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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &amp; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20230007</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230007</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Right Ventricular Dysfunction in the Cancer Patient</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Bond</surname>
						<given-names>Marina Macedo Kuenzer</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1521-6608</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pivatto</surname>
						<given-names>Fernando</given-names>
						<suffix>Júnior</suffix>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8579-4158</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Biolo</surname>
						<given-names>Andreia</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>6</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"><sup>7</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Centro Paulista de Oncologia</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Grupo Oncoclínicas</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Centro Paulista de Oncologia – Grupo Oncoclínicas, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Coração</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital do Coração (HCOR), São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Santo Amaro</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Santo Amaro (UNISA), São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5">
				<label>5</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde: Cardiologia e Ciências Cardiovasculares</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde: Cardiologia e Ciências Cardiovasculares – Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff6">
				<label>6</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff7">
				<label>7</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina – Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Marina Macedo Kuenzer Bond • Rua Bento de Andrade, 346. Postal Code 04503-001, Jardim Paulista, São Paulo, SP - Brazil E-mail: <email>mmkbond@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>18</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Oct-Dec</season>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>2</volume>
			<issue>4</issue>
			<fpage>381</fpage>
			<lpage>385</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>25</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>06</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>17</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Right ventricular dysfunction (RVD) is present in several clinical conditions, and its clinical impact and prognosis in cardiology has been more studied in recent years. In oncology, some studies have tried to determine the role of RVD in cardiotoxicity caused by some therapies including anthracyclines, trastuzumab, cyclophosphamide and dasatinib. In the present study, we made a literature review on the subject, trying to highlight the challenges for the coming years.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Right Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiotoxicity</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardio-Oncology</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiac Dysfunction</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="0"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="29"/>
				<page-count count="5"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>The assessment of the right ventricle (RV) can be challenging due to its anatomical and functional features. Recently, more attention has been paid to the understanding of conditions that affect the RV, either alone or in combination with the left ventricle (LV), their clinical and prognostic impact, and to interventions that may reduce their clinical effects.</p>
			<p>Cardio-oncology is a growing field with well-defined strategies for the detection, follow-up and prevention of cancer treatment-related cardiotoxicity. However, the RV is little mentioned in most guidelines that address cardiotoxicity. Recently, several studies have tried to establish the prevalence and the impact of right ventricular disfunction (RVD) in this context. In this paper, we will discuss some fundamental aspects of the mechanisms, clinical manifestations, and therapeutic approach of RVD, and summarize the main findings from studies evaluating the RV, either alone or in combination with the LV, in the context of cardiotoxicity. The prevalence, clinical impact and diagnostic methods to identify the involvement of the RV will be reviewed as well as the challenges that still exist in this scenario that has received growing attention in the last years.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Right ventricular dysfunction</title>
				<p>The increase in right ventricular afterload is the main pathophysiological mechanism of RVD, which may be caused by cardiac, pulmonary, and other diseases. Cardiac diseases of various etiologies have been related to RVD, including ischemic disease (myocardial infarction), myocarditis, takotsubo cardiomyopathy, dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, amyloidosis, Chagas disease, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (in which right ventricular myocardium is replaced by fibro-adipose tissue), Uhl’s anomaly (which involves aplasia or hypoplasia of most of the right ventricular myocardium), Ebstein’s anomaly (defined as apical displacement of the septal and posterior tricuspid leaflets, which induces severe tricuspid regurgitation), and congenital disease (Fallot, atrial septal defect with left-to-right shunt or pulmonary regurgitation). These encompass conditions that affect the RV only, others that affect predominantly the RV and also the LV in more severe cases, and others that affect both ventricles. Other causes of RVD include pulmonary thromboembolism, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), obesity, and sleep apnea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Clinical signs of RVD result mainly from