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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &amp; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20220079</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20220079</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction and Cancer</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Jorge</surname>
						<given-names>Antonio José Lagoeiro</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Villacorta</surname>
						<given-names>Humberto</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5774-2780</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Danzmann</surname>
						<given-names>Luiz Claudio</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mesquita</surname>
						<given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>Acquisition of data</role>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de Pós-gradução em Ciências Cardiovasculares</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós-gradução em Ciências Cardiovasculares – Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina – Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Luterana do Brasil</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Canoas</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina – Universidade Luterana do Brasil, Canoas, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Porto Alegre</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Antonio José Lagoeiro Jorge • Avenida Marques do Paraná, 303, 6º andar. Postal Code 24030-215, Centro, Niterói, RJ - Brazil E-mail: <email>antoniolagoeiro@id.uff.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>18</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Oct-Dec</season>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>2</volume>
			<issue>4</issue>
			<fpage>343</fpage>
			<lpage>353</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>13</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>13</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>19</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is associated with high morbidity and mortality. After hospitalization for heart failure, the 5-year survival of HFpEF is 35%, which is worse than many forms of cancer. HFpEF and cancer share common risk factors. The use of chemotherapy medications such as anthracyclines is associated with increased aortic stiffness and diastolic dysfunction, suggesting that anthracycline therapy may increase the risk of HFpEF, given that worsening of diastolic function, which can be associated with the occurrence of HFpEF, is an early sign of cardiotoxicity. Radiotherapy, widely used in the treatment of breast cancer, leads to an increased risk of developing heart disease since radiation induces coronary microvascular endothelial damage and inflammation, leading to microvascular rarefaction, myocardial inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis, which favor the development of HFpEF. Early diagnosis of cardiotoxicity is an important issue in the care of patients with cancer, and biomarkers have been extensively studied in predicting systolic dysfunction and heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, as well as in the development of HFpEF. HFpEF and cancer have an elevated prevalence, and they share age group, risk factors, and the pathophysiological phenomenon, in which inflammation plays a preponderant role. Biomarkers, especially natriuretic peptides, and ultrasound imaging are fundamental tools in the diagnostic detection and follow-up of these patients.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</kwd>
				<kwd>Cancer</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiotoxicity</kwd>
				<kwd>Chemotherapy</kwd>
				<kwd>Radiotherapy</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="10"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="75"/>
				<page-count count="11"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Most elderly patients who develop heart failure (HF) have heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (HFpEF). Patients with HFpEF have severe symptoms of exercise intolerance, poor quality of life, frequent hospitalizations, and increased mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> HFpEF is associated with high morbidity and mortality. After hospitalization for HF, the 5-year survival of HFpEF is 35%, which is worse than many forms of cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Cancer became the second leading cause of death in Brazil in 2006, and it is expected to surpass cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in 2025.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>The progressive increase in the incidence of cancer in developed countries has been attributed to population growth and aging, sedentary lifestyle, and dietary pattern. HFpEF and cancer share common risk factors (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> such as obesity, sedentary lifestyle, hypertension, smoking, diabetes mellitus, older age group, and dietary pattern. Cancer treatment with chemotherapy has increased survival, but it has also increased the risk of cardiotoxicity, the incidence of ventricular systolic dysfunction, and even irreversible cardiomyopathy, which can range from 3% to 26%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f01">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Interaction between heart failure and cancer involving risk factors, heart failure treatment, and cancer treatment. Adapted from Wouter C. Meijers and Rudolf A. de Boer, reference 4. ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; CAD: coronary artery disease; CKD: chronic kidney disease; HF: heart failure; SAH: systemic arterial hypertension; SGLT2i: sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0343-gf01.