surname>
						<given-names>Marcelo Dantas Tavares de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa; Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7006-7348</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Leal</surname>
						<given-names>Ariane Binoti Pacheco</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa; Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1777-477X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Almeida</surname>
						<given-names>André Luiz Cerqueira de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa; Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5002"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Universitário Antonio Pedro/Ebserh – Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Multiscan Inteligência Diagnóstica, Vila Velha, ES – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5002">
				<label>5</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, BA – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"> Correspondência: Claudio Tinoco Mesquita • R. Mario Santos Braga, 30. CEP 24020-140, Centro, Niterói, RJ – Brasil E-mail: claudiotinocomesquita@id.uff.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A cardio-oncologia é uma subespecialidade da cardiologia que se tornou necessária em consequência do impacto favorável do tratamento do câncer, que aumenta as taxas de sobrevivência dos pacientes, porém os torna mais propensos aos efeitos colaterais cardiovasculares das terapias contra o câncer em curto e em longo prazo. A presença de fatores predisponentes como doenças cardiovasculares pré-existentes, fatores de risco cardiovascular, predisposição genética, terapias antineoplásicas anteriores e idade aumentada do paciente está associada a um risco maior de cardiotoxicidade no tratamento do câncer e pode agravar as suas complicações. O uso dos métodos de imagem é fundamental no manejo e na detecção das complicações do tratamento do câncer. Ecocardiograma é considerado o método padrão para avaliação da função ventricular esquerda e deve ser empregado em todos os pacientes. A ressonância magnética é a melhor alternativa para avaliação em pacientes com outras condições associadas, em especial doença coronariana avançada, e naqueles com dificuldade de obtenção de imagens ecocardiográficas adequadas. A medicina nuclear oferece opções para pacientes em que a utilização do ecocardiograma e da ressonância magnética está limitada e para os pacientes em que há conflito na avaliação clínica e laboratorial. O uso judicioso das técnicas de imagem leva a melhores desfechos em pacientes durante o tratamento do câncer.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
				<kwd>Tomografia Computadorizada</kwd>
				<kwd>Ressonância Magnética</kwd>
				<kwd>Cintilografia</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiotoxicidade</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A cardio-oncologia é uma subespecialidade da cardiologia que se tornou necessária em consequência do impacto favorável do tratamento do câncer, que aumenta as taxas de sobrevivência dos pacientes, porém os torna mais propensos aos efeitos colaterais cardiovasculares das terapias contra o câncer em curto e em longo prazo. A presença de fatores predisponentes como doenças cardiovasculares pré-existentes, fatores de risco cardiovascular, predisposição genética, terapias antineoplásicas anteriores e idade aumentada do paciente está associada a um risco maior de toxicidade cardíaca no tratamento do câncer e pode agravar as suas complicações.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A nova diretriz da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia define a toxicidade relacionada com o tratamento do câncer em diversos estágios, sendo que a forma mais leve de acometimento é identificada pela presença de elevações de biomarcadores cardíacos (como a troponina cardíaca) e/ou de anormalidades no <italic>strain</italic> cardíaco com fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) preservada em indivíduos assintomáticos. Desta forma, podemos observar que para uma detecção das anormalidades decorrentes do tratamento do câncer é necessária uma monitoração contínua de sintomas, biomarcadores e alterações nos exames de imagem. A correta compreensão do uso destes métodos, sua aplicabilidade, vantagens, desvantagens e limitações é crucial para bons desfechos no tratamento do câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<sec>
					<title>Princípios gerais do uso dos métodos de imagem cardiovascular na avaliação de cardiotoxicidade</title>