systemic congestion (lower limb edema, jugular turgescence, congestive hepatopathy, ascites, edematous bowel loops). In severe cases, the right heart dilates and, due to interventricular dependence, can compromise left ventricular filling, reducing the performance of the LV and causing low cardiac output. The diagnosis is based on clinical history, physical examination and complementary tests, including electrocardiography (ECG) with axis deviation to the right, and signs of right ventricular hypertrophy, echocardiogram (ECHO), which is an easily accessible tool that provides important information, including assessment of right ventricular function by tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) and signs of venous congestion, and cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR), which is the best method for evaluation of right ventricular function and etiological definition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The crucial role of the right ventricular function in establishing the prognosis in several diseases has been increasingly recognized. In general, RVD is associated with poor clinical outcomes, regardless of the underlying mechanism. Patients with heart failure (HF) and reduced left or right ventricular ejection fraction had an increased risk of mortality, urgent transplantation or urgent assist device placement compared to those without RVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The initial evaluation of patients with RVD aims to assess the clinical severity and identify the causes of right ventricular failure, focusing on those that require specific therapy. The management of acute insufficiency of the RV requires not only the understanding of anatomical and physiological particularities of the RV, but also the rapid identification and treatment of underlying causes and related pathophysiological disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The objectives of RVD treatment include reduction of RV afterload, optimization of RV preload and possibly improvement of right ventricular contractility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>However, current evidence indicate that right ventricular afterload reduction is the most appropriate approach, especially in the scenario of PAH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Afterload reduction</title>
				<p>Adaptive changes favor vasoconstriction, thrombosis and proliferation of endothelial cells in PAH, contributing to increased peripheral vascular resistance (PVR) and right ventricular afterload, disadaptive hypertrophy, and eventually RVD. Advances in the pharmacotherapy in the last two decades increased mean survival time from 2.8 years to approximately eight years after the diagnosis. Aiming to augment arterial vasodilation and inhibit platelet aggregation to reduce PVR, the treatment includes: (a) oxygen administration as appropriate, since hypoxemia increases pulmonary vasoconstriction; (b) prostacyclin agonists (epoprostenol, treprostinil, iloprost, selexipag); (c) endothelin receptor antagonist (endothelin 1, bosentan, ambrisentan, macitentan); (d) increase of nitric oxide production (sildenafil, tadalafil, riociguat); (e) calcium channel blockers (anlodipine, levamlodipine, nimodipine); (f) combined therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> In the randomized study AMBITION, the efficacy of the combination therapy with ambrisentan and tadalafil was evaluated in 605 patients, and compared with their use as monotherapy; there was a 50% reduction in the primary end point (death, hospitalizations for PAH, disease progression, unsatisfactory response to therapy) (p&lt;0.001), and improvement in exercise capacity (p&lt;0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Based on results from this trial, the European Cardiology Society and the European Respiratory Society recommend the combination of ambrisentan and tadalafil as initial therapy for patients with PAH and symptoms class I or II (WHO (class I recommendation, level of evidence B. In addition, the guidelines recommend intravenous prostacyclin in functional class II patients with rapid disease progression or poor prognosis and functional class IV patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Afterload optimization</title>
				<p>RVD is frequently associated with increased overload, leading to dilation of the RV, tricuspid regurgitation, and congestion. In more severe cases, interventricular septal deviation may be seen towards the RV, with consequent reduction of left ventricular filling and low cardiac output. Therefore, optimization of blood volume to prevent right ventricular dilation is crucial and achieved by non-pharmacological measures (fluid and salt restriction) and diuretics, although there are no randomized study evaluating the benefit, type or dose of diuretics in the management of RVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> High doses of loop diuretics (e.g. furosemide) are usually required, mainly due to concomitant neurohormonal activation, diuretic resistance and impaired absorption of medications related to visceral edema. Combined therapy of loop diuretics plus thiazide diuretics, aldosterone antagonist and/or acetazolamide may be needed. A common mistake is to believe that most patients with RVD are preload-dependent and should be treated with volume supplementation to promote elevated right ventricular filling and an ideal cardiac output; conversely, most clinical exacerbations are caused by right ventricular volume overload that causes systemic venous congestion, that may lead to cardiorenal syndrome and cardiac output reduction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Contractility increase</title>