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>In cardio-oncology, research and clinical monitoring of cardiotoxicity have mainly focused on asymptomatic reductions in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), which we call cancer therapy-related cardiac dysfunction, or heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). However, it is increasingly recognized that different cancer therapies can have adverse cardiovascular (myocardial, vascular, and metabolic) effects that predispose patients to develop HFpEF. Moreover, many patients with cancer may be at a risk of HFpEF due to the presence of different cardiovascular risk factors related to the presence of comorbidities or cancer-related cardiometabolic effects. HFpEF has not been among frequently collected data in clinical trials involving patients with cancer; therefore, the exact incidence and relative risk compared to controls of patients without cancer, as well as between different cancer treatments, remain unknown. Although future research is needed to understand the incidence of HFpEF in cancer survivors, healthcare professionals should now be aware that many cancer therapies can increase the risk of both HFrEF and HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>Classification</title>
				<p>De Boer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> proposed a 5-tier classification system to better characterize the intersection between cardiology and oncology (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>). Types I and II of the classification system address how cancer and cancer therapies affect the cardiovascular system, while types III and IV address how CVD, monitoring strategies, and therapies can contribute to unmasking cancer or promote a favorable environment for tumor development. Type V addresses systemic and genetic conditions that can lead to both CVD and cancer.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Cardio-oncological syndromes: The five types of cardio-oncological syndromes are classified as direct, indirect, or secondary. Adapted from de Boer RA reference 7. CVD: cardiovascular disease; COS: cardio-oncological syndrome.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0343-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardio-oncology syndrome type I – Effect of the presence of cancer on the cardiovascular system</title>
				<p>Patients with cancer are at greater risk of developing venous and arterial thromboembolic events, and the risk of arterial thromboembolism varies according to the type of cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Particularly lung, gastric, and pancreatic cancer have been shown to have higher risks.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Cachexia is a state of involuntary weight loss. It is commonly seen in patients with cancer, and it has an impact on the heart. Cancer-associated cachexia is characterized by the secretion of inflammatory mediators and hormonal factors from tumors and their microenvironment. Eating disorders have multiple consequences, such as potentially fatal cardiovascular complications characterized by hemodynamic and structural changes, cardiomyopathy, and premature death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardio-oncology syndrome type II – Cancer treatments cause acute or chronic cardiovascular disease</title>
				<p>Modern cancer therapies can lead to structural and functional cardiovascular dysfunction, and cardiotoxicity is one of the most worrying side effects of chemotherapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Myocardial dysfunction and HF are important consequences of several classes of commonly used chemotherapy agents, most notably anthracyclines and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 antagonists.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Although both agents can cause reversible myocardial dysfunction, irreversible myocyte damage is classically reported with anthracyclines and can lead to HF years after drug administration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Radiotherapy can cause damage to the epicardial arteries and microcirculation both in the short and long term, which can cause regurgitation related to valve retraction and stenosis and induce fibrotic changes in the parietal pericardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Cardio-oncology syndrome type III – Cardiovascular disease promotes a pro-oncogenic environment</p>
				<p>Epidemiological data suggest an increased risk of cancer in patients with prevalent CVD compared to individuals without CVD. In a Danish study, all age groups demonstrated higher rates of cancer incidence 1 year after the diagnosis of myocardial infarction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> The association of CVD with an increased risk of cancer is further supported by a long-term prospective study that evaluated the clinical characteristics and the prevalence of malignancy in patients with acute coronary syndrome during a 17-year follow-up. The incidence rate was 17.8 cases per 1000 person-years in patients with acute coronary syndrome, 3 times higher than that observed in the general population. Patients who developed cancer after the diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome showed worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Atrial fibrillation may also be associated with cancer. The RE-LY Study revealed that malignant tumors were the main cause of non-cardiovascular death in patients with atrial fibrillation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Furthermore, the Women’s Health Study (WHS) showed that 10% of patients who had new-onset atrial fibrillation developed subsequent cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> However, most evidence derives from retrospective analyses with primarily non-causal relationships. Furthermore, available data tend to show positive associations, due to publication bias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardio-oncology syndrome type IV – Association between CVD treatments and diagnostic methods and cancer</title>