					<p>Existem pontos fundamentais sobre o uso dos métodos de imagem na avaliação da cardiotoxicidade. Em primeiro lugar é importante uma avaliação clínica anterior ao início do tratamento do câncer para se identificar e tratar os fatores de risco cardiovasculares e doenças cardiovasculares pré-existentes. A partir destas informações deve ser elaborada uma estratégia envolvendo a prevenção e a vigilância adequada dos pacientes para identificação precoce de potenciais complicações do tratamento do câncer (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref>). Além da monitoração das complicações durante o tratamento do câncer, também deve ser traçada uma estratégica para acompanhamento do paciente em longo prazo, pois um número significativo de complicações pode surgir após fase ativa de tratamento do câncer. O uso de técnicas reprodutíveis, de fácil acesso, que tenham expertise e familiaridade local e que cause o menor número de riscos para o paciente deve ser levado em conta no momento da definição de qual técnica deverá ser empregada no acompanhamento dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f01002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Princípios gerais do manejo dos pacientes em cardio-oncologia.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Ecocardiograma</title>
					<p>A cardiotoxicidade por quimioterápicos, apesar do crescente interesse recente, teve a sua primeira descrição em 1967.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Ao se analisar um paciente que iniciará um tratamento com drogas potencialmente cardiotóxicas, nota-se uma supervalorização da fração de ejeção como critério de cardiotoxicidade por quimioterápicos. Isso leva a uma perda da acurácia diagnóstica uma vez que, a depender do tratamento realizado, a lesão-alvo é singular. Portanto, o primeiro posicionamento brasileiro sobre o uso de multimodalidade de imagem cardiovascular considera cardiotoxicidade quaisquer lesões no sistema cardiovascular dentro de uma plausibilidade fisiopatológica, podendo ser desde uma hipertensão pulmonar (desatinibe), QT longo (trióxido de arsênio), trombose venosa (talidomida), doença coronária (5-fluorouracil), miocardite (inibidores de checkpoint), e outros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O conhecimento adquirido nas últimas décadas vem permitindo mudanças de alguns paradigmas importantes. Dentre eles, a classificação de cardiotoxicidade tipo I e tipo II; nesta, a lesão miocárdica é dita reversível (trastuzumabe, por exemplo) e naquela, irreversível (antracíclicos). Em 2010, Cardinale e cols. demonstraram que dentre os pacientes com cardiotoxicidade por antracíclicos submetidos à intervenção farmacológica nos primeiros 2 meses, 64% apresentavam reversibilidade da lesão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Portanto, tal classificação mencionada encontra-se em desuso. A primeira definição ecocardiográfica de cardiotoxicidade por quimioterápicos de forma mais clara e objetiva foi proposta em 2014, descrita como uma queda absoluta da FEVE de 10 pontos percentuais para valores abaixo de 53%, avaliada pelo método biplanar de Simpson modificado. Exemplo: redução da fração de ejeção de 61% para 50%. Recomenda-se reavaliação da FEVE após 2 a 3 semanas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> O racional para se recomendar essa reavaliação está associado a dois pontos principais: a) a variabilidade temporal intrínseca do método, que pode variar até 10 pontos percentuais pela técnica bidimensional;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> b) as condições clínicas do paciente oncológico, que costuma apresentar grande variabilidade da pré e pós-carga do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), por exemplo, desidratação, taquicardia, polifarmácia, anemia, infecções, cirurgias, diarreia, vômitos, sangramentos, resposta inflamatória exacerbada, etc. Dessa forma, tenta-se minimizar os efeitos da variabilidade do método. É conceitual que toda disfunção sistólica apresenta disfunção diastólica associada e que esta precede à redução da fração de ejeção, principalmente pelo modelo fisiopatológico da cascada da isquemia. Porém, para surpresa dos imaginologistas, até hoje permanece bastante controversa a utilização da classificação diastólica para avaliação de cardiotoxicidade à luz da última diretriz da Sociedade Americana de Ecocardiografia, provavelmente devido à dinamicidade clínica desses pacientes, em que há constante labilidade da pré e pós-carga do VE ao longo do tratamento, como fora mencionado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Recentemente, em uma coorte de neoplasia de mama, demonstrou-se que uma alteração persistente ou piora da disfunção diastólica tem uma associação pequena com o risco subsequente de desenvolver disfunção sistólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Em 1998, a aplicação clínica da análise de deformação miocárdica (<italic>strain</italic>) foi demonstrada pela primeira vez.