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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &amp; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20230009</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20230009</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Myocarditis in Cancer Patients: A Review of an Emerging Problem in Cardio-Oncology</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2284-8251</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Martins</surname>
						<given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Schlabendorff</surname>
						<given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">DASA Complexo Hospitalar de Niterói</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">DASA Complexo Hospitalar de Niterói, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Mãe de Deus</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Mãe de Deus, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Wolney de Andrade Martins • Universidade Federal Fluminense – Departamento de Medicina Clínica – Rua Marques do Paraná, 303, 6º andar. Postal Code 24030-215, Niterói, RJ – Brazil E-mail: <email>wolney_martins@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>18</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Oct-Dec</season>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>2</volume>
			<issue>4</issue>
			<fpage>354</fpage>
			<lpage>361</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>07</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>09</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>09</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Patients with cancer have a multitude of etiological factors for developing myocarditis. Classical or conventional chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and, more recently, immunotherapy have all been described as possible etiologies of myocarditis. Furthermore, patients with cancer are immunosuppressed and more susceptible to bacterial and viral infections that can cause myocarditis. This narrative review addresses the many possible causes of myocarditis in patients with cancer. Particular emphasis will be given to immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-induced myocarditis. ICI myocarditis generally affects male patients, over the age of 50, who are being treated for lung cancer, melanoma, or renal cell carcinoma and have multiple comorbidities. Clinical manifestations present early, with elevated troponin and electrocardiogram changes. The case fatality rate is high. Treatment consists of discontinuation of the offending ICI and corticosteroid therapy. Myocarditis due to cyclophosphamide, anthracyclines, 5-fluorouracil, cisplatin, carboplatin, proteasome inhibitors, immunomodulators, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, and radiation therapy will also be addressed.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Myocarditis</kwd>
				<kwd>Neoplasms</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiotoxicity</kwd>
				<kwd>Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors</kwd>
				<kwd>Drug Therapy</kwd>
				<kwd>Immunotherapy</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="6"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="43"/>
				<page-count count="8"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Cancer was recognized as a disease many centuries ago, and its annual incidence currently exceeds 140 new cases per 100,000 population in most developed and developing countries. The prevalence of cancer is highest in the Northern Hemisphere, but in most countries, there are more than 250 cases per 100,000 population. Complications, even infrequent ones, become more noticeable as survival increases and the disease becomes more prevalent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Cancer treatment has evolved since the pioneering use of arsenicals in 1908, from the revolution of the discovery of anthracyclines in the late 1960s to the recent advent of immunotherapy today.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Both radiation therapy and classical chemotherapy can cause myocarditis in patients at increased risk of cardiotoxicity. Immunotherapy has revived fear of myocarditis as an adverse effect, due to its high lethality despite the low incidence. However, the multiple possible etiologies of myocarditis in cancer patients cannot be overlooked.</p>
			<p>As a rule, patients with cancer are immunosuppressed, a condition which is compounded by the frequent use of corticosteroids or other immunomodulators. Furthermore, these patients are beset by long-term central venous access, diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, and hospitalizations. All of these factors culminate in increased risk of viral and bacterial infections, with the potential for development of myocarditis of various infectious etiologies and a severe course.</p>
			<p>The clinical importance of myocarditis in patients with cancer lies both in its high lethality and in the need to discontinue or postpone anticancer therapy. This article will review the main clinical scenarios in which a patient with cancer may develop myocarditis as a complication or comorbidity, as well as the leading etiologies of myocarditis in this context.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Myocarditis in the cancer patient</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Immune checkpoint inhibitors</title>
					<p>Immune checkpoints are molecules – generally membrane receptors – that either stimulate or inhibit immune cells, which includes regulating T-cell activation. Inhibitory immune checkpoints have been studied as a potential therapeutic target against some malignant tumors. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) are monoclonal antibodies that target regulatory receptors and thus increase T-cell activation in response to tumor cells. The traditional logic of cytotoxic chemotherapy is thus inverted, insofar as therapy produces an immune activation that results in tumor blockade. Several different receptors can be blocked simultaneously by specific antibodies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The ICIs used in clinical practice and associated with adverse cardiovascular effects target cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), and programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1).</p>
					<p>In 2014, during the initial regulatory process for clinical approval of the first ICIs, adverse effects involving the neurological, endocrine, pulmonary, gastrointestinal and renal systems were observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Rare cardiovascular effects were also seen, though most likely underreported according to a review by Hu et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> who analyzed 22 clinical trials of PD-1 and PD-L1 inhibitors; only one case of myocarditis was reported, and, in 10 studies enrolling 1784 patients, a cardiotoxicity rate of 0.7% was recorded.</p>
					<p>A series of myocarditis cases attributable to ICI was subsequently published in 2016.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Other isolated case reports and case series followed, as well as pharmacovigilance studies and multicenter registries that attested to adverse cardiovascular effects, warning particularly of the possibility of severe myocarditis. Other adverse cardiovascular effects have been described, including arrhythmias and conduction disorders; pericardial involvement; vasculitis and temporal arteritis; Takotsubo cardiomyopathy; and hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> More recently, special focus has been given to the acceleration of atherogenesis by ICIs, with an increase in atherosclerotic plaque and, consequently, a threefold risk of events such as myocardial infarction, myocardial revascularization, and ischemic stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					<p>ICI myocarditis has peculiar clinical features and will thus receive special focus in this review article. In parallel, we will address the other etiologies of myocarditis in patients receiving cancer therapies.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced myocarditis</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Epidemiological aspects</title>
				<p>When the first cases of myocarditis attributed to ICIs were described, it was presumed to be a very rare adverse effect. However, the publication of a growing number of case series, pharmacovigilance studies, and registries showed the actual incidence of ICI myocarditis to range from 0.39% to 2.1%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Cases of ICI myocarditis have been described in a very wide age range (from 20 to 90 years), with a male predominance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As monitoring and screening of patients on ICIs – with serial measurement of cardiac troponin (cTn), B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), and echocardiography – increased, so did the reported incidence of myocarditis. A summary of the current literature on the incidence of ICI myocarditis, the timing of onset after starting immunotherapy, and the incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and mortality is given in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Epidemiological and clinical features of immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced myocarditis</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Authors</th>
									<th>Year</th>
									<th>Type of study</th>
									<th>Incidence of myocarditis (%)</th>
									<th>Mean/median time to onset (days)</th>
									<th>MACE (%)</th>