				<p>Studies have suggested the possibility of an association of cumulative radiation for cardiovascular diagnosis with subsequent cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> The prevalence of cancer attributed to radiation exposure due to cardiovascular diagnosis has been extensively investigated, and existing data suggest that children and adolescents are more likely to develop radiation-associated malignancies than older individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Consequently, there has been a discussion about the ideal type of imaging modalities that should be used for specific indications in younger patients with a focus on reducing imaging with exposure to radiation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardio-oncology syndrome type V – Systemic and genetic conditions</title>
				<p>Research over the decades has established risk factors, such as smoking, alcoholism, diabetes, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle, associated with the development of cancer and CVD. These factors were previously interpreted as separate entities associated with cancer or CVD. More recently, however, the overlapping model has surfaced in relation to risk factors common to both CVD and cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				<p>While the mechanisms involved in the development of CVD in patients with cancer have largely been elucidated, the pathways that lead to the increased prevalence of malignancies in patients with CVD have not yet been fully explored.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> There are common molecular pathways central to CVD and cancer, such as inflammation, genetic predisposition, clonal hematopoiesis, that is, inflammation and clonal hematopoiesis of undetermined potential.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Chemotherapy and the risk of HFpEF</title>
				<p>The use of anthracyclines can cause left ventricular systolic dysfunction (stage B HF) that can progress to HFrEF. Anthracyclines are associated with increased aortic stiffness<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> and diastolic dysfunction,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> suggesting that anthracycline therapy may increase the risk of HFpEF, given that the worsening of diastolic function, which can be associated with the occurrence of HFpEF, is an early sign of cardiotoxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In several cohort studies, significant changes in echocardiographic measurements of diastolic function have been observed with modern breast cancer therapy, particularly in patients treated with anthracycline therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Nearly half of patients treated with anthracyclines develop HF. Although the anthracyclines epirubicin and doxorubicin are effective antineoplastic drugs used in the treatment of numerous malignancies, their use is restricted due to serious side effects, the main one being chronic cardiotoxicity followed by HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> The risk of cardiotoxicity is dose-related, and it is promoted by several risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> The pathophysiology is complex, but a central mechanism is oxidative stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Cardiotoxic damage appears in cell membranes, mitochondria, and DNA, affecting both energy metabolism and ion handling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				<p>One study showed that the development of diastolic dysfunction was observed in more than 50% of patients treated with anthracycline chemotherapy in the first year of treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Using data from SEER-Medicare, breast cancer survivors aged 66 years and older had increased risk of HF compared to controls without cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Although the study provided results, use of a statement-based dataset is not able to distinguish between HFpEF and HFrEF, and older women are at a greater risk for both. Further studies are needed to better understand the clinical impact of these changes in vascular and diastolic function; however, we should be aware that cardiotoxicity following anthracycline therapy may present as HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Radiotherapy and the risk of HFpEF</title>
				<p>Breast-conserving surgery combined with radiotherapy has emerged as the standard approach for treating localized breast cancer, and, in more advanced disease, radiotherapy improves local control and survival.