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Apenas após a primeira década do ano 2000, os primeiros trabalhos deram robustez ao uso do <italic>strain</italic> global do VE como ferramenta capaz de diagnosticar a lesão miocárdica subclínica e predizer a queda da FEVE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> No estudo CECCY, foi demonstrado que o uso de betabloqueadores para prevenção de cardiotoxicidade foi associada a uma incidência de cardiotoxicidade de 13,5% a 14,5%. Apesar do carvedilol não determinar uma redução na incidência precoce de queda da FEVE, houve uma redução significativa dos níveis de troponina e na disfunção diastólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Em contrapartida, no primeiro trabalho randomizado, multicêntrico, avaliando o impacto clínico de guiar a terapêutica pelo <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal bidimensional em um braço e no outro pela queda da fração de ejeção pelo método tridimensional (SUCCOUR Trial), os pacientes que foram tratados no braço do <italic>strain</italic> apresentaram mais intervenção farmacológica e maior fração de ejeção no final do estudo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No cenário nacional de posicionamentos e diretrizes, temos a Segunda Diretriz Brasileira de Cardio-oncologia<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>e o Primeiro Posicionamento Brasileiro sobre o Uso da Multimodalidade de Imagem em Cardio-oncologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Ambos os documentos estão confluentes sobre critérios de seguimento durante a quimioterapia, porém apresentam como divergência o ponto de corte para cardiotoxicidade subclínica. A diretriz manteve a queda relativa de 15% do strain global longitudinal do VE; já o posicionamento adotou o ponto de corte de 12%, em linha com o SUCCOUR Trial, por ser o trabalho mais robusto que avaliou o impacto da intervenção medicamentosa guiada pela queda do <italic>strain</italic>. A análise crítica desses documentos é o ônus da individualização clínica, que se traduz na cardio-oncologia no tratamento quimioterápico mais cardiotóxico, ou seja, se tiver em uso de antracíclico, a periodicidade da vigilância por imagem será guiada por tal classe de medicamento; se for com inibidores de tirosina-quinase, esta classe guiará a monitorização. Até a publicação desses 2 documentos, o ecocardiograma era recomendado antes do tratamento e a cada 3 meses na maioria das classes de quimioterápicos, sendo diferente para antracíclicos, com a realização dos subsequentes ecocardiogramas com 2 meses, 6 meses, 1 ano e depois anualmente, podendo ser realizado mais precocemente se a dose total da doxorrubicina ultrapassasse 240 mg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>; é recomendado repetir o ecocardiograma a cada incremento de 50 mg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> na dose total acumulada. Outro cenário em que não há clareza é a monitorização durante o uso dos inibidores de checkpoints. Até o momento, nenhum trabalho conseguiu demonstrar o papel do ecocardiograma em predizer cardiotoxicidade ou miocardite por essa classe. Nesse contexto, diante da suspeita, é fortemente recomendável a realização da ressonância cardíaca. Ao longo desses anos, percebeu-se outra toxicidade: a de excesso de exames de imagem sem impacto clínico, principalmente naqueles pacientes de baixo risco para cardiotoxicidade (pacientes jovens, sem fatores de risco cardiovascular, baixas doses de antracíclicos, ausência de radioterapia). Em 2022, a Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia publicou a atualização de sua diretriz de cardio-oncologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Nesse documento, há uma mudança no olhar sobre a monitorização do paciente oncológico em exposição aos quimioterápicos. Em vez de monitorizar conforme o agente cardiotóxico, a recomendação é monitorar mediante uma estratificação clínica através do escore HFA-ICOS que classifica o risco de cardiotoxicidade em baixo risco, moderado risco, alto risco e muito alto risco. Apenas aos pacientes alto/muito alto risco recomenda-se o encaminhamento ao cardiologista (Classe I), antes do início do tratamento. Quanto à relação sistemática e seriada do ecocardiograma, houve uma mudança na realização do exame, baseando-se na sua estratificação clínica, sendo recomendado um ecocardiograma basal antes do início da quimioterapia em todos os pacientes. Contudo, a realização seriada ao longo do tratamento será balizada pela sua estratificação pelo escore HFA-ICOS. Esse racional é extremamente coerente do ponto de vista clínico e de custo-efetividade. Por outro lado, a praticidade de seu uso na prática clínica diária tornou-se desafiadora, devido à singularidade de cada tratamento oncológico e da estratificação de risco dos pacientes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>). Essa atualização europeia trouxe uma classificação de gravidade interessante, considerando o status funcional do paciente ou os dados de imagem por ecocardiograma naqueles assintomáticos.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Cardiotoxicidade relacionada ao tratamento oncológico</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="4">Sintomáticos (IC)</td>