									<th>Case fatality (%)</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Mahmood SS et al.</td>
									<td align="center">2018</td>
									<td align="center">Multicenter registry</td>
									<td align="center">1.14</td>
									<td align="center">34</td>
									<td align="center">46.0</td>
									<td align="center">-</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Salem JE et al.</td>
									<td align="center">2018</td>
									<td align="center">Multicenter registry</td>
									<td align="center">0.39</td>
									<td align="center">30</td>
									<td align="center">-</td>
									<td align="center">50.0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Li C et al.</td>
									<td align="center">2022</td>
									<td align="center">Nationwide registry</td>
									<td align="center">2.10</td>
									<td align="center">115</td>
									<td align="center">-</td>
									<td align="center">47.0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Furukawa A et al.</td>
									<td align="center">2022</td>
									<td align="center">Single-center clinical trial</td>
									<td align="center">10.30</td>
									<td align="center">44</td>
									<td align="center">3.2</td>
									<td align="center">-</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p>MACE: major adverse cardiovascular events (such as death, myocardial infarction, or stroke).</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>A recent study published findings from a large registry of 5,518 cancer patients on ICI therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Of these, 691 (12.5%) experienced some form of cardiotoxicity. Among the various manifestations of cardiotoxicity, arrhythmias and conduction disorders were most common (9.3% of patients), followed by myocarditis in 2.1% – the highest incidence published to date. Acute myocardial infarction occurred in 1.7% of patients. Pericarditis had an incidence of 1.2%, and cardiomyopathies, 0.9%. In this large registry, myocarditis was fatal in 47% of cases. MACE was associated with lower patient survival.</p>
				<p>This registry<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> can also be used to construct a profile of patients on ICI therapy. Mostly, they are male, over the age of 50, and being treated for lung cancer, melanoma, or renal-cell carcinoma. They also have several comorbidities, such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, liver disease, and peripheral vascular disease. In other words, a profile very similar to that of patients with heart disease, which places them at high cardiovascular risk.</p>
				<p>As a rule, ICI myocarditis is an early complication, occurring approximately at the third infusion or between the first and second months of therapy. Nevertheless, some late-presenting cases have been reported.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Etiology and pathophysiology</title>
				<p>Most patients (84.9%) were on one ICI; the remaining 15.1% were receiving two or three inhibitors. The most commonly used ICIs were PD-1 inhibitors, such as pembrolizumab and nivolumab. Overall, there was no difference in risk of cardiotoxicity between PD-1 and PD-L1 inhibitors. However, data suggest that initiation of therapy with ipilimumab and pembrolizumab carries a higher risk of adverse cardiovascular effects than with other agents.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The exact mechanism of myocardial injury by ICIs is unclear. Evidence suggests that antigens shared between tumor cells and myocardium elicit an immune response to both structures. This model resembles the known pathophysiology of viral myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Diagnosis, monitoring, and screening</title>
				<p>The clinical import of ICI myocarditis lies in its high case fatality rate and potential for other major cardiovascular events. Case series have shown that 50% of patients with ICI myocarditis die. Therefore, even if the overall incidence is low, the high lethality of this complication should lead clinicians to seek diagnosis as early as possible, allowing rapid initiation of therapy. Thus, in addition to maintaining a high index of suspicion, clinicians should actively screen patients at risk.</p>
				<p>Troponin I was elevated in 14.3% of all patients receiving ICIs, with elevation occurring around the 27th day after starting treatment. Troponin elevation was more frequent than elevation of BNP or creatine phosphokinase (CK-MB).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Electrocardiography (ECG) showed several changes, while the echocardiogram was normal in most patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> The most frequent ECG changes on baseline examination of patients with ICI myocarditis are increased heart rate, prolongation of the QT interval (Fridericia-corrected), low voltage, left bundle branch block, and repolarization changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> The ECG also has prognostic value, as patients with ICI myocarditis with left bundle branch block, pathologic Q waves, or low voltage are at increased risk of overall mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Case series showed that almost all cases of ICI myocarditis (94%) had elevated troponins and an abnormal ECG (89%), while left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) by echocardiography was preserved in 51%. This differs markedly from the classic pattern of viral myocarditis, i.e., chamber enlargement and severe systolic dysfunction with reduced LVEF. This can be a confusing finding for the clinician. Therefore, ICI myocarditis should be suspected even in the presence of preserved LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Some factors associated with ICI myocarditis have been speculated, including presence of diabetes mellitus, sleep apnea, and high body mass index.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer (SITC) has published a guideline that recommends the following:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<list list-type="order">
					<list-item>
						<p>A diagnosis of ICI-induced myocarditis should be considered in any patient developing new cardiac symptoms, new cardiac arrhythmias, new heart blocks, or cardiac lab findings (e.g., asymptomatic troponin elevation) who has received an ICI therapy in the past 12 weeks. Suspicion of ICI-induced myocarditis should trigger hospital admittance and consultation with a cardiologist.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Patients with suspected ICI-induced myocarditis should undergo cardiac MRI if available (with or without right heart catheterization and myocardial biopsy), ECG, and testing for serum troponin levels.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p>The European Society of Cardiology made more aggressive recommendations in its Cardio-Oncology Guideline:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<list list-type="order">
					<list-item>
						<p>ECG, NP, and cTn measurements are recommended in all patients before starting ICI therapy.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Baseline echocardiography is recommended in high-risk patients before starting ICI therapy.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Serial ECG and cTn measurements should be considered before ICI doses 2, 3, and 4, and if normal, reduce to every three doses until completion of therapy to detect subclinical ICI-related CV toxicity.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>CV assessment is recommended every 6–12 months in high-risk patients who require long-term (&gt;12 months) ICI treatment.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p>Patients with clinical suspicion of myocarditis due to ICI should proceed with diagnostic confirmation with cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR). Currently, specific CMR features for ICI-induced myocarditis are not well described and modified Lake Louise criteria are recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) should be considered in cases where the diagnosis is suspected but not confirmed non-invasively (e.g., conflicting results of cardiac imaging and biomarkers or clinically unstable patients).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Differential diagnosis</title>
				<p>Studies have reported an increased incidence of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease after ICI therapy, with a consequent higher occurrence of acute events such as myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, and severe arterial disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Therefore, when raising the diagnostic hypothesis of ICI myocarditis, acute coronary syndromes must be ruled out.</p>
				<p>Other manifestations of ICI cardiotoxicity should be borne in mind, including malignant arrhythmias, pericardiopathies, and cardiomyopathies in general. Takotsubo cardiomyopathy must not be overlooked, as it is common in cancer patients regardless of the use of immunotherapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Classification of myocarditis</title>
				<p>The European Cardio-Oncology Guideline recommends that all cases of ICI-associated myocarditis should be classified according to severity as fulminant or non-fulminant. The treatment and follow-up algorithm should be adopted on the basis of this classification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Another group of authors has suggested classifying myocarditis as definite, probable, or possible, according to clinical, ECG, laboratory, imaging, and pathology findings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment</title>