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> The high doses of chest radiation used in treatment of thoracic tumors and older radiotherapy techniques for breast cancer lead to an increased risk of developing heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> With the advance in radiotherapy planning, including the use of radiotherapy planning assisted by computed tomography, we can achieve a substantial reduction in cardiac radiation exposure during contemporary breast cancer radiotherapy. Nevertheless, even low levels of cardiac radiation during breast cancer radiotherapy increase the risk of coronary events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Cardiomyocytes are largely resistant to radiation. However, radiation induces coronary microvascular endothelial damage and inflammation leading to microvascular rarefaction, myocardial inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis, which favor the development of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The large loss of cardiomyocytes due to myocardial infarction or other factors is the primary etiological insult in HFrEF. On the other hand, the development of microvascular endothelial inflammation due to the presence of comorbidities with similar subsequent myocardial effects may contribute to myocardial dysfunction; it is thus considered a key factor in the pathophysiology of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Exposure to cardiac radiation, which functions as a comorbidity, during radiotherapy for the treatment of breast cancer may increase the risk of HF, in particular HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Studies have documented new cardiac perfusion defects (without transient myocardial infarction) after breast cancer radiotherapy consistent with microvascular rarefaction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Coronary microvascular endothelial inflammation caused by comorbidity is believed to play a key role in the pathophysiology of HFpEF. Microvascular endothelial inflammation leads to microvascular dysfunction and rarefaction with reduced coronary flow reserve and inflammation and to myocardial fibrosis, in addition to oxidative stress, which can impair nitric oxide–cyclic guanosine monophosphate signaling and potentiate cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and diastolic myofibril stiffness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> has shown that, in elderly women with breast cancer treated with radiotherapy, the chances of HF after radiotherapy increased with a higher mean dose of cardiac radiation. The predominant form of HF was HFpEF or HF with “intermediate” ejection fraction (40% to 49%), and the odds of any HF and HFpEF increased with mean cardiac radiation dose, even after adjustment for other known risk factors and cancer stage. The mean time since the onset of HF after radiotherapy was 5.8 years. A minority of women developed ischemic events between radiotherapy and the diagnosis of HF, suggesting that myocardial infarction due to epicardial coronary disease was not the predominant mediator of incident HF. The effect of mean cardiac radiation dose on the incidence of HF was still apparent in sensitivity analyses addressing the potential for surveillance bias associated with more advanced cancer stage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In women over 40 years of age, the lifetime risks of breast cancer (12%) and HF (20%) are significant.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Adjuvant radiotherapy reduces breast cancer recurrence and mortality in some subgroups of women; however, the excellent survival after treatment for breast cancer requires attention regarding survival issues, including cardiovascular complications of radiotherapy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> and the risk of cardiotoxicity with high-dose thoracic radiotherapy has been well documented.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Therefore, in older women undergoing radiotherapy for breast cancer, the relative risk of HFpEF increases proportionally to radiation, begins a few years after radiotherapy, and is not mediated by coronary events alone. These data suggest that radiation dose and risk factors for HF should be considered in decisions about breast cancer radiotherapy, and they underscore the importance of techniques to reduce cardiac radiation dose. Furthermore, there is additional support for the importance of coronary microvascular impairment in the pathophysiology of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>The role of inflammation in cancer development in patients with heart failure</title>
				<p>Cancer and CVD are currently the main causes of death worldwide, which may suggest that these diseases have pathogenetic mechanisms that are common to both situations. Studies have demonstrated that patients with cancer develop heart disease not only as a consequence of chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity, but also because tumor cells release factors that affect various distant organs, including the heart.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Cancer-derived pro-inflammatory molecules cause cardiomyocyte atrophy and tissue remodeling, which can degenerate into cachexia and HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The causal relationship between HF and cancer has been an important issue of current research, showing controversial results in epidemiological and clinical studies. An elevated risk of cancer incidence has been shown in some studies,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> reinforcing the hypothesis that HF may predispose to cancer and that a low-grade inflammatory mechanism may mediate both conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Extensive evidence has shown that HF is associated with a chronic inflammatory state and activation of the immune response. Inflammation arises locally as a consequence of lesion in HFrEF and systemically as a consequence of various comorbidities in HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In HFpEF, inflammation drives the development of HF through a complex sequence of events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Comorbidities induce a systemic pro-inflammatory state. Myocardial disease then begins with coronary endothelial dysfunction and expression of vascular cell adhesion molecules and selectins, which causes leukocyte infiltration. Endothelial cells begin to produce reactive oxygen species which, in turn, trigger a cascade of events with downregulation of nitric oxide production, decreased levels of nitric oxide-stimulated cyclic guanosine monophosphate, and decreased protein kinase G activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