				<p>Contractility can be increased by inotropic agents or circulatory assist devices. Inotropic therapy is indicated for patients with acute HF and reduced cardiac output However, there are no studies investigating the efficacy of chronic inotropic therapy in right HF. Potentially beneficial inotropic agents include milrinone, levosimendan and dobutamine. Apart from an acute case of HF decompensation with low cardiac output, inotropes should be avoided in patients with right HF due to limited evidence of benefit and associations with increased mortality. Right ventricular assist devices are mechanical pumps that take over the right ventricular function and are used in refractory cases. Examples of these devices include Thoratec PVAD (Thoratec, Pleasanton, CA) and Impella RP (Abiomed,Danvers, MA) approved for temporary support of the RV for two weeks, and CentriMag up to four weeks. Thirty-day and one-year survival after implantation of CentriMag was 72,1% e 54,6%, respectively, in a retrospective study with 55 patients. Cardiac transplant, however, remain the definite therapy for refractory right ventricular failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Right ventricular dysfunction in cancer patient</title>
				<p>Cardio-oncology is an emerging area in cardiology aimed at protecting the cardiovascular system, reducing mortality, and improving the quality of life of cancer patients, and enabling them to receive the best treatment available without interruptions. Although position statements and guidelines on prevention and management of cancer-related and treatment-related cardiotoxicity address mainly the LV, the involvement of the RV has been a subject of intense research recently. Since the prognostic role of the structure and function of the RV has been proved in several cardiovascular conditions, such as HF, coronary artery disease, pulmonary hypertension and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, the assessment of the RV in oncologic patients has gained space.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Radiotherapy (RT) to the chest area can damage the heart in a dose-dependent manner.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Evidence has shown that high-dose RT (&gt;30Gy), combined with chemotherapy, may induce fibrosis and narrowing of right ventricular myocardium at long term.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Other potential pathophysiological mechanisms that could explain right ventricular remodeling include microvascular and macrovascular ischemia, accelerated atherosclerosis, and oxidative stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Some anticancer drugs are known to cause PAH (e.g. dasatinib) and/or RVD (anthracyclines, trastuzumab, cyclophosphamide, and dasatinib).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> We will now review important aspects and studies focusing on the effects of these interventions on the RV and their diagnosis.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Anthracyclines and Trastuzumab</title>
				<p>Recent studies have shown structural changes and reduced right ventricular function during cancer treatment, especially with anthracyclines and trastuzumab.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Currently no guideline explicitly incorporates right ventricular parameters into the definitions of cancer therapy-related cardiac dysfunction (CTRCD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Although the mechanisms of right ventricular remodeling induced by chemotherapy have not been elucidated, the direct destructive effect of chemotherapy on the myocardium, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction and the negative impact of pulmonary circulation seem to significantly contribute to right ventricular failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> The higher sensitivity of the RV to cancer therapy-related cardiotoxicity may be explained by the thinner structure of this ventricle, with fewer myofibrils.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Most studies with analysis of the RV in cardio-oncology have involved breast cancer patients and childhood cancer survivors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Evidence has suggested that the RV is affected as frequently as the LV,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> and even earlier in some situations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> To confirm the possibility of assessing the RV to early detect subclinical cardiotoxicity and to define its criteria, larger studies, preferably multicentric ones, are still warranted.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>CMR and echocardiography are the techniques of choice to evaluate right ventricular systolic function in cancer patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> CMR is the gold standard to assess right ventricular diameter and function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> There are few studies, with a limited number of patients, regarding right ventricular function following chemotherapy, but all studies agree that its ejection fraction reduces with anthracyclines in adults who had survived childhood cancer,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> and with anthracyclines<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> and trastuzumab<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> in breast cancer patients.</p>
				<p>An accurate evaluation of the RV by conventional echocardiography is still challenging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Right ventricular shape and geometry limit the capacity of conventional echocardiographic indexes like right ventricular ejection fraction, fractional area change (FAC), and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), to reliably detect subtle changes in right ventricular systolic function in cancer patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Right ventricular strain seems to be a reliable, robust and easy-to-use indicator in cardio-oncology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Right ventricular global longitudinal strain (RVGLS) is the only index of systolic performance with consistent and homogenous data in oncological patients,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> and apparently a better indicator of right ventricular function than the right ventricular free wall longitudinal strain (RVFWLS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Shi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> recently