				<p>Patients with suspected ICI-induced myocarditis who are clinically stable should receive high-dose corticosteroids (1000 mg methylprednisolone IV or equivalent) daily, for 3 to 5 days, until troponin levels are normal. This should be started as soon as possible once the diagnosis is considered likely/probable and should be followed by 4 to 6 weeks of oral prednisone at 1 to 2 mg/kg, tapering off slowly.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>There is a consensus that ICI therapy must be discontinued immediately in all cases of suspected ICI myocarditis, even if the diagnosis is not yet confirmed. In patients who had an unconfirmed suspicion of myocarditis, ICI treatment should only be restarted after discussion by a multidisciplinary team and a positive assessment of the risk-benefit ratio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Patients with fulminant myocarditis should be admitted to an intensive care unit for monitoring and circulatory support, with consideration of second-line immunosuppressive treatment as necessary.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The therapeutic response should be monitored through serial ECG and troponin measurements.</p>
				<p>There is no consensus regarding second-line immunosuppression. Caution is advised against the use of infliximab, as there have been recent reports of complications with this immunosuppressant.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Other etiologies of myocarditis in the patient with cancer</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Myocarditis secondary to cytotoxic therapies</title>
				<p>A systematic review using World Health Organization (WHO) data investigated 5100 reported cases of drug-induced myocarditis between 1967 and 2020. The sample was divided into five classes of therapies: antipsychotics, immunotherapies, vaccines, salicylates, and cytotoxic drugs. Cytotoxic drugs – alkylating agents, anthracyclines, and antimetabolites – were implicated in 3.7% of cases, and were most frequently associated with heart failure and renal dysfunction. Women were slightly more affected, representing 52% of the sample, and the mortality rate was 24%, second only to that related to immunotherapies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cyclophosphamide myocarditis</title>
				<p>Cyclophosphamide is a nitrogen mustard-derived alkylating agent with potent antineoplastic, immunosuppressive, and immunomodulatory properties. Its use in cancer therapy and pre-hematopoietic stem cell transplant conditioning regimens is long established.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Cyclophosphamide is associated with acute myocarditis, often of a hemorrhagic, multifocal type. Cyclophosphamide metabolites cause direct and oxidative damage to the capillary endothelium, resulting in edema, interstitial hemorrhage, and microthrombus formation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Cardiomyopathy secondary to cyclophosphamide presents clinically with tachyarrhythmias, hypotension, heart failure, myocarditis, and pericardial involvement, generally occurring 2 to 10 days after an infusion. Hemorrhagic myocarditis is rare; however, once established, it progresses inexorably from acute heart failure to pericardial tamponade and cardiogenic shock, which is usually fatal. Patients on high-dose cyclophosphamide, older adults, or patients who have already received cardiotoxic therapies, such as anthracyclines or radiation to the chest, are at increased risk. The diagnosis of cyclophosphamide-associated myocarditis can be suspected by a resting ECG with increased QTc interval dispersion and by the echocardiographic findings of ventricular hypertrophy, a decrease in ejection fraction, and normal chamber size. CMR can confirm this diagnostic suspicion. Biomarkers can aid diagnosis by showing early elevations in BNP and troponin (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Proposed criteria for the early diagnosis of cyclophosphamide-associated hemorrhagic myocarditis</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Necessary conditions for the diagnosis of hemorrhagic myocarditis (must be present)</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>1. Dose &gt; 40 mg/kg/day or 1.4 mg/m<sup>2</sup>/day for 2 consecutive days</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>2. Heart failure symptom onset 3-12 days after infusion</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>3. Troponin elevation (peak at least 0.75 ng/dL) in the absence of anginal symptoms</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>4. Electrocardiogram with new diffuse low voltage</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>In addition to these, at least one additional imaging or other diagnostic modality demonstrating abnormalities would be required:</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>– Echocardiography: new pericardial effusion, increased intraventricular septal thickness during diastole, diastolic dysfunction, functional mitral regurgitation</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>– Cardiac MRI</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>
										<list list-type="bullet">
											<list-item>
												<p>– Myocardial biopsy: intramyocardial extravasation of blood, fibrin, or fibrin/platelet microthrombi in capillaries; fibrin strands in the interstitium</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<attrib>Source: Adapted from Wadia S, 2015.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref>
							</attrib>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>A high index of suspicion is needed to achieve early diagnosis and implement the necessary therapeutic measures, which may include – in addition to the usual treatment of heart failure – pericardiocentesis if tamponade develops and, occasionally, ventricular assist devices as a bridge therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Anthracycline-induced myocarditis</title>
				<p>Myocarditis may be a rare manifestation of anthracycline cardiotoxicity. This complication is unrelated to the cumulative dose, is reversible in most cases, and allows re-exposure to the drug with judicious multidisciplinary follow-up. The mechanism of anthracycline toxicity is directly related to the oxidative stress resulting from their metabolism, in addition to inhibition of topoisomerase IIb, which ultimately result in damage to cardiomyocyte DNA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Among the anthracyclines, those most often associated with this condition are daunorubicin, epirubicin, and doxorubicin. Myocarditis often occurs in patients receiving more than one cancer therapy, and may also be related to additional mechanisms of cardiotoxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>5-Fluorouracil (5-FU)-induced myocarditis</title>
				<p>The most common manifestations of cardiotoxicity associated with fluoropyrimidines are angina pectoris and acute coronary syndromes. Other, less common manifestations include myocarditis and pericarditis, atrial fibrillation and other arrhythmias, heart failure, and even death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Visible evidence of myocarditis was demonstrated in rabbits exposed to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), with left ventricular hypertrophy, focal myocardial necrosis, thickening of intramyocardial arterioles, and disseminated apoptosis in myocardial and endothelial cells. In this study, administration of a single high dose of 5-FU was intended to distinguish the acute toxic effects of 5-FU, which resulted in thrombogenesis and spasm due to endothelial damage, from late cardiotoxicity after four injections at 7-day intervals, which led to apoptosis of myocardial and endothelial cells without evidence of spasm. These results support an alternative mechanism for 5-FU cardiotoxicity beyond vasomotor spasm and ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In humans, biventricular enlargement and diffuse necrosis with inflammatory infiltrates and proliferation of the sarcoplasmic reticulum with marked vacuolation have also been demonstrated, similar to those found in doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity. Such findings have been reported postmortem in patients treated with 5-FU. This condition may represent the consequences of any, all, or a combination of the pathological processes described above. Additional clinical evidence of a cardiomyopathic process was provided by studies that demonstrated echocardiographic evidence of left ventricular dysfunction and neuroendocrine changes, characterized by elevated NP and lactic acid levels in the plasma of patients treated with 5-FU, even in the absence of significant changes in LVEF, thus suggesting a subclinical process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cisplatin and carboplatin myocarditis</title>
				<p>Cisplatin has been widely used for the treatment of several types of cancer, including tumors of the head and neck, esophagus, lung, bladder, ovary, cervix, breast, testicle, penis, endometrium, and mesothelium, among others; in testicular cancer, it has made remission rates above 90% possible.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Accumulation of cisplatin in the renal proximal tubules and cardiac tissue results in activation of the redox-sensitive transcription factor nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), as well as of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). This process results in infiltration of immune cells, such as macrophages and neutrophils, and the production of proinflammatory cytokines, which combine to cause inflammation, cell death, and tissue damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				<p>There have been reports of myocarditis secondary to carboplatin-paclitaxel combination therapy in the treatment of thymoma<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> and secondary to carboplatin-pemetrexed therapy in patients with non-small cell lung cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Myocarditis secondary to proteasome inhibitors and immunomodulators</title>