				<p>This sequence of events culminates in protein kinase G-dependent hypophosphorylation of titin, and titin is responsible for cardiomyocyte stiffness, depending on its state of phosphorylation. Stiff cardiomyocytes, in association with interstitial fibrosis and capillary rarefaction, contribute to the loss of diastolic relaxation that is a characteristic of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Thus, oxidative stress and inflammation can be considered the consequence or the cause of HF, generating a chronic systemic condition with adverse clinical outcomes. This low-grade, chronic systemic inflammation, however, is often clinically silent, and its consequences can also increase the risk of different types of cancer. According to these observations, genetic polymorphisms in genes encoding anti-inflammatory interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10 have been shown to predispose individuals with HFpEF to cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Several epidemiological and clinical studies have reported that patients with HF are at an increased risk of developing cancer, and chronic low-grade systemic inflammation has been proposed as the main pathophysiological process linking HF and carcinogenesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> There are still unanswered questions that cardiologists and oncologists need to address by means of cooperative actions. The main one is whether HF variants, including most cases of HFpEF, are prone to developing cancer.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Risk factors associated with HFpEF and breast cancer</title>
				<p>Advances in cancer treatment have led to increased survival, which is offset by increased risk of long-term comorbidities, including HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Most studies performed in cardio-oncology have focused predominantly on HFrEF, mainly due to well recognized associations between cancer treatment and reduced LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> The development of HFpEF in breast cancer survivors is an understudied topic, even though HFpEF is more common than HFrEF in older women, and breast cancer and HFpEF share multiple risk factors, for example, obesity and hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
				<p>It is currently unclear to what extent differences in risk factors for HF subtypes hold true for breast cancer survivors for whom cancer treatment may alter the causal pathways of traditional risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> For example, elevated body mass index and increased central adiposity are associated with a decline in LVEF in cancer survivors,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> even though there is no relationship between obesity and LVEF in the general population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> There are few data on the incidence of HFpEF and the risk factors associated with HFpEF in breast cancer survivors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> evaluated the incidence of HFpEF and HFrEF in menopausal breast cancer survivors and associations with risk factors. The results demonstrated a relatively higher rate of hospitalizations for HFpEF compared to HFrEF. The study also demonstrated that anthropometric factors, previous history of cardiometabolic disorders, and smoking were associated with an elevated risk of HFpEF; in general, the same characteristics were suggestive of an elevated risk of HFrEF, indicating that breast cancer survivors are affected by conventional risk factors for HF subtypes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In the literature to date, little attention has been paid to HFpEF in breast cancer survivors,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> potentially due to the fact that HF diagnosis is largely based on LVEF measurements that can fail to diagnose cases of HFpEF, and associated symptoms of HFpEF, such as lack of air, can be attributed to side effects of chemotherapy/radiotherapy or deconditioning rather than HFpEF. In most clinical trials on breast cancer and cardioprotection, the focus of monitoring during treatment has been based on LVEF, rather than a more holistic view of cardiac function that incorporates diastolic parameters in addition to systolic function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In the same manner that has been observed in population studies,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> the study observed a higher incidence of HFpEF in this elderly population of breast cancer survivors. Despite an increased risk of HFpEF in older women, the HFpEF phenotype remains an understudied component after breast cancer. However, HFpEF contributes to an equal proportion of hospitalizations as HFrEF and an equally increased risk of long-term mortality after diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Risk factors for HF were very similar to that of the general population, with the exception of prior myocardial infarction for HFpEF. Notably, both waist circumference and smoking represent potentially modifiable factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Biomarkers in the prediction and diagnosis of HFpEF in patients with cancer</title>