										<td>Leve</td>
										<td>Paciente com sintomas leves e sem piora com tratamento oncológico</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Moderado</td>
										<td>Paciente ambulatorial que necessita de diureticoterapia e medicação para IC</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Grave</td>
										<td>Paciente hospitalizado</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Muito grave</td>
										<td>Paciente com necessidade de agentes inotrópicos, suporte circulatório mecânico, ou em avaliação para transplante cardíaco</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="3">Assintomáticos</td>
										<td>Leve</td>
										<td>Fração de ejeção ≥ 50% e queda relativa nova de mais 15% do strain global longitudinal do VE; e/ou aumento de biomarcadores de lesão miocárdica</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Moderada</td>
										<td>Nova queda da fração de ejeção para valores entre 40% e 49%, associada ou não à elevação de biomarcadores e à queda do strain global longitudinal do VE</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Importante</td>
										<td>Nova queda da fração de ejeção para valores abaixo de 40%</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1002">
									<p>IC: insuficiência cardíaca, VE: ventrículo esquerdo; biomarcadores: troponina. Tabela adaptada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
									</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>Essa classificação é importante não apenas para estratificação prognóstica, como também para direcionar a terapêutica, o que a diferencia dos documentos prévios, que não categorizavam os pacientes assintomáticos e sintomáticos.</p>
					<p>A incorporação de novas tecnologias para monitorização de cardiotoxicidade pelo tratamento oncológico, como o <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal, permite a sua detecção subclínica e sua monitorização mais acurada durante a intervenção de cardioproteção (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Paciente de 67 anos com leiomiossarcoma abdominal inoperável que fez uso de docetaxel com gencitabina como primeira linha, depois doxorrubicina com dacarbazina, e agora em uso de ifosfamida. Em abril de 2019, estava assintomática e foi prescrito betabloqueador pela cardiotoxicidade subclínica (queda do strain global longitudinal maior que 15%), porém a paciente não fez uso da medicação, retornando 5 meses após com insuficiência cardíaca e redução da fração de ejeção. Nesse momento, foi medicada com enalapril e carvedilol, evoluindo com melhora clínica e ecocardiográfica. FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; IECA: inibidor da enzima de conversão da angiotensina; SGL: strain global longitudinal.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Por último, apesar de vários trabalhos demonstrarem que a avaliação da FEVE pelo ecocardiograma tridimensional é bastante robusta, com valores que se aproximam do padrão-ouro de volumetria cardíaca (ressonância magnética do coração),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> não há demonstração de superioridade da monitorização da cardiotoxidade utilizando-se a FEVE pelo 3D, sobre a técnica de <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Todavia, temos que ter um olhar crítico sobre o tema, visto que a cardio-oncologia é uma ciência relativamente recente. Nos demais cenários clínicos, a avaliação da FEVE pela técnica tridimensional é uma ferramenta mais acurada quando disponível. Logo, devemos usar do máximo de informações que dispomos, combinado sempre com o racional clínico, buscando uma melhora na sobrevida desses pacientes, mitigando os riscos e morbidades.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Cardiologia nuclear</title>
					<sec>
						<title>a) Ventriculografia radioisotópica na monitoração da disfunção ventricular</title>