				<p>Proteasome inhibitors, such as carfilzomib and bortezomib, and immunomodulators, such as lenalidomide, are used for the treatment of various hematologic malignancies, including multiple myeloma (MM), mantle cell lymphoma, systemic light-chain amyloidosis, T-cell lymphoma, and Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia/lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma, among others (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Sequence of cardiovascular changes after exposure to ionizing radiation. Source: Adapted from Liu et al., 2022.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref>
							</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0354-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The proteasome plays an important role in maintaining cardiac protein homeostasis and protein quality in myocytes, preserving cell mass, and controlling sarcomere quality. Inhibition of proteasomal activity thus leads to a buildup of misfolded proteins, which can result in cell apoptosis, inflammation, and acute myopericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Eosinophilic myocarditis is a rare condition occurring secondary to treatment with lenalidomide. As the name implies, it results from an inflammatory process with eosinophil infiltration of the myocardium. The clinical presentation may range from a chronic restrictive cardiomyopathy to an acute fulminant myocarditis. It is usually associated with a pruritic rash, peripheral blood eosinophilia, and autoimmune manifestations such as thyroiditis, colitis, or pneumonitis. It may also involve cardiac symptoms such as heart failure and chest pain, with associated ECG changes and elevated troponin in the absence of myocardial ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Interestingly, as seen in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>, most of the reported cases have occurred in women who presented with myocarditis, usually in the first month of treatment.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Table 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Case reports of lenalidomide/bortezomib-associated myocarditis</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Treatment regimen</th>
									<th>Age (years)</th>
									<th>Sex</th>
									<th>Time to symptom onset (days)</th>
									<th>Treatment</th>
									<th>Outcome</th>
									<th>Reference</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Lenalidomide</td>
									<td align="center">85</td>
									<td align="center">F</td>
									<td align="center">17</td>
									<td>Discontinuation of treatment + corticosteroids + supportive care</td>
									<td>Fatal tachyarrhythmia</td>
									<td>Carver Jr. et al., 2010<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Lenalidomide/bortezomib</td>
									<td align="center">59</td>
									<td align="center">F</td>
									<td align="center">20</td>
									<td>Discontinuation of treatment + corticosteroids + supportive care</td>
									<td>20% ejection fraction; no further improvement after resolution</td>
									<td>Sanchez-Petitto et al., 2020<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Lenalidomide/rituximab</td>
									<td align="center">66</td>
									<td align="center">F</td>
									<td align="center">30</td>
									<td>Discontinuation of treatment + corticosteroids + supportive care</td>
									<td>Full recovery</td>
									<td>Jacob et al., 2020<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Lenalidomide/rituximab</td>
									<td align="center">86</td>
									<td align="center">F</td>
									<td align="center">14</td>
									<td>Supportive care</td>
									<td>Clinically improved; transient decline in ejection fraction to 25%, improving to 55% after starting treatment for heart failure</td>
									<td>Tse et al., 2021<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Lenalidomide/bortezomib</td>
									<td align="center">69</td>
									<td align="center">F</td>
									<td align="center">19</td>
									<td>Discontinuation of treatment + corticosteroids + supportive care</td>
									<td>Clinically improved</td>
									<td>Verbesselt et al., 2022<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Lenalidomide/bortezomib</td>
									<td align="center">40</td>
									<td align="center">F</td>
									<td align="center">21</td>
									<td>Temporary discontinuation of bortezomib + corticosteroids + supportive care</td>
									<td>Clinically improved; treatment continued with lenalidomide alone</td>
									<td>Alali et al., 2021<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Lenalidomide/bortezomib</td>
									<td align="center">53</td>
									<td align="center">M</td>
									<td align="center">At the start of treatment</td>
									<td>Temporary discontinuation of bortezomib + corticosteroids + supportive care</td>
									<td>Clinically improved; treatment continued with lenalidomide alone</td>
									<td>Cheney et al., 2019<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<attrib>Source: Own work. F: female; M: male.</attrib>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibitor-associated myocarditis</title>
				<p>Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibitors are widely used for the treatment of hematologic malignancies, such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia, mantle cell lymphoma, and Waldenström macroglobulinemia, among others. The most commonly described adverse effects are high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and bleeding. There is also an established albeit less frequent association with heart failure and ventricular arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Some reports have also raised the possibility of myocarditis after initiation of therapy with Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibitors. In an analysis of the WHO VigiBase database, among more than 13,000 patients receiving ibrutinib, two cases of myocarditis were reported as potential adverse effects. More recently, a case of acute eosinophilic myocarditis was reported after starting ibrutinib, with an inflammatory infiltrate generating an increase in septal thickness and abnormalities that mimicked those of cardiac amyloidosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A recent study reported that delayed myocardial enhancement on cardiac MRI was seen in 13.3% of patients before starting ibrutinib, versus 54.8% of patients on ibrutinib treatment. This study also showed a higher incidence of changes in native-T1 and max-T2 measures when comparing patients with and without ibrutinib exposure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Radiation myocarditis</title>
				<p>Cardiotoxicity is quite common after radiotherapy, especially when the precordium is irradiated with high doses and particularly when the left breast or chest is the target area. The main radiation therapy-associated cardiotoxicities are acute pericarditis, myocarditis, cardiac arrhythmias, myocardial dysfunction/heart failure, and myocardial ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In response to ionizing radiation exposure, there is a release of proinflammatory and profibrotic cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, IL-8, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) , platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β1). TGF-β1 is known to be more closely associated with the development of tissue fibrosis; its functions include regulating cell growth and differentiation and promoting cell proliferation, inhibiting maintenance of the inflammatory response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Diffuse myocardial fibrosis can occur after radiation doses greater than 25-30 Gy. Patients who have been irradiated on fields surrounding the heart are six times more likely to develop heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Acute radiation-induced myocarditis results from direct inflammation of the myocardium, and can be identified by reversible ECG changes and increases in plasma biomarkers such as C-reactive protein, troponin I, and CK-MB. Echocardiography, to measure systolic ejection fraction and global longitudinal strain (GLS), should be considered, as should CMR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In one study, 6% of 1820 cancer survivors treated with anthracycline-containing chemotherapy (n = 1050), radiation (n = 306), or both (n = 464) had reduced ejection fraction on three-dimensional echocardiography (&lt; 50%). On GLS measurement, 32% of patients with a normal ejection fraction had signs of systolic dysfunction, and 9% had signs of diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Other etiologies</title>
			<p>In some scenarios, the causative agent of myocarditis is difficult to determine, as patients are being treated with multiple drugs or have a history of recent COVID-19 infection, COVID-19 vaccination, or infection with other viruses commonly associated with myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
	</body>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Miocardite em Pacientes com Câncer: Revisão sobre um Problema Emergente na Cardio-Oncologia</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2284-8251</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Martins</surname>