published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 21 studies including 1355 patients, evaluating the RV by echocardiography at the beginning of treatment and follow-up of cancer patients who underwent chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy. The authors found an increase in pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP), as well as reductions in TAPSE, S’, RVGLS and RVFWLS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Further studies are needed to determine the prognostic value of the assessment of the RV in oncologic patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> In breast cancer patients receiving epirubicin, the decrease in the RVFWLS was significantly correlated with the development of dyspnea, regardless of systolic and diastolic function in both ventricles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> In patients with stage III non-small cell lung cancer receiving concurrent chemoradiotherapy, baseline RVFWLS and its variation was an independent predictor of all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Desatinib</title>
				<p>Desatinib is an oral tyrosine kinase inhibitor approved as a first-line treatment in patients with chronic myeloid leukemia and acute lymphocytic leukemia. It induces endothelial cell damage, oxidative stress, and changes the proportion between proliferation and antiproliferation of the endothelial and pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells, which leads to higher susceptibility to pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> In the DASISION (DASatinib versus Imatinib Study in treatment-Naïve chronic myeloid leukemia patients), 5.4% of patients randomized to desatinib were diagnosed with PAH, as compared with 0.4% in those randomized to imatinib.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Symptoms of PAH are nonspecific, like dyspnea and fatigue. In more advanced stages, signs and symptoms of right HF may emerge. Echocardiography is the first choice to assess the risk of PAH in patients with suggestive symptoms and/or signs during cancer treatment. In patients with chronic myeloid leukemia treated with drugs that potentially cause PAH, treatment should be discontinued in case of signs suggestive of PAH (peak tricuspid regurgitation velocity &gt; 3.4 m/s, corresponding to a pulmonary artery systolic pressure ≥ 50 mmHg) until the diagnosis is confirmed or ruled out by right heart catheterization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Most patients have clinical and functional improvement after dasatinib discontinuation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cyclophosphamide</title>
				<p>Cyclophosphamide is an alkylating agent that interferes with DNA replication.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> The metabolism of cyclophosphamide in the lungs is partially responsible for its pulmonary toxicity. Evidence suggests that cyclophosphamide and its metabolites cause peroxidation of cell membrane lipids.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A systematic review of the role of alkylating agents in the development of pulmonary hypertension, published in 2015 established that these compounds, including cyclophosphamide, are a risk factor for pulmonary veno-occlusive disease. In experimental models, cyclophosphamide exposure leads to venous remodeling, which, in turn, leads to the development of pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease is extremely rare, with an incidence of 0.1-0.2 cases per million per year, and difficult to be differentiated from PAH. The gold-standard for the diagnosis of PAH, as previously mentioned, is right heart catheterization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Challenges and perspectives</title>
				<p>Although the role of the RV in the development of cardiovascular diseases has been increasingly recognized, the best diagnostic and therapeutical approach in cardio-oncology has been poorly defined. Important challenges need to be addressed, as listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Chart 1</xref>, including: definition of RVD in the context of cardiotoxicity, selection of the most appropriate method for its correct diagnosis, prognostic impact of RVD (either alone or in conjunction with the LC), and identification of specific therapies to prevent, attenuate and even reverse RVD associated with cancer therapy-induced cardiotoxicity.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Chart 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Challenges related to right ventricular dysfunction (RVD) in the cancer patient</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="100%">
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>The condition is poorly recognized, but highly prevalent and even prior to left ventricular dysfunction;</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Diagnosis: diagnostic methods (strain, cardiac magnetic resonance) should be validated;</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Prognostic impact: multicentric studies, to assess the role of the right ventricle alone;</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Detection, interventions, and follow-up: not defined yet</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The development and availability of diagnostic tools, as the use of strain echocardiography and wider use of CMR, opens the way to a better assessment of the RV. Cardio-oncology and new multicentric studies must include them to promote the understanding of the real impact of the RV and the development of interventions in cardiovascular care of oncologic patients.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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					<volume>185</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>356</fpage>
					<lpage>371</lpage>
					<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.10.021.</issue-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Disfunção de Ventrículo Direito no Paciente com Câncer</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Bond</surname>