						<p>As bases da cardio-oncologia tiveram o uso da medicina nuclear como uma das formas estruturantes do protocolo de avaliação da função ventricular. Schwartz et al. utilizaram a ventriculografia com radionuclídeos (VRN) (comumente chamada de imagem de aquisição múltipla com gated ou MUGA) para monitorar pacientes tratados com doxorrubicina, de forma a detectar pequenas alterações na função do VE de forma a evitar doses elevadas de doxorrubicina para prevenir cardiomiopatia significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Schwartz et al., de modo pioneiro, demonstraram que a utilização de modo rotineiro da imagem com VRN foi associada com a redução da incidência de insuficiência cardíaca clínica para 2,8%, em comparação com 20,8% naqueles pacientes recebendo tratamento padrão sem uso por imagem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A partir de então a avaliação da função ventricular passou a ser realizada de modo rotineiro em pacientes tratados com antracíclicos e a VRN é hoje parte da avaliação nos mais diversos pacientes. Para a sua melhor utilização é necessária uma compreensão das suas características operacionais. As principais vantagens da VRN são: grande reprodutibilidade intra- e interobservador, processamento semi-automático, realização amplamente disponível em serviços de medicina nuclear, acurácia, pouca dependência do operador e ausência de contra-indicações relacionadas à disfunção renal ou alergia. As limitações da VRN incluem a utilização de radiação (especialmente pelo seu uso repetido) e o fato de a avaliação da função ventricular não vir acompanhada de uma análise estrutural do coração, do pericárdio, valvar ou do estado do miocárdio como na ressonância magnética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Um fato importante para se ressaltar é que os valores da FEVE obtidos pelo ecocardiograma não são concordantes com os da VRN. Alguns autores constataram que o ecocardiograma proporciona valores de FEVE mais elevados do que o VRN, o que poderia levar o ecocardiograma a subestimar a cardiotoxicidade. É muito importante estar atento às especificidades dos métodos de imagem e ter familiaridade com eles para um uso adequado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> De modo geral, a VRN é melhor utilizada nas seguintes situações: quando os valores da FEVE pelo ecocardiograma são de difícil obtenção (janela acústica ruim); quando os valores da FEVE são conflitantes com outros resultados de exames clínicos ou laboratoriais ou com a avaliação clínica, pois a VRN é mais acurada e pouco dependente da proficiência do operador; e quando o valor da FEVE obtido pelo ecocardiograma implicará em uma mudança significativa no tratamento oncológico, como uma interrupção de uma droga oncológica de primeira linha, para confirmação da necessidade de mudança de estratégia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 3</xref>, temos um exemplo de um paciente em que o ecocardiograma demonstrou valores duvidosos de FEVE e que foi necessária a realização de VRN para definição do manejo do paciente.</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f03002">
								<label>Figura 3</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Paciente de 52 anos de idade submetida a tratamento do câncer de mama com doxorrubicina e trastuzumabe. Após o segundo ciclo o ecocardiograma demonstrou piora da fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) de 67% para 45%. Ventriculografia radionuclídica confirmou que a FEVE caiu para menos de 50% (49%) levando à suspensão temporária do uso do trastuzumabe.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf03-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>b) Cintilografia com 123I-MIBG na detecção de cardiotoxicidade</title>
						<p>As alterações na função de contratilidade do VE são relativamente tardias na cascata do dano secundário ao tratamento do câncer. Formas mais precoces de detectar a cardiotoxicidade têm sido propostas, como o uso da hiperestimulação do sistema adrenérgico que é secundária ao dano ventricular pelos agentes antineoplásicos. A meta-iodobenziglanidina com 123-Iodo (MIBG) é um traçador que tem demonstrado valor na identificação de pacientes com hiperestimulação do sistema adrenérgico e que estão em maior risco de eventos adversos quando portadores de insuficiência cardíaca com FEVE reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Em um estudo experimental foi demonstrado que, após o tratamento com doxorrubicina, a captação cardíaca de [123I]MIBG é significativamente reduzida 2 semanas após, seguida pela diminuição do volume diastólico final do VE e captação aumentada de [18F]FDG em 4 semanas e, finalmente, pelo aumento do volume sistólico final do VE e diminuição da FEVE em 6 semanas. A imagem da inervação cardíaca é então o mais precoce dos marcadores da cardiotoxicidade da antraciclina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> No Brasil, Guimarães e colaboradores demonstraram que, em mulheres com câncer de mama em tratamento quimioterápico, a avaliação da atividade simpática cardíaca com 123I-MIBG foi um marcador precoce de cardiotoxicidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Estes dados foram recentemente reforçados em uma revisão sistemática com 12 estudos utilizando o 123MIBG que apontaram o valor da técnica como método mais precoce que o ecocardiograma na detecção de cardiotoxicidade, porém, devido à variabilidade metodológica dos estudos se recomenda a realização de estudos adicionais para confirmar estes achados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>c) 18F-FDG PET CT na avaliação de cardiotoxicidade</title>