						<given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Schlabendorff</surname>
						<given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">DASA Complexo Hospitalar de Niterói, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Mãe de Deus, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"> Correspondência: Wolney de Andrade Martins • Universidade Federal Fluminense – Departamento de Medicina Clínica – Rua Marques do Paraná, 303, 6º andar. CEP 24030-215, Niterói, RJ – Brasil E-mail: wolney_martins@hotmail.com </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>Os pacientes com câncer (CA) têm multiplicidade de fatores etiológicos para desenvolver miocardite. A quimioterapia clássica, a radioterapia e, mais recentemente, a imunoterapia são descritas como possibilidades etiológicas para miocardite. Ademais, os pacientes com CA são imunodeprimidos e mais suscetíveis a infecções bacterianas e virais que podem cursar com miocardite. Nesta revisão narrativa, abordam-se as múltiplas causas possíveis para miocardites no paciente com CA. Será dado destaque para a miocardite por inibidor de imunocheckpoint (ICI). Geralmente, a miocardite por ICI acomete pacientes masculinos, com idade superior a 50 anos, que tratam CA de pulmão, melanoma ou CA de células renais e com comorbidades. A apresentação clínica é precoce, com elevação de troponina e alteração eletrocardiográfica. A letalidade é elevada. O tratamento é feito com a suspenção do ICI e corticoterapia. São abordadas as miocardites por ciclofosfamida, antracíclicos, 5-fluoruracil, cisplatina, carboplatina, inibidores da proteassoma, imunomoduladores, inibidores da tirosinaquinase e radioterapia.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Miocardite</kwd>
				<kwd>Neoplasias</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiotoxicidade</kwd>
				<kwd>Inibidores de <italic>Checkpoint</italic> Imunológico</kwd>
				<kwd>Tratamento Farmacológico</kwd>
				<kwd>Imunoterapia</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>O câncer (CA) foi reconhecido como doença há muitos séculos, e atualmente sua incidência ultrapassa 140 casos novos por 100.000 habitantes/ano na maioria dos países desenvolvidos e em desenvolvimento. Há maior prevalência nos países do hemisfério Norte, mas, na grande maioria das nações, conta-se mais de 250 casos de CA por 100.000 habitantes. As complicações, mesmo que pouco frequentes, passam a ser mais percebidas quando a sobrevida aumenta e a doença se torna mais prevalente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O tratamento do CA tem evoluído desde o pioneirismo do uso dos arsenicais em 1908, passando pela revolução da descoberta dos antracíclicos no final da década de 1960 e chegando à imunoterapia nos dias atuais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Tanto a radioterapia como a quimioterapia clássica podem causar miocardite em pacientes sob maior risco de cardiotoxicidade. A imunoterapia reascendeu o medo pela miocardite como efeito adverso por sua elevada letalidade apesar da baixa incidência. Entretanto, não se pode negligenciar o fato da multiplicidade de etiologias para miocardites nos pacientes com CA.</p>
				<p>O paciente com CA é, em regra, um imunossuprimido, que tem como agravante o uso da corticoterapia ou de outros imunomoduladores. Ademais, esse paciente é invadido por cateteres de longa permanência, procedimentos diagnósticos e terapêuticos e internações hospitalares. Tudo culmina em maior risco para infecções virais e bacterianas com potencial para miocardites de diversas etiologias infecciosas e de curso grave.</p>
				<p>A importância clínica da miocardite no paciente com CA se justifica pela elevada mortalidade, assim como na interrupção ou no adiamento de tratamentos. Neste artigo, revisaremos as principais etiologias e situações clínicas em que o paciente com CA possa ter miocardite como complicação ou comorbidade.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>As miocardites no paciente com câncer</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Os inibidores de imunocheckpoint</title>
						<p>De modo fisiológico temos moléculas inibidoras de células imunológicas e receptores de membrana que regulam a ativação de células T. Elas têm sido estudadas como uma possibilidade terapêutica contra alguns tumores malignos. Os inibidores de imunocheckpoint (ICI) são anticorpos monoclonais que objetivam atingir os receptores reguladores e, dessa forma, aumentar a ativação das células T contra as células tumorais. Portanto, inverte-se aqui a lógica tradicional da terapia oncológica citotóxica. Há uma ativação imune que resulta no bloqueio tumoral. Há vários receptores diferentes, que podem ser bloqueados simultaneamente por anticorpos específicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Os ICI utilizados na prática clínica e relacionados aos efeitos adversos cardiovasculares são o <italic>cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4</italic> (CTLA-4), o <italic>programmed cell death 1</italic> (PD-1) e o <italic>programmed cell death ligand 1</italic> (PD-L1).</p>
						<p>Em 2014, no processo regulatório inicial para liberação do uso clínico dos ICI, foram observados efeitos adversos nos sistemas neurológico, endócrino, pulmonar, gastrointestinal e renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Raros efeitos cardiovasculares foram relatados, muito provavelmente subnotificados conforme revisão de Hu et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> que analisaram 22 ensaios clínicos envolvendo inibidores PD-1 e PD-L1; houve apenas uma miocardite reportada e, em 10 estudos envolvendo 1.784 pacientes, uma taxa de cardiotoxicidade de 0,7%.</p>
						<p>Posteriormente, em 2016, houve a publicação de série de casos de miocardite atribuída aos ICI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Sucederam-se relatos de outros casos isolados e séries de casos, estudos de farmacovigilância e registros multicêntricos que atestaram os efeitos adversos cardiovasculares com um alerta especial para a possibilidade de uma miocardite grave. Outros efeitos adversos cardiovasculares foram descritos, entre eles as arritmias e os distúrbios de condução; as doenças do pericárdio; as vasculites e a arterite temporal; a cardiomiopatia de Takotsubo; e a hipertensão arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, um foco especial tem sido dado à aceleração da aterogênese pelos ICI com aumento de placas ateroscleróticas e o consequente risco três vezes maior de eventos como infarto do miocárdio, revascularização miocárdica e acidente vascular encefálico isquêmico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A miocardite por ICI tem características clínicas peculiares, e daremos enfoque especial a ela neste artigo de revisão. Em paralelo, abordaremos as demais etiologias de miocardite no paciente com CA.</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Miocardite por inibidor de imunocheckpoint</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos epidemiológicos</title>
					<p>À época da descrição dos primeiros casos de miocardite atribuída aos ICI, supunha-se que fosse um efeito adverso muito raro. A publicação crescente de séries de casos, estudos de farmacovigilância e registros passou a mostrar a incidência de miocardite por ICI na grandeza de 0,39% a 2,1%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Foram descritos casos de miocardite em amplo espectro etário, dos 20 aos 90 anos de idade, com predomínio no sexo masculino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					<p>À medida que se aumentou o monitoramento e o rastreamento dos pacientes sob uso de ICI com dosagem seriada de troponina cardíaca, peptídeo natriurético tipo B (BNP) e ecocardiograma, houve incremento da incidência relatada. Informações da literatura sobre a incidência de miocardite por ICI, o tempo de instalação após iniciada a imunoterapia e a incidência de eventos cardiovasculares graves (MACE) ou mortalidade encontram-se na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Características epidemiológicas e clínicas da miocardite por inibidor de imunocheckpoint</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Autores</th>
										<th>Ano</th>
										<th>Tipo de estudo</th>
										<th>Incidência de miocardite (%)</th>
										<th>Tempo médio/mediano de instalação (dias)</th>
										<th>MACE (%)</th>
										<th>Letalidade (%)</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Mahmood SS et al.</td>
										<td align="center">2018</td>
										<td align="center">Registro multicêntrico</td>
										<td align="center">1,14</td>
										<td align="center">34</td>
										<td align="center">46,0</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Salem JE et al.</td>
										<td align="center">2018</td>
										<td align="center">Registro multicêntrico</td>
										<td align="center">0,39</td>
										<td align="center">30</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">50,0</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Li C et al.</td>
										<td align="center">2022</td>
										<td align="center">Registro nacional</td>
										<td align="center">2,10</td>
										<td align="center">115</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">47,0</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Furukawa A et al.</td>
										<td align="center">2022</td>
										<td align="center">Ensaio clínico unicêntrico</td>
										<td align="center">10,30</td>
										<td align="center">44</td>
										<td align="center">3,2</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1002">