						<given-names>Marina Macedo Kuenzer</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1521-6608</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pivatto</surname>
						<given-names>Fernando</given-names>
						<suffix>Júnior</suffix>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5002"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8579-4158</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Biolo</surname>
						<given-names>Andreia</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6002"><sup>6</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7002"><sup>7</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Centro Paulista de Oncologia – Grupo Oncoclínicas, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital do Coração (HCOR), São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Santo Amaro (UNISA), São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5002">
				<label>5</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde: Cardiologia e Ciências Cardiovasculares – Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff6002">
				<label>6</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff7002">
				<label>7</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina – Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"> Correspondência: Marina Macedo Kuenzer Bond • Rua Bento de Andrade, 346. CEP 04503-001, Jardim Paulista, São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: mmkbond@gmail.com </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A disfunção de ventrículo direito (DVD) está presente em diversas situações clínicas, e seu impacto clínico e prognóstico vem sendo mais estudado nos últimos anos na cardiologia. Nos pacientes oncológicos, alguns estudos têm buscado avaliar melhor o papel da DVD no que tange à cardiotoxicidade de alguns tratamentos como: antraciclinas, trastuzumabe, ciclofosfamida e dasatinibe. O presente estudo busca realizar uma revisão bibliográfica sobre o assunto, buscando destacar os seus desafios para os próximos anos.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca Direita</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiotoxicidade</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardio-Oncologia</kwd>
				<kwd>Disfunção Cardíaca</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>O ventrículo direito (VD) tem características anatômicas e funcionais que tornam sua avaliação mais desafiadora. Recentemente, maior atenção tem sido dedicada ao entendimento das condições que o afetam, isolada ou conjuntamente com o ventrículo esquerdo (VE) e de seu impacto clínico e prognóstico, bem como às intervenções que possam reduzir seus efeitos clínicos.</p>
				<p>A cardio-oncologia é um campo crescente, que conta atualmente com diversas estratégias bem definidas para detecção, acompanhamento e prevenção de cardiotoxicidade relacionada às terapias contra o câncer. Entretanto, o VD é muito pouco citado na maioria das diretrizes que abordam a cardiotoxicidade. Recentemente, diversos estudos têm procurado estabelecer a prevalência e o impacto de disfunção de ventrículo direito (DVD) neste contexto. Neste artigo, abordaremos alguns aspectos fundamentais dos mecanismos, manifestações clínicas e abordagem terapêutica da DVD, e revisaremos os principais estudos que avaliaram o VD, isoladamente ou em conjunto como VE, no contexto da cardiotoxicidade. A prevalência, impacto clínico, bem como os métodos diagnósticos para identificação do acometimento do VD serão revisados, bem como os desafios ainda existentes neste cenário que vem recebendo maior interesse recentemente.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Disfunção de ventrículo direito</title>
					<p>O aumento da pós-carga é o principal mecanismo fisiopatológico da DVD, que pode ocorrer em virtude de doenças cardíacas, pulmonares e outras. Quando falamos das doenças cardíacas podemos citar diversas etiologias: doença isquêmica (infarto do miocárdio), miocardite, cardiomiopatia de takotsubo, cardiomiopatia dilatada, cardiomiopatia hipertrófica, amiloidose, doença de Chagas, cardiomiopatia arritmogênica do VD (caracterizada pela substituição do miocárdio do VD por tecido fibroadiposo), anomalia de Uhl (que envolve aplasia ou hipoplasia da maior parte do miocárdio do VD), anomalia de Ebstein (definida como deslocamento apical dos folhetos tricúspides septais e posteriores, o que induz regurgitação tricúspide grave) e doença congênita (Fallot, defeito do septo atrial com shunt esquerda-direita ou regurgitação pulmonar). Encontramos aqui condições que afetam apenas o VD, outras que afetam prioritariamente o VE e quando em maior gravidade acometem também o VD, e etiologias que comprometem ambos os ventrículos. Outras causas para DVD incluem: tromboembolismo pulmonar, doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica, hipertensão arterial pulmonar (HAP), obesidade, e apneia do sono.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os sinais clínicos da DVD decorrem principalmente da congestão sistêmica (edema de membros inferiores, turgência jugular, hepatopatia congestiva, ascite, edema de alça intestinal). Nas formas graves, o coração direito dilata e, por dependência interventricular, pode comprometer o enchimento do VE, reduzindo o desempenho do VE e causando baixo débito cardíaco (DC). O diagnóstico é baseado na história clínica, exame físico e exames complementares, incluindo eletrocardiograma (ECG) com desvio do eixo para direita e sinais de hipertrofia ventricular direita, ecocardiograma (ECO), exame de fácil acesso que já consegue trazer muitas informações importantes, incluindo avaliação da função do VD por excursão sistólica do plano anular tricúspide (TAPSE, <italic>tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion</italic>) e sinais de congestão venosa, e ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC), que é o melhor método para avaliação da função de VD e definição etiológica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Há um reconhecimento crescente do papel crucial da função do VD na determinação do prognóstico em múltiplas condições. Em geral, a DVD está associada a desfechos clínicos ruins, independentemente do mecanismo subjacente. Pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca (IC) com redução da fração de ejeção do VE e do VD tiveram um risco aumentado de mortalidade, transplante ou colocação de dispositivo de assistência de urgência em comparação àqueles sem DVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A avaliação inicial de pacientes com DVD visa avaliar a gravidade clínica e identificar a(s) causa(s) de falha do VD, com foco naquelas que requerem tratamento específico. O manejo da insuficiência aguda do VD requer não apenas uma compreensão das particularidades anatômicas e fisiológicas do VD, mas também a rápida identificação e tratamento das causas subjacentes e distúrbios fisiopatológicos relacionados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os objetivos da terapia da DVDd incluem a redução da pós-carga do VD, a otimização da pré-carga do VD e possivelmente o aumento de contratilidade do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Entretanto, o tratamento de melhor evidência está na redução da pós-carga, especificamente no cenário da HAP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Redução da pós-carga</title>
					<p>Diversas alterações adaptativas favorecem a vasoconstrição, trombose e proliferação de células endoteliais em pacientes com HAP, resultando em aumento da resistência vascular periférica (RVP), da pós-carga do VD, hipertrofia desadaptativa e eventualmente DVD. Avanços da farmacoterapia nas últimas duas décadas aumentaram a sobrevida média de 2,8 anos para aproximadamente 8 anos após o diagnóstico. Com o objetivo de vasodilatação arterial e deiminição da agregação plaquetária para redução da RVP, o tratamento inclui: (a) suplementação de oxigênio quando necessária porque a hipoxemia aumenta a vasoconstrição pulmonar; (b) agonistas da via da prostaciclina (epoprostenol, treprostinil, iloprost, selexipag); (c) antagonistas dos receptores de endotelina (endotelina 1, bosentana, ambrisentana, macitentana); (d) aumento da produção de óxido nítrico (sildenafila, tadalafila, riociguate); (e) bloqueadores de canal de cálcio (anlodipina, levanlodipina, nimodipina); (f) terapia combinada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> O estudo randomizado AMBITION avaliou a eficácia de ambrisentana e tadalafila em 605 pacientes comparando terapia combinada versus monoterapia; houve queda de 50% no desfecho primário (morte, hospitalização por HAP, doença em progressão ou resposta insatisfatória à terapia) (p &lt; 0,001), e melhora na capacidade de exercício (p &lt; 0,001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Com base nos dados deste ensaio, a Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia e Sociedade Respiratória Europeia agora recomendam ambrisentana combinada a tadalafila como terapia inicial para pacientes com HAP com sintomas de classe II ou III da OMS (recomendação de classe I, evidência de grau B). Vale ressaltar também, que as diretrizes recomendam prostaciclina endovenosa em pacientes em classe funcional III com rápida progressão ou mau prognóstico e pacientes de classe funcional IV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Otimização da pós-carga</title>
					<p>A DVD frequentemente está associada à sobrecarga de volume, que leva à dilatação do VD, regurgitação tricúspide e congestão. Em casos mais graves, pode ocorrer deslocamento do septo interventricular em direção ao VE, resultando em redução do enchimento do VE e baixo débito cardíaco. Portanto, a otimização da volemia para evitar a dilatação do VD é fundamental e é conseguida com medidas não farmacológicas (restrição hídrica e redução do consumo de sal) e uso de diuréticos, porém não há estudo randomizado avaliando o benefício, tipo ou dose de diurético para administrar em DVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup>Normalmente, é necessário grandes doses de diuréticos de alça (ou seja, furosemida), principalmente pela ativação neuro-hormonal concomitante, resistência diurética e absorção prejudicada de fármacos relacionadas ao edema visceral. Pode-se necessitar da terapia combinada de diuréticos de alça com diuréticos tiazídicos, antagonista da aldosterona e/ou acetazolamida. Um equívoco comum é achar que a maioria dos pacientes com DVD são dependentes da pré-carga e devem ser tratadas com suplementação de volume para garantir uma pressão de enchimento do VD elevada e, consequentemente, um débito cardíaco ideal; inversamente, a grande maioria das exacerbações clínicas são causadas por sobrecarga de volume do VD que causa congestão venosa sistêmica, que pode levar a síndrome cardiorrenal e redução do DC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aumento da contratilidade</title>
					<p>O aumento da contratilidade pode ser realizado pelo uso de medicações inotrópicas ou dispositivos de assistência circulatória. A terapia inotrópica é indicada em pacientes com IC aguda com diminuição do débito cardíaco. No entanto, não há estudos que investiguem a eficácia de terapia inotrópica crônica em IC direita. Agentes inotrópicos potencialmente benéficos incluem milrinona, levosimendan e dobutamina. Fora do quadro agudo de descompensação da IC com baixo débito cardíaco, inotrópicos devem ser evitados em pacientes com IC direita, devido à evidência limitada de benefício e associações com aumento da mortalidade. Os dispositivos de assistência ao VD são bombas mecânicas que assumem o trabalho do VD e são usados em casos refratários. Dentre as opções existem Thoratec PVAD (Thoratec, Pleasanton, CA) e Impella RP (Abiomed,Danvers, MA) aprovados para suporte temporário do VD por duas semanas e CentriMag até quatro semanas. As sobrevidas de 30 dias e 1 ano após implantação isolada de CentriMag foi de 72,1% e 54,6%, respectivamente, em um estudo retrospectivo de 55 pacientes. O transplante cardíaco, portanto, continua sendo a terapia definitiva para IC direita refratária.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Disfunção de VD no paciente com câncer</title>
					<p>A cardio-oncologia é uma área emergente da cardiologia com o objetivo de proteger o sistema cardiovascular de pacientes com câncer, reduzindo sua mortalidade, melhorando sua qualidade de vida e capacidade de receberem a melhor terapia de câncer disponível sem interrupções. Embora documentos de posição e recomendações sobre a prevenção e tratamento de cardiotoxicidade do câncer e seus tratamentos referem-se principalmente ao VE, o envolvimento do VD tem sido recentemente uma área de intensa pesquisa. Uma vez que o papel prognóstico da estrutura e função do VD em várias entidades cardiovasculares, como IC, doença arterial coronariana, hipertensão pulmonar e cardiomiopatia hipertrófica foi comprovada, a inclusão da avaliação do VD em pacientes oncológicos vem ganhando espaço.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A radioterapia (RT) que envolve a área torácica pode igualmente afetar o coração, de modo dose-dependente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>Evidências mostram que a RT em altas doses (&gt; 30 Gy), sinergicamente com a quimioterapia, pode induzir fibrose e adelgaçamento do miocárdio do VD em longo prazo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Outros potenciais mecanismos fisiopatológicos que poderiam explicar a remodelação ventricular direita após a RT incluem isquemia microvascular e macrovascular, aterosclerose acelerada e estresse oxidativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Existem tratamentos específicos para o câncer que podem causar HAP (dasatinibe) e/ou DVd (antraciclinas, trastuzumabe, ciclofosfamida e dasatinibe).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>Revisaremos a seguir aspectos importantes e estudos realizados com foco nas consequências dessas intervenções no VD e seu diagnóstico.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Antraciclinas e Trastuzumabe</title>
					<p>Estudos recentes demonstram alterações na estrutura e redução da função ventricular direita durante o tratamento oncológico, principalmente com antraciclinas e trastuzumabe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Atualmente, nenhuma das diretrizes incorpora explicitamente os parâmetros do VD em suas definições de disfunção cardíaca relacionada ao tratamento do câncer (CTRCD, <italic>cancer therapy-related cardiac dysfunction</italic>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os mecanismos da remodelação do VD induzida pela quimioterapia ainda não estão totalmente claros, mas considera-se que a influência destrutiva direta da quimioterapia no miocárdio, estresse oxidativo, disfunção endotelial e impacto negativo na circulação pulmonar podem contribuir significativamente para o comprometimento do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> A estrutura mais fina desse ventrículo, com menor número de miofibrilas, talvez seja um potencial fator relacionado à maior sensibilidade à cardiotoxicidade relacionada ao tratamento do oncológico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A maioria dos estudos envolvendo a análise do VD em cardio-oncologia incluiu pacientes com câncer de mama e sobreviventes de cânceres infantis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Evidências sugerem que o envolvimento do VD parece ser tão frequente quanto o acometimento do VE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>e, às vezes, até mais precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> A fim de confirmar a possibilidade de avaliação do VD objetivando a detecção precoce de manifestações de cardiotoxicidade subclínica, assim como definir seus critérios, estudos maiores, preferencialmente multicêntricos, são ainda necessários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A RMC e a ecocardiografia são as técnicas preferidas para a avaliação da função sistólica do VD em pacientes com câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup>A RMC é a técnica padrão-ouro para avaliar os diâmetros e a função ventricular direita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Existem poucos estudos com número limitado de pacientes sobre a função do VD após quimioterapia, mas todos concordam que sua fração de ejeção diminui após a terapia com antraciclinas em adultos sobreviventes de câncer infantil,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>em pacientes com câncer de mama após antraciclina<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> e após trastuzumabe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Uma avaliação acurada do VD por meio de ecocardiografia convencional permanece desafiadora.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> A geometria e a forma do VD limitam a capacidade dos índices ecocardiográficos clássicos como a fração de ejeção do VD, a variação de áreas do VD (FAC, <italic>fractional area change</italic>), a excursão sistólica do plano do anel tricúspide (TAPSE, <italic>tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion</italic>), para identificar alterações sutis de forma confiável na função sistólica do VD em pacientes com câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O <italic>strain</italic> do VD parece ser um índice de função sistólica confiável, robusto e fácil de usar na Cardio-Oncologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> O <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global (GLS) do VD é o único índice de desempenho sistólico estudado com dados consistentes e homogêneos em pacientes oncológicos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>sendo aparentemente um melhor indicador da função ventricular direita do que o <italic>strain</italic> da parede livre do VD (SPLVD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Shi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> recentemente publicaram uma revisão sistemática e meta-análise de 21 estudos incluindo 1355 pacientes avaliando o VD por ecocardiografia no início do tratamento e no seguimento de pacientes com câncer submetidos à quimioterapia com e sem radioterapia. Os autores observaram um aumento na pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar (PSAP), bem como reduções dos parâmetros TAPSE, S’, SPLVD e SLGVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Mais estudos são necessários para determinar o valor prognóstico da avaliação do VD em pacientes oncológicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Em pacientes com câncer de mama recebendo epirrubicina, o declínio do SPLVD correlacionou-se significativamente com o desenvolvimento de dispneia, independentemente da função sistólica e diastólica de ambos os ventrículos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Em pacientes com câncer de pulmão não pequenas células em estágio III em quimioterapia e RT concomitantes, o SPLVD basal e sua variação demonstraram ser um preditor independente de mortalidade por todas as causas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Dasatinibe</title>
					<p>O dasatinibe é um inibidor oral de tirosinaquinase aprovado para uso de primeira linha em pacientes com leucemia mieloide crônica e linfoblástica aguda. Esse medicamento induz dano celular endotelial, estresse oxidativo e altera a proporção entre a proliferação e antiproliferação das células musculares lisas arteriais e endoteliais pulmonares, o que leva ao aumento da suscetibilidade ao desenvolvimento de hipertensão pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> No seguimento do ensaio clínico DASISION (<italic>DASatinib vs. Imatinib Study In treatment-Naïve chronic myeloid leukemia patients</italic>), 5,4% dos pacientes randomizados para dasatinibe foram diagnosticados com HAP, em comparação com 0,4% daqueles randomizados para imatinibe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os sintomas da HAP são inespecíficos, como dispneia e fadiga. Em estágios mais avançados, sinais/sintomas de IC direita podem aparecer. A ecocardiografia é a primeira escolha para avaliar a probabilidade de HAP em pacientes que desenvolvem sintomas e/ou sinais sugestivos durante o tratamento oncológico. Em pacientes com leucemia mieloide crônica tratados com medicamentos que potencialmente provocam HAP, recomenda-se a suspensão do tratamento se observados sinais sugestivos (pico de velocidade de regurgitação tricúspide &gt; 3,4 m/s, equivalente a uma pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar ≥ 50 mmHg) até o diagnóstico ser confirmado ou descartado por cateterismo cardíaco direito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> A maioria dos pacientes apresenta melhora clínica e funcional após a suspensão do dasatinibe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Ciclofosfamida</title>
					<p>A ciclofosfamida é o agente alquilante que interfere na replicação do DNA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup>O metabolismo da ciclofosfamida no pulmão é parcialmente responsável por sua toxicidade pulmonar. Os dados sugerem que a ciclofosfamida e seus metabólitos causam lesão peroxidativa dos lipídios da membrana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Uma revisão sistemática do papel dos agentes alquilantes no desenvolvimento da hipertensão pulmonar publicada em 2015 estabeleceu que esses compostos, incluindo a ciclofosfamida, são um fator de risco para doença veno-oclusiva pulmonar. Em modelos experimentais, a exposição à ciclofosfamida leva a remodelamento venoso que, por sua vez, leva ao desenvolvimento de hipertensão pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> A doença veno-oclusiva pulmonar é extremamente rara, com incidência de 0,1 a 0,2 casos por milhão a cada ano, e clinicamente muito difícil de diferenciar da HAP. O padrão-ouro para o diagnóstico de HAP, como já mencionado anteriormente, é o cateterismo cardíaco direito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Desafios e perspectivas</title>
					<p>Embora o papel do VD esteja ganhando maior reconhecimento no contexto das doenças cardiovasculares, a melhor abordagem tanto diagnóstica como terapêutica na cardio-oncologia ainda é pouco definida. Existem importantes desafios a serem superados, conforme <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">quadro 1</xref>, que incluem: definição do diagnóstico de DVD no contexto da cardiotoxicidade, escolha do método diagnóstico preferencial para sua correta identificação, impacto prognóstico tanto isoladamente como quando ocorre juntamente à disfunção de VE e, por fim, a identificação de terapias específicas que possam prevenir, atenuar e mesmo reverter a DVD resultante de toxicidade relacionadas a terapias para o tratamento do câncer.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Quadro 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Desafios relacionados à disfunção ventricular direita (DVD) no paciente com câncer</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="100%">
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													<p>A DVD é pouco reconhecida, mas parece ser prevalente e até preceder a disfunção de ventrículo esquerdo</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Diagnóstico: necessidade de validar métodos diagnósticos - <italic>strain</italic>, ressonância magnética nuclear</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Impacto prognóstico: estudos multicêntricos, avalição do papel isolado do ventrículo direito</p>
												</list-item>
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													<p>Detecção, intervenções e acompanhamento: ainda não definidos</p>
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					</p>
					<p>O desenvolvimento e a disponibilidade de ferramentas diagnósticas, como a incorporação do <italic>strain</italic> à avaliação ecocardiográfica ou maior uso da ressonância magnética nuclear, certamente abrem caminho para a melhor avaliação do VD. É preciso que a cardio-oncologia e novos estudos multicêntricos incluam essas avaliações para entendermos o real impacto do VD e identificarmos intervenções na atenção cardiovascular do paciente com câncer.</p>
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					<p>Vinculação acadêmica</p>
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					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
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