						<p>A captação de 18FDG no miocárdio aumentada parece ser um marcador de dano miocárdico precoce na terapia do câncer. Estudos experimentais com uso de radioterapia na área cardíaca mostraram que a alta captação de FDG em um campo irradiado parece estar relacionada ao dano miocárdico na microcirculação associada à lesão mitocondrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> O PET com 18F-FDG é mencionado no posicionamento de cardio-oncologia da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia como forma de diagnosticar a cardiotoxidade induzida pelos inibidores dos checkpoints imunológicos, visto que este permite detectar, avaliar a extensão e até mesmo quantificar o processo inflamatório de diversas afecções cardiovasculares, tais como miocardite, pericardite e vasculites.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 4</xref>, podemos observar que as principais aplicações da medicina nuclear na cardiotoxicidade do câncer se expandiram para além da avaliação da função ventricular esquerda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f04002">
								<label>Figura 4</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Principais aplicações da medicina nuclear na detecção e acompanhamento da cardiotoxicidade do tratamento do câncer. MIBI: sestamibi; NH3: amônia; PET CT: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons acoplada com tomografia computadorizada; Rb: rubídio; SPECT: tomografia computadorizada de emissão de fóton único; Tc: tecnécio. Adaptado de Mesquita et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref>
									</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf04-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ressonância magnética cardíaca</title>
				<p>O aprimoramento de técnicas de ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC) e o acesso cada vez mais disponível têm ampliado o papel da RMC em direção à cardio-oncologia. Recentemente, as imagens de strain miocárdico, T1 nativo e mapeamento de T2 oferecem informações além da quantificação da fração de ejeção, melhorando a detecção precoce da cardiotoxicidade e predizendo disfunção cardíaca sem o uso de contraste e exposição à radiação.</p>
				<p>A ecocardiografia é a abordagem de primeira linha na avaliação inicial da função cardíaca, na estratificação de risco de doença cardiovascular pré-existente e na vigilância de cardiotoxicidade por imagem durante o tratamento do câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Em algumas situações, a avaliação ecocardiográfica é um desafio, como em pacientes em tratamento de câncer de mama que possuem implantes mamário, ou naqueles que já foram submetidos à lobectomia pulmonar devido a câncer de pulmão com consequente deslocamento do coração (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 5</xref>), dificultando ou mesmo impossibilitando a avaliação ecocardiográfica.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f05002">
						<label>Figura 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Mulher de 62 anos com passado de lobectomia inferior direita devido a câncer de pulmão apresentando arritmias cardíacas. O acentuado deslocamento do coração para o hemitórax direito visto por sequência localizatória de axial de tórax (em a) impossibilitou a avaliação ecocardiográfica, porém não houve limitação de avaliação pela RMC. Em b, imagens de cine-ressonância no eixo curto do coração.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf05-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Nos pacientes com janela ecocardiográfica limitada ou com achados ecocardiográficos duvidosos, a RMC é recomendada e pode agregar informações importantes com imagens de estresse na estratificação de risco de doença coronariana e na suspeita de miocardite aguda relacionada à cardiotoxicidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<sec>
					<title>a) Ressonância magnética na detecção de dano miocárdico precoce</title>
					<p>Esperar a queda da FEVE durante o tratamento do câncer pode significar danos cardiovasculares irreversíveis e ser tarde demais para medidas de proteção. A alteração da deformação miocárdica regional ocorre antes da disfunção miocárdica nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Nesse sentido, a utilização do <italic>strain</italic> miocárdico pela RMC mostrou-se uma ferramenta eficaz não só na detecção precoce de cardiotoxicidade, antes da redução da fração de ejeção, mas também uma ferramenta capaz de identificar pacientes em risco de desenvolver cardiotoxicidade e aqueles com chances de recuperação após cardiotoxicidade estabelecida.</p>
					<p>Giusca et al. utilizaram a sequência dedicada fast-SENC para demonstrar em um estudo longitudinal de RMC que o percentual de miocárdio normal, definido como o número de segmentos com <italic>strain</italic> circunferencial e longitudinal ≤ −17% dividido por 37 (total de segmentos considerados), entre 60% e 80% identificou pacientes com risco de desenvolver cardiotoxicidade clínica ou subclínica, e que as terapias cardioprotetoras precoces ajudam na recuperação ventricular. Por outro lado, pacientes com percentual de miocárdio normal ≤ 55% apresentaram alto risco de cardiotoxicidade e baixa chance de recuperação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A deformação miocárdica por RMC também pode ser calculada usando software de pós processamento (<italic>feature tracking</italic>) a partir de imagens de cine-ressonância adquiridas no protocolo padrão, mesmo que a sequência específica de <italic>strain</italic> miocárdico não tenha sido realizada. Contudo, imagens de cine-ressonância têm menor resolução espacial e temporal para cálculo do <italic>strain</italic> pelo <italic>feature tracking</italic> do que a ecocardiografia usando o speckle tracking.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>b) Ressonância magnética no monitoramento da cardiotoxicidade</title>
					<p>O risco de toxicidade cardiovascular deve ser avaliado em todos os pacientes antes de iniciar o tratamento do câncer para identificar os indivíduos com doença cardiovascular pré-existente ou múltiplos fatores de risco, e desta forma, considerar estratégias de prevenção, orientar o tratamento adequado do câncer em pacientes de alto risco e, finalmente, mitigar o risco de lesão miocárdica e insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O risco de doença arterial coronariana deve ser avaliado por escores de risco convencionais, e a RMC é uma boa opção para estratificação cardiovascular com imagem de perfusão sob estresse e realce tardio com gadolínio. Além disso, a RMC é o padrão ouro para medições de fração de ejeção, volumes e massa dos ventrículos esquerdo e direito. A sua capacidade de detectar pequenas alterações com baixa dependência do operador pode representar mudanças precoces na estratégia de tratamento e no início de medidas protetoras reduzindo a injúria miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Dados recentes acerca da agressão ao ventrículo direito relacionada à terapia anticâncer mostraram o também envolvimento desta câmera similar ao que acontece com o VE. Corroborando com esses achados, Souza et al. notaram a queda da fração de ejeção do ventrículo direito, o aumento da fibrose intersticial difusa e a diminuição da massa miocárdica em 27 mulheres em tratamento de câncer de mama com antraciclinas, alterações essas semelhantes às encontradas no VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Sequências convencionais de RMC durante o monitoramento de pacientes em tratamento de câncer adicionam importantes informações associadas à cardiotoxicidade ou às complicações relacionadas ao câncer. Pericardite aguda secundária à quimioterapia ou radioterapia mediastinal, ou mesmo o envolvimento do pericárdio por infiltração ou disseminação metastática podem ser diagnosticados com a combinação de sequências anatômicas de sangue escuro, realce tardio e cine-ressonância. Sequências de cine-ressonância em tempo real com respiração livre e <italic>tagging</italic> fornecem informações adicionais em casos de evolução para pericardite constritiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Miocardite mediada por imunobiológicos embora rara pode estar cada vez mais presente na prática clínica pelo uso crescente da imunoterapia no tratamento de câncer e a RMC tem particular importância nesse cenário por ser uma ferramenta diagnóstica não invasiva e acurada. Mapas paramétricos, embora não incluídos nos critérios de Lake Louise,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> quando incorporados, têm mostrado evidente ganho em acurácia diagnóstica especialmente no cenário da miocardite relacionada a imunobiológicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>c) Novas técnicas de ressonância magnética para detecção de cardiotoxicidade</title>
					<p>A caracterização tecidual pela RMC é uma promissora ferramenta para identificação precoce de cardiotoxicidade. Dados consistentes mostram que edema, inflamação e expansão do volume extracelular ocorrem antes da disfunção miocárdica nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> O aumento da intensidade de sinal no miocárdio, em sequências ponderadas em T2, revela áreas com aumento de conteúdo de água que representam o edema miocárdico. Contudo, imagens convencionais apresentam algumas limitações importantes relacionadas a artefatos de movimento e bordas subendocárdicas brilhantes devido a sangue estagnado. Em contraste, o mapeamento de T2 miocárdico surge sem essas limitações e melhora a detecção de edema. Alguns estudos propuseram a utilização do mapa T2 para identificação do edema miocárdico como a primeira alteração causada pela agressão ao miocárdio relacionada à cardiotoxicidade.</p>
					<p>Galan-Arriola et al. correlacionaram achados histopatológicos de lesão miocárdica induzida por doxorrubicina com o mapeamento T1 e T2, quantificação do volume extracelular e FEVE em modelo animal. A RMC foi realizada semanalmente antes, durante e após o tratamento com antraciclina, e o mapeamento de T2 mostrou alterações anteriores ao mapeamento de T1, ao volume extracelular e à FEVE. A correlação histológica detectou edema intracardiomiócito sem nenhuma outra alteração evidente na estrutura do tecido miocárdico, e após a suspensão da antraciclina não houve desenvolvimento de alterações clínicas ou histológicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No entanto, estudos em humanos falharam em demonstrar o papel significativo dos valores de T2 no cenário de cardiotoxicidade. Tahir et al. estudaram alterações no mapeamento de T2 e T1 e no <italic>strain</italic> miocárdico em humanos na detecção precoce de cardiotoxicidade e constataram que o mapeamento de T1 foi capaz de detectar melhor a cardiotoxicidade do que o mapeamento de T2. Os autores acreditam que essa diferença se deve ao fato de terem realizado a RMC de controle mais tardiamente e com menos frequência que Galan-Arriola et al., portanto, o T2 seria menor ou já estaria normalizado, enquanto o T1 ainda estaria alto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Esse fato poderia explicar por que o mapeamento de T1 tem uma correlação de dados mais forte com a cardiotoxicidade do que o mapeamento de T2.</p>
					<p>A sequência de T1 nativo identifica lesão miocárdica focal e/ou difusa, sem o uso de contraste, antes que esta possa ser detectada pelo realce tardio com gadolínio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Além disso, o mapeamento de T1 pós-contraste oferece o benefício adicional de quantificar o volume extracelular já validado para medição de fibrose. Considerando o padrão difuso de fibrose mais comumente encontrado nesse contexto, o mapeamento de T1 e o cálculo do volume extracelular predizem melhor a presença de fibrose que o realce tardio, visto que a fibrose focal foi detectada pelo realce tardio em apenas 6% dos pacientes tratados com quimioterapia à base de antraciclina (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figura 6</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f06002">
							<label>Figura 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Imagem de realce tardio sem evidência de fibrose miocárdica em a, porém com aumento do T1 nativo visto em b, em homem de 53 anos submetido a tratamento de linfoma de Hodgkin com doxorrubicina, bleomicina, vimblastina e dacarbazina e radioterapia.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0386-gf06-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Numerosos estudos demonstraram o potencial do mapeamento de T1 e T2 miocárdico e do cálculo do volume extracelular na detecção precoce de cardiotoxicidade,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup>no entanto, a grande heterogeneidade entre as sequências de aquisição, variando inclusive entre os fabricantes limitam o seu uso na prática clínica, especialmente na comparação longitudinal dos pacientes. Para pacientes em vigilância de cardiotoxicidade, realizar o acompanhamento sempre com o mesmo tipo de sequência respeitando os mesmos parâmetros de aquisição pode mitigar essas limitações.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>O cuidado de pacientes com câncer evoluiu muito nas últimas décadas com a maioria dos pacientes sobrevivendo ao tratamento inicial. O manejo dos pacientes com câncer envolve o planejamento de estratégias para acompanhamento das potenciais complicações deste tratamento, em especial em pacientes que já apresentam fatores de risco cardiovasculares ou doenças cardiovasculares já manifestas. Muitos sobreviventes do tratamento do câncer experimentarão vários problemas relacionados ao câncer e ao tratamento e efeitos tardios ao longo da vida. Por isso, é crucial utilizar técnicas confiáveis de acompanhamento da função ventricular para o sucesso do tratamento, garantindo uma adequada expectativa e qualidade de vida.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label/>
					<p>Vinculação acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label/>
					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo foi financiado pelo CNPq e FAPERJ.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>