									<p>MACE: eventos cardiovasculares graves como morte, infarto do miocárdio ou acidente vascular encefálico.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>Recentemente, foi publicado um grande registro de serviços de saúde, com 5.518 pacientes com CA sob uso de ICI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Destes, 691 (12,5%) tiveram alguma cardiotoxicidade. Entre as diferentes manifestações de cardiotoxicidade, destacaram-se as arritmias e os distúrbios de condução em 9,3%, seguidas de miocardite em 2,1%, consistindo na maior incidência publicada até então. Infarto agudo do miocárdio esteve presente em 1,7% dos pacientes. As pericardites tiveram incidência de 1,2%, e as cardiomiopatias, de 0,9%. Neste registro de vulto, houve letalidade por miocardite em 47% dos pacientes. A ocorrência de efeitos adversos cardiovasculares implicou em menor sobrevida dos pacientes.</p>
					<p>A partir do registro supracitado,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> pode-se traçar o perfil dos pacientes sob uso de ICI. Majoritariamente, eles têm idade superior a 50 anos, são do sexo masculino e tratam CA de pulmão, melanoma ou carcinoma de células renais. Apresentam como comorbidades a hipertensão arterial sistêmica, o diabetes melito, a doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica, a doença hepática e a doença vascular periférica. Ou seja, um perfil muito semelhante àquele dos cardiopatas e que os coloca em alto risco cardiovascular.</p>
					<p>Via de regra, a instalação da miocardite por ICI é precoce, em torno da terceira infusão ou entre o primeiro e o segundo mês. Entretanto, há casos de apresentação mais tardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Etiologia e fisiopatologia</title>
					<p>A maioria dos pacientes (84,9%) usou um ICI, e apenas 15,1% fizeram uso de dois ou três ICI. Os ICI mais utilizados foram da classe PD-1, como o pembrolizumabe e o nivolumabe. No geral, não houve diferença no risco de cardiotoxicidade entre os inibidores PD-1 e PD-L1. Entretanto, dados sugerem que o início da terapia com ipilimumabe e pembrolizumabe tem maior risco de efeitos adversos cardiovasculares do que com outros agentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O mecanismo exato da agressão miocárdica pelo ICI é incerto. Há evidências de que antígenos comuns entre a célula tumoral e o miocárdio suscitem resposta a ambas as estruturas. Tal modelo se assemelha àquele que conhecemos nas miocardites virais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diagnóstico, monitoramento e rastreamento</title>
					<p>A magnitude clínica da miocardite por ICI consiste em sua elevada taxa de letalidade e eventos cardiovasculares graves. Séries demonstram que 50% dos pacientes que tiveram miocardite por ICI evoluíram para óbito. Portanto, mesmo que a incidência seja baixa, a elevada letalidade nos obriga a buscar o diagnóstico em suas fases iniciais para então instituir a terapêutica rapidamente. Assim, além de se aguardar a suspeição clínica, deve-se rastrear ativamente os pacientes sob risco em busca do diagnóstico precoce.</p>
					<p>A troponina I se elevou em 14,3% de todos os pacientes submetidos aos ICI, e essa elevação se deu em torno do 27º dia após o início do tratamento. A elevação da troponina foi mais frequente que a elevação do peptídeo natriurético tipo B (BNP) ou da creatinofosfoquinase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O eletrocardiograma (ECG) mostrou diversas alterações, enquanto o ecocardiograma foi normal na maioria dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> As alterações eletrocardiográficas mais frequentes no exame basal do paciente com miocardite por ICI são o aumento da frequência cardíaca, o prolongamento do intervalo QT corrigido por Fridericia, a baixa voltagem, o bloqueio do ramo esquerdo e as alterações da repolarização.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> O ECG também tem valor prognóstico, posto que os pacientes com miocardite por ICI, quando desenvolvem bloqueio de ramo esquerdo, ondas Q patológicas ou baixa voltagem, têm maior risco de mortalidade geral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Séries mostram que quase todos os casos de miocardite por ICI (94%) tinham troponinas elevadas e um eletrocardiograma anormal (89%), enquanto a fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) pela ecocardiografia foi preservada em 51%. Portanto, foge-se aqui do padrão clássico de miocardite viral com dilatação cavitária e disfunção sistólica grave medida com FEVE reduzida. Isso pode ser um elemento de confusão ao clínico. Portanto, deve-se suspeitar de miocardite por ICI mesmo na vigência de FEVE preservada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Alguns fatores de associação com miocardite por ICI foram especulados, entre os quais a presença de diabetes melito, apneia do sono e índice de massa corporal elevado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A Sociedade para a Imunoterapia do Câncer (SITC) publicou uma diretriz em que recomenda:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<list list-type="order">
						<list-item>
							<p>Considerar diagnóstico de miocardite por ICI nos pacientes com sintomas novos, novas arritmias ou bloqueios ou alteração de biomarcadores como a troponina e que tenham recebido ICI nas últimas 12 semanas. O paciente sob suspeita deve ser internado e avaliado por cardiologista.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Casos suspeitos devem ser submetidos à ressonância magnética cardíaca se disponível (com ou sem cateterismo cardíaco direito e biópsia do miocárdio), ECG e teste de troponina sérica.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>A Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia foi mais incisiva na conduta e recomendou em sua Diretriz de Cardio-Oncologia<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> o seguinte:</p>
					<list list-type="order">
						<list-item>
							<p>ECG, peptídeos natriuréticos e ecocardiogramas em todos os pacientes que se submeterão aos ICI.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Ecocardiograma basal somente àqueles com elevado risco.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Medições seriadas de ECG e cTn devem ser consideradas antes das doses 2, 3 e 4 do ICI, e, se normais, reduzir a cada três doses até a conclusão da terapia para detectar sintomas subclínicos.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>A avaliação cardiovascular é recomendada a cada 6 a 12 meses em pacientes de alto risco que requerem tratamento ICI em longo prazo (0,12 meses).</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>Os pacientes sob suspeita clínica de miocardite por ICI deverão prosseguir à confirmação diagnóstica com ressonância cardíaca. Ainda não há critérios muito específicos para miocardite por ICI à ressonância, e, dessa forma, recomenda-se a adoção dos critérios modificados de Lake Louise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A biópsia endomiocárdica está indicada quando o diagnóstico não pode ser confirmado de forma não invasiva, houver dúvidas diagnósticas por resultados conflitantes de exames ou nos doentes clinicamente instáveis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diagnóstico diferencial</title>
					<p>Estudos têm relatado aumento da incidência de doença cardiovascular aterosclerótica após uso de ICI, com consequente maior ocorrência de eventos agudos como infarto do miocárdio, acidente vascular cerebral isquêmico e doença arterial grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Portanto, ao levantar-se a hipótese diagnóstica de miocardite por ICI, devem ser descartadas as síndromes coronarianas agudas.</p>
					<p>Outras manifestações de cardiotoxicidade precisam ser lembradas na vigência dos ICI: as arritmias malignas, as pericardiopatias e as cardiomiopatias em geral. A cardiomiopatia de Takotsubo deve ser lembrada, pois é frequente no paciente com câncer independentemente do uso de imunoterapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Classificação da miocardite</title>
					<p>A Diretriz Europeia de Cardio-Oncologia recomenda que todos os casos de miocardite associada a ICI devem ser classificados de acordo com a gravidade, em fulminante ou não fulminante. A partir dessa classificação, deve ser adotado o algoritmo de tratamento e seguimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Outra possibilidade é seguir a recomendação do grupo de autores que propõe classificar em miocardite definida, provável e sugerida, conforme alterações clínicas, eletrocardiográficas, laboratoriais, de imagem e patológicas encontradas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento</title>
					<p>Pacientes com suspeita de miocardite induzida por ICI e clinicamente estáveis devem receber corticosteroides em altas doses (1.000 mg de metilprednisolona intravenosa [IV] ou equivalente, diariamente por 3 a 5 dias, até a normalização da troponina). Deve ser iniciado o mais rápido possível uma vez que o diagnóstico seja considerado provável, seguido de 4 a 6 semanas e com redução gradual de prednisona de 1 a 2 mg/kg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Há consenso que a descontinuação imediata da terapia com ICI deve ser procedida em todos os casos de suspeita de miocardite associada a ICI, mesmo que ainda não confirmada. O reinício do tratamento com ICI nos pacientes que tiveram suspeita não confirmada deve ser realizado após discussão em equipe, com a avaliação da relação do risco <italic>versus</italic> benefício.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os pacientes com miocardite fulminante deverão ser internados em unidade de cuidados intensivos e receber monitorização e suporte circulatório, com avaliação de tratamento imunossupressor de segunda linha.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A resposta terapêutica deverá ser monitorada através de ECG e troponina seriados.</p>
					<p>Não há consenso quanto ao tratamento imunossupressor de segunda linha. Recentemente, houve relatos de complicações com o uso do infliximabe. Portanto, recomenda-se cautela com esse imunossupressor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Outras etiologias de miocardite no paciente com câncer</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Miocardite secundária às terapias citotóxicas</title>
					<p>Uma revisão sistemática investigou 5.100 casos reportados de miocardite induzidos por fármacos usando dados da Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) entre 1967 e 2020. A amostra foi dividida em cinco classes de terapia: antipsicóticos, imunoterapias, vacinas, salicilatos e terapias citotóxicas. As terapias citotóxicas – alquilantes, antracíclicos e antimetabólitos – foram reportadas em 3,7% dos casos e foram mais frequentemente associadas à insuficiência cardíaca e à disfunção renal. As mulheres foram discretamente mais acometidas, representando 52% da amostra, e a mortalidade foi de 24%, ficando atrás apenas da mortalidade relacionada à classe de imunoterapias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Miocardite por ciclofosfamida</title>
					<p>A ciclofosfamida é um agente alquilante derivado das mostardas nitrogenadas que apresenta potentes propriedades antineoplásicas, imunossupressoras e imunomoduladoras. Sua utilização é estabelecida há muito tempo na terapia do câncer e nos regimes de condicionamento de células-tronco pré-transplante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Existe uma associação com a ocorrência de miocardite aguda, frequentemente de tipo hemorrágico e multifocal. Os metabólitos da ciclofosfamida causam dano oxidativo e direto ao endotélio capilar, resultando em edema, hemorragia intersticial e formação de microtrombos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A miocardiopatia secundária à ciclofosfamida tem como apresentações clínicas taquiarritmias, hipotensão arterial, insuficiência cardíaca, miocardite e alterações pericárdicas, ocorrendo geralmente de 2 a 10 dias após a infusão. A miocardite hemorrágica é uma condição rara; porém, uma vez estabelecida, progride de insuficiência cardíaca aguda para tamponamento pericárdico e choque cardiogênico, geralmente fatal. Pacientes que recebem doses elevadas de ciclofosfamida, pacientes idosos ou que já receberam terapias cardiotóxicas, como antracíclicos ou radioterapia torácica, apresentam maior risco. O diagnóstico de miocardite associada à ciclofosfamida pode ser suspeitado pelo ECG de repouso com a dispersão do intervalo QTc e pelo ecocardiograma, através da hipertrofia ventricular, queda da fração de ejeção e tamanho das cavidades dentro da normalidade. A ressonância magnética pode confirmar a suspeita diagnóstica. Os biomarcadores podem auxiliar no diagnóstico, apresentando elevações precoces no BNP e na troponina (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">Tabela 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t2002">
							<label>Tabela 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Critérios propostos para o diagnóstico precoce de miocardite hemorrágica</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="100%">
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Condições necessárias para o diagnóstico de miocardite hemorrágica</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>1. Dose &gt; 40 mg/kg/dia ou 1,4 mg/m<sup>2</sup>/dia por 2 dias consecutivos</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>2. Sintomas de insuficiência cardíaca 3 -12 dias após a infusão</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>3. Elevação de troponina pelo menos 0,75 ng/dL na ausência de sintomas anginosos</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>4. Eletrocardiograma com baixa voltagem difusa</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Além desses, seria necessária alguma alteração adicional em exame de imagem ou outra modalidade diagnóstica:</bold></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="bullet">
												<list-item>
													<p>– Ecocardiograma: novo derrame pericárdico, aumento da espessura do septo ventricular durante a diástole associado a disfunção diastólica e regurgitação mitral funcional</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="bullet">
												<list-item>
													<p>– Ressonância magnética cardíaca</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="bullet">
												<list-item>
													<p>– Biópsia miocárdica: extravasamento intramiocárdico de sangue, fibrina ou microtrombos de fibrina/plaquetas em capilares e filamentos de fibrina no interstício</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN2002">
									<p>Adaptado de Wadia 2015.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref>
									</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>Existe uma necessidade de alta suspeição na obtenção do diagnóstico precoce e na implementação das medidas terapêuticas que podem demandar, além do tratamento usual do quadro da insuficiência cardíaca, procedimento de drenagem pericárdica se evoluir para tamponamento e, por vezes, necessidade do uso de dispositivos de assistência ventricular como ponte para melhora ou decisão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Miocardite por antracíclicos</title>
					<p>As antraciclinas podem apresentar uma manifestação rara de miocardite como cardiotoxicidade. Essa complicação não tem relação com a dose cumulativa, sendo reversível na maioria dos casos, possibilitando reexposição ao fármaco com o devido acompanhamento multidisciplinar. O mecanismo de toxicidade das antraciclinas estaria relacionado diretamente ao estresse oxidativo consequente à sua metabolização, além da inibição da topoisomerase IIb, que, em última análise, resulta em dano ao DNA do cardiomiócito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Entre as antraciclinas, as mais associadas com essa comorbidade seriam daunorrubicina, epirrubicina e doxorrubicina. Muitas vezes, a miocardite ocorre em pacientes em uso de mais de uma terapia oncológica, podendo também estar relacionada aos mecanismos adicionais de cardiotoxicidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Miocardite por <italic>5-fluorouracil (5-FU)</italic></title>
					<p>As manifestações mais comuns da cardiotoxicidade associada às fluoropirimidinas são o quadro de angina <italic>pectoris</italic> e as síndromes coronarianas agudas. Outras manifestações menos comuns incluem miocardite e pericardite, fibrilação atrial e outras arritmias, insuficiência cardíaca e até mesmo morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Indícios visíveis de miocardite foram demonstrados em coelhos expostos a 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), em que houve hipertrofia do ventrículo esquerdo, focos de necrose miocárdica, espessamento de arteríolas intramiocárdicas e apoptose disseminada nas células miocárdicas e endoteliais. Nesse estudo, o uso de uma dose única elevada de 5-FU tinha como objetivo diferenciar os efeitos tóxicos agudos do 5-FU, que resultaram em trombogênese e espasmo devido às lesões endoteliais, da cardiotoxicidade tardia após quatro injeções com intervalos de 7 dias, que levaram à apoptose das células miocárdicas e endoteliais sem evidências de espasmo. Esses resultados apoiam um mecanismo alternativo para a cardiotoxicidade do 5-FU além do espasmo vasomotor e da isquemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em seres humanos, também houve demonstração de dilatação biventricular e necrose difusa com infiltrado inflamatório e proliferação do retículo sarcoplasmático com marcada vacuolização, semelhante ao que foi encontrado na cardiotoxicidade causada por doxorrubicina. Tais achados foram demonstrados em necropsias de indivíduos tratados com 5-FU. Pode ser que essa condição represente as consequências de algum ou de uma combinação de todos os processos patológicos descritos anteriormente. Mais evidências clínicas de um processo cardiomiopático foram mostradas em estudos que demonstraram evidências ecocardiográficas de disfunção ventricular esquerda e mudanças neuroendócrinas caracterizadas por níveis elevados de peptídeo natriurético e ácido lático no plasma em pacientes tratados com 5-FU, mesmo na ausência de mudanças significativas na FEVE, sugestivas de um processo subclínico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Miocardite por cisplatina e carboplatina</title>
					<p>A cisplatina tem sido amplamente utilizada para o tratamento de diversos tipos de CA, incluindo tumores de cabeça, pescoço, esôfago, pulmão, bexiga, ovário, colo do útero, mama, testículo, pênis, endométrio, mesotélio, entre outros, podendo alcançar taxas de remissão acima de 90% no CA de testículo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O acúmulo de cisplatina nos túbulos proximais renais e no tecido cardíaco resulta na ativação do fator de transcrição redox-sensível, o fator nuclear kappa-B (NF-κB) e a proteína quinase ativada por mitogênio (MAPK). Esse processo resulta na infiltração de células imunes, tais como macrófagos e neutrófilos, e na produção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias, que combinados causam inflamação, morte celular e lesão tecidual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Existem relatos de miocardite secundária ao uso de terapia com carboplatina em associação com paclitaxel no tratamento de timoma<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> e com carboplatina associada ao pemetrexede no tratamento de pacientes com CA de pulmão de não pequenas células.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Miocardite por inibidores de proteassoma e imunomoduladores</title>
					<p>Os inibidores de proteassoma, como o carfilzomibe e o bortezomibe, e os imunomoduladores, como a lenalidomida, são utilizados para o tratamento de várias neoplasias hematológicas, incluindo mieloma múltiplo (MM), linfoma de células do manto, amiloidose de cadeia leve sistêmica, linfoma de células T, macroglobulinemia de Waldenstrom/linfoma linfoplasmocítico e outras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O proteassoma é importante para manter a homeostase de proteínas cardíacas, mantendo a qualidade de proteínas nos miócitos, preservando a massa celular e controlando a qualidade dos sarcômeros. A inibição da atividade proteossômica leva à acumulação de proteínas mal dobradas, o que pode resultar em apoptose celular, inflamação e miopericardite aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A miocardite eosinofílica é uma condição rara secundária ao tratamento com lenalidomida. Resulta de um processo inflamatório com infiltração eosinofílica no miocárdio. A apresentação clínica pode variar de uma cardiomiopatia restritiva crônica até um quadro de miocardite aguda fulminante. Geralmente está associada a <italic>rash</italic> cutâneo pruriginoso, eosinofilia no sangue periférico e manifestação autoimune, como tireoidite, colite ou pneumonite. Também pode cursar com sintomas cardíacos de insuficiência cardíaca ou dor torácica, associados a alterações eletrocardiográficas e elevação de troponina na ausência de isquemia miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
					<p>De forma interessante, vemos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3002">Tabela 3</xref> que a maioria dos casos relatados são do sexo feminino e apresentam o quadro de miocardite geralmente no primeiro mês do início do tratamento.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t3002">
							<label>Tabela 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Relatos de casos de miocardite por lenalidomida/bortezomibe</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Esquema terapêutico</th>
										<th>Idade (anos)</th>
										<th>Sexo</th>
										<th>Surgimento dos sintomas (dias)</th>
										<th>Tratamento</th>
										<th>Desfecho</th>
										<th>Referência</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Lenalidomida</td>
										<td align="center">85</td>
										<td align="center">F</td>
										<td align="center">17</td>
										<td>Descontinuação do tratamento + corticoide + suporte clínico</td>
										<td>Taquiarritmia grave, evoluindo para óbito</td>
										<td>Carver Jr. et al., 2010<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Lenalidomida + bortezomibe</td>
										<td align="center">59</td>
										<td align="center">F</td>
										<td align="center">20</td>
										<td>Descontinuação do tratamento + corticoide + suporte clínico</td>
										<td>Fração de ejeção de 20% sem melhora após a resolução do quadro</td>
										<td>Sanchez-Petitto et al., 2020<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Lenalidomida + rituximabe</td>
										<td align="center">66</td>
										<td align="center">F</td>
										<td align="center">30</td>
										<td>Descontinuação do tratamento + corticoide + suporte clínico</td>
										<td>Recuperação completa</td>
										<td>Jacob et al., 2020<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Lenalidomida + rituximabe</td>
										<td align="center">86</td>
										<td align="center">F</td>
										<td align="center">14</td>
										<td>Tratamento de suporte clínico</td>
										<td>Melhora clínica com queda transitória da fração de ejeção para 25%, com melhora para 55% após iniciado tratamento para insuficiência cardíaca</td>
										<td>Tse et al., 2021<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Lenalidomida + bortezomibe</td>
										<td align="center">69</td>
										<td align="center">F</td>
										<td align="center">19</td>
										<td>Descontinuação do tratamento + corticoide + suporte clínico</td>
										<td>Melhora clínica</td>
										<td>Verbesselt et al., 2022<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Lenalidomida + bortezomibe</td>
										<td align="center">40</td>
										<td align="center">F</td>
										<td align="center">21</td>
										<td>Suspensão temporária do bortezomibe + corticoide + suporte clínico</td>
										<td>Melhora clínica, sendo mantido com lenalidomida</td>
										<td>Alali et al., 2021<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Lenalidomida + bortezomibe</td>
										<td align="center">53</td>
										<td align="center">M</td>
										<td align="center">No início do tratamento</td>
										<td>Suspensão temporária do bortezomibe + corticoide + suporte clínico</td>
										<td>Melhora clínica, sendo mantido com lenalidomida</td>
										<td>Cheney et al., 2019<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<attrib>Fonte: o próprio autor. F: feminino; M: masculino.</attrib>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Miocardite por inibidores da tirosinaquinase de Bruton</title>
					<p>Os inibidores da tirosinaquinase de Bruton são amplamente utilizados para tratamento de neoplasias hematológicas como leucemia linfocítica crônica, linfoma de células do manto, macroglobulinemia de Waldenström, entre outras. Os efeitos adversos mais comumente descritos são hipertensão arterial, fibrilação atrial e sangramentos. Existe também associação menos frequente com insuficiência cardíaca e arritmias ventriculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Alguns relatos, porém, trazem também a possibilidade de miocardite após o início com inibidores da tirosinaquinase de Bruton. Na base de dados VigiBase da OMS, ao analisar mais de 13.000 pacientes em uso de ibrutinibe, dois casos de miocardite foram reportados como potenciais efeitos adversos. Mais recentemente, foi relatado um caso de miocardite eosinofílica aguda após início de ibrutinibe com infiltrado inflamatório gerando aumento da espessura do septo e com alterações que mimetizavam o quadro de amiloidose cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Um artigo recente com ressonância cardíaca demonstrou que a incidência de alterações no realce tardio antes do início do ibrutinibe foi vista em 13,3% dos pacientes, ao passo que foi evidenciada em 54,8% dos pacientes em tratamento com ibrutinibe. Esse estudo também mostrou maior incidência de alterações no T1 nativo e T2 máximo quando comparado pacientes sem e com tratamento com ibrutinibe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Miocardite por radioterapia</title>
					<p>A cardiotoxicidade após radioterapia é bastante comum, sobretudo quando doses mais elevadas de radiação sobre o coração são utilizadas principalmente quando a mama esquerda ou tórax são o alvo de tratamento. Como principais cardiotoxicidades associadas à radioterapia, há pericardite aguda, miocardite, arritmias, disfunção miocárdica/insuficiência cardíaca e isquemia miocárdica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f01002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Sequência de alterações cardiovasculares após exposição à radiação ionizante. Adaptado de Liu et al., 2022<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref>
								</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0354-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Em reposta à radiação ionizante, ocorre uma liberação de citocinas pró-inflamatórias e pró-fibrose, como fator de necrose tumoral (TNF), interleucina (IL) 1, IL-6, IL-8, fator de crescimento fibroblástico básico (bFGF), fator do crescimento semelhante à insulina (IGF), fator de crescimento do tecido conectivo (CTGF), fator de crescimento derivado de plaquetas (PDGF) e fator de crescimento transformador β (TGF-β1). O TGF-β1 é conhecido por estar mais relacionado ao desenvolvimento de fibrose tecidual e tem funções de regulação do crescimento, diferenciação celular e promoção da proliferação celular, inibindo a manutenção da reposta inflamatória.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A fibrose miocárdica difusa pode ocorrer após doses de radiação superiores a 25-30 Gy. Pacientes que foram expostos a radioterapia com campos envolvendo o coração apresentam seis vezes mais risco de insuficiência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A miocardite aguda causada pela radiação resulta de inflamação no miocárdio e pode ser identificada por alterações reversíveis no ECG e por aumento de biomarcadores plasmáticos, como proteína C-reativa, troponina I e CK-MB. É recomendado realizar ecocardiografia para medir a fração de ejeção sistólica e o <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global (GLS), e deve ser considerada a realização de ressonância magnética cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em um estudo, 6% dos 1.820 sobreviventes de CA tratados com quimioterapia contendo antraciclina (n = 1.050), radiação (n = 306) ou ambos (n = 464) apresentaram fração de ejeção tridimensional reduzida (&lt; 50%). Usando GLS, 32% dos pacientes com fração de ejeção normal apresentaram sinais de disfunção sistólica, e 9%, sinais de disfunção diastólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Outras etiologias</title>
				<p>Em algumas situações, é difícil determinar o agente causal da miocardite, pois pacientes estão em tratamento com múltiplos fármacos e, às vezes, apresentam infecção recente por coronavírus, vacinação para covid-19 ou outros vírus comumente associados ao quadro de miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</body>
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					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
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