				<p>Therapies used to treat cancer, particularly anthracyclines and trastuzumab, can damage the heart. Most studies have focused on asymptomatic left ventricular dysfunction caused by these agents and HFrEF. However, although little recognized, these treatments can cause cardiac, vascular, and metabolic damage that can evolve with HFpEF. This can occur as an initial manifestation and later evolve to HFrEF or even be the only manifestation, during treatment or months after treatment, in cancer survivors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Furthermore, due to the presence of comorbidities and the direct effect of the cancer itself, these patients have an increased baseline risk of developing HFpEF (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Mechanisms involved in the development of HFpEF in patients with cancer. HFpEF can be caused by chemotherapy or radiotherapy leading to diastolic changes, which may be associated with coronary artery disease and atrial fibrillation. Additionally, the patient may have HFpEF even before starting treatment, due to comorbidities common to cancer and HFpEF, as well as due to the direct action of the cancer itself on the myocardium. HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0343-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Biomarkers are substances secreted into the circulation or urine that provide us with early information about diagnosis and prognosis in a given condition. In this section, we will address the main biomarkers involved in the prediction of HFpEF and its prognosis, including the classic cardiac biomarkers troponins and natriuretic peptides, as well as systemic, non-cardiac biomarkers related to both cancer and the cardiovascular system. These biomarkers have been extensively studied in the prediction of systolic dysfunction and HFrEF, but they are also related to the development of HFpEF.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardiac biomarkers in cancer</title>
				<p>Cardiac biomarkers can be used in different ways in the management of cancer patients: 1) before starting cancer treatment, as predictors of cardiac complications during treatment; 2) in monitoring during cancer treatment to detect early cardiotoxicity; and 3) in cancer survivors to monitor long-term cardiotoxicity.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Cardiac troponins</title>
					<p>Cardiac troponins T and I are the gold-standard markers of acute myocardial infarction. However, cardiac troponins, especially high-sensitivity cardiac troponins, may be elevated in situations unrelated to forms of myocardial damage other than ischemia, for example, in myocardial injury. They are the main marker used to detect cardiotoxicity in cardio-oncology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> They can detect early subclinical myocardial alterations, which can guide the prevention of irreversible systolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Furthermore, they can predict the risk of cardiotoxicity before beginning cancer treatment. The presence of cardiovascular comorbidities, systemic alterations such as inflammation and oxidative stress, and the effects of cancer itself on the heart can cause elevations in cardiac biomarkers, indicating a greater risk of toxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> In a study with 452 patients with breast cancer, naive to treatment, the basal dosage of troponins T and I was a predictor of increased risk of developing myocardial dysfunction with trastuzumab treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> However, there are no specific studies for the prediction of HFpEF.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Natriuretic peptides</title>
					<p>Natriuretic peptides may be increased in patients with cancer undergoing treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> In a study of 40 women with cancer (37 with breast cancer, 2 with lymphoma and 1 with sarcoma) treated with doxorubicin, BNP was altered early in the patients who developed left ventricular systolic dysfunction, none of whom developed clinical HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> It is interesting to note that the left ventricular diastolic function parameters on the echocardiogram also changed early, but BNP was the only marker that correlated with the cumulative dose of doxorubicin. Although natriuretic peptide levels may increase with cancer treatment, it has been reported that cancer cells themselves may secrete BNP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Baseline levels of natriuretic peptides, prior to initiation of cancer treatment, are associated with cancer progression and severity. In a study by Pavo et al., with 555 patients with a primary diagnosis of cancer and without previous treatment, NT-ProBNP and other markers (troponins, C-reactive protein, copeptin, IL-6, among others) were elevated according to tumor staging and were predictors of mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Oncological biomarkers and inflammatory markers</title>
					<p>Several biomarkers associated with cancer are used as diagnostic and prognostic markers in this disease. Many of them are associated with cardiovascular severity, for example, the New York Heart Association functional class, and cardiovascular mortality outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> They also correlate with natriuretic peptide levels. Among oncological markers and inflammatory markers, we can mention CA125, CEA, galectin-3, GDF-15, PlGF, CHIP, IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, C-reactive protein, TNF-a, ST2, and myeloperoxidase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 4</xref> displays the bidirectional relationship between cancer and the heart, with cardiac biomarkers predicting cardiac complications from cancer, and inflammatory and cancer-related biomarkers predicting cancer itself and cardiac complications.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Bidirectional relationship between the heart and cancer. Cardiac biomarkers assess the impact of cancer and cancer treatments on the heart, and cancer and inflammatory biomarkers are also predictors of cardiovascular severity in cancer. BNP: brain-type natriuretic peptide; CA125: carbohydrate antigen 125; CEA: carcinoembryonic antigen; CHIP: clonal hematopoiesis of undetermined potential; CRP: C-reactive protein; GDF-15: growth differentiation factor-15; IL: interleukin; NT-proBNP: N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide; PlGF: placental growth factor; ST2: suppression of tumorigenicity 2; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0343-gf04.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Perspectives for biomarkers in HFpEF</title>
					<p>Most studies to date have evaluated the role of biomarkers in predicting left ventricular systolic dysfunction or mortality outcomes. There are no specific studies on the prediction of HFpEF. However, ongoing studies may eventually identify useful markers in this bidirectional relationship between CVD and cancer, including baseline HFpEF or HFpEF acquired after cancer treatment.</p>
					<p>A recent study identified the biomarker of collagen type XXVIII that may play a role in the future. Collagen XXVIII was recently described; it is located at the interface between the basement membrane and the interstitial matrix, and it may be involved in tissue repair.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Reese-Petersen et al. developed an ELISA technique that is able to detect the C-terminal fragment of type XXVIII collagen, known as PRO-C28. They observed that this biomarker is elevated in HFpEF and in patients with various types of cancer compared to healthy individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> This elevation was more significant in lung cancer, where the area under the curve was 98% for differentiating individuals with lung cancer from healthy individuals. Furthermore, PRO-C28 correlated with NT-proBNP levels. Future studies should establish the usefulness of this new marker in predicting HFpEF in patients with cancer, as well as its prognostic role.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Role of biomarkers in the diagnosis of HFpEF in patients with cancer</title>
					<p>The diagnosis of HFpEF in patients with cancer is made in the same way as in patients without cancer, although there is no validation in specific studies in this population. In general, HFpEF is characterized in patients with signs and symptoms of HF, cardiac structural alterations in the presence of LVEF ≥ 50%, and natriuretic peptide elevation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> Two risk scores can be used in the diagnosis of HFpEF, the H2FPEF score and HFA-PEFF score (of the European Society of Cardiology). The HFA-PEFF score uses natriuretic peptides in its flowchart.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> The detailed steps for the diagnosis of HFpEF are beyond the scope of this review, but they can be found in the Brazilian Heart Failure Guideline.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Immune checkpoint inhibitors and HFpEF</title>
					<p>Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) represent an innovative treatment for a large number of cancer types. ICIs have been prescribed for primary tumors and metastases, as well as adjuvant and neoadjuvant therapy. ICIs become toxic because they lead to autoimmune processes that affect all organs. Regarding the heart, it has been noted that ICIs lead to acute HF with preserved or reduced LVEF and even to death by several mechanisms, such as myocarditis, pericarditis, arrhythmia, and takotsubo cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Therefore, there is a need for improved methods for detection and risk stratification of heart diseases associated with the use of ICIs, including myocarditis. The study by Mahmood et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> in patients using ICIs showed that, among patients who developed myocarditis, ECG was altered in 89%; NT-ProBNP was elevated in 66%, and only 49% of patients had LVEF below 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The study showed that, among patients with myocarditis due to the use of ICIs, global longitudinal strain, which is a sensitive marker of cardiotoxicity among patients receiving standard chemotherapy, was lower among patients with preserved and reduced LVEF. In the follow-up of these patients, decreased global longitudinal strain was strongly associated with major adverse cardiac events in myocarditis due to ICI use and, more importantly, among those with preserved LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Thus, to identify myocardial involvement and establish the risk of HFpEF, global longitudinal strain is useful in monitoring patients with cancer receiving ICI therapy.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Imaging in HFpEF associated with cancer</title>
					<p>The detection of HFpEF associated with cancer is related to cardio-oncological syndromes types I, II and V according to de Boer RA et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>), as previously mentioned in this article. For imaging diagnosis of this HF phenotype, comprehensive transthoracic echocardiogram is the most widely used tool, providing information on 3 basic phenomena that must be detected:</p>
					<list list-type="order">
						<list-item>
							<p>Presence of normal or very slightly reduced global systolic function;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Atrioventricular remodeling, including left atrial and right chamber dilation, but not including left ventricular dilation;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Diastolic dysfunction causing pulmonary circulation overload.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>In this context, according to the most recent European Society of Cardiology Guideline on Cardio-oncology,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> the respective suggested ultrasound indices are as follows:</p>
					<list list-type="order">
						<list-item>
							<p>LVEF, estimated by the 3- or 2-dimensional method</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Dimensions, chamber volumes, and cardiac mass indexed by body surface area;</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>E and A velocities of diastolic inflow in the left ventricle, e’ and a’ diastolic velocities of the myocardium, the E/e’ ratio of estimated diastolic pressure in the left ventricle, the rate of myocardial deformation (global longitudinal strain), and estimated pulmonary pressure, translating the repercussion of left chamber pressures on pulmonary circulation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
							<p>
								<fig id="f05">
									<label>Figure 5</label>
									<caption>
										<title>– Echocardiographic indices for detection and follow-up of patients with HFpEF and cancer. BSA: body surface area; E/e’: ratio of early diastolic mitral inflow velocity to early diastolic velocity of the mitral annulus; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; LA: left atrium; LAVi: left atrial volume indexed by body surface area; LV: left ventricle; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; PAP: pulmonary artery pressure; RA: right atrium; RV: right ventricle; RVEF: right ventricular ejection fraction; S’: systolic velocity obtained by Doppler tissue imaging; TAPSE: tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion; TVR: tricuspid regurgitation velocity.</title>
									</caption>
									<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0343-gf05.tif"/>
								</fig>
							</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>Other parameters related to right ventricular function, heart valves, and the pericardium have also been also suggested for pre-therapy baseline examination of the specific neoplasm and follow-up.</p>
					<p>In the pre-cancer therapy evaluation, the indices of LVEF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> and global longitudinal strain are used as the main baseline markers, as well as for monitoring cardiotoxicity during chemotherapy. Especially in patients who already present diagnosis of HFpEF, global longitudinal strain is a more sensitive summary marker than ejection fraction. In patients from a case series of 2234 patients in pre-therapy with anthracyclines, global longitudinal strain and left ventricular end-diastolic volume indexed to body surface area volume (LVEDVI) stood out as independent predictors of major cardiac events. When compared, the means for global longitudinal strain of patients who presented the event were lower (−17.8% ± 2.5% versus −16% ± 2.5%; p = 0.0015), and the means for LVEDVI were higher in patients who developed events (53 ± 12 ml/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> versus 61 ± 5 ml/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>; p = 0.02). It is noteworthy that, in this study, LVEF was not statistically significant as a risk predictor in this type of population with preserved systolic function (54% ± 3% versus 53% 3%; p = 0.27).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> Therefore, from the point of view of risk prevention, determination of initial global longitudinal strain using the speckle tracking technique is well supported and recommended, especially in patients at moderate or high risk of developing toxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Diastolic dysfunction on pre-cancer treatment examination may be associated with an increased risk of systolic dysfunction. Upshaw et al. detected, in a population of participants undergoing treatment for breast cancer, that diastolic dysfunction was associated with a subsequent decrease in LVEF (2.1%; 95% confidence interval: 3.1 to 1.2; p &lt; 0.001) and worsening in longitudinal strain (0.6%; 95% confidence interval: 0.1 to 1.1; p = 0.013) over time. Changes in E/e’ were not statistically significant.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>From a contemporary point of view, the most recent consensus on cardio-oncology published this year lists the following as class I recommendations: a) echocardiography as a first-line modality for assessing function in cancer patients; b) 3-dimensional echocardiogram as the preferred echocardiographic modality for measurements; c) global longitudinal strain, if available, in all patients with cancer; d) comprehensive echocardiography in all patients with cancer and high risk or very high risk of cardiovascular toxicity before initiating cancer treatment.</p>
					<p>Other imaging tests may also be useful in HFpEF and cancer. Chest computed tomography or cardiac magnetic resonance imaging can elucidate images of patients with difficult acoustic windows and identify subclinical ischemic disease and intracardiac masses. Functional exams that provoke ischemia are also important in patients with HFpEF and elevated pre-test probability of significant atherosclerotic disease, especially in patients in need of treatment with drugs with vascular toxicity, such as fluoropyrimidines, vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitors, tyrosine-kinase inhibitors, among others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>HFpEF and cancer have an elevated prevalence, with a growing trend. They share age group, risk factors, and the pathophysiological phenomenon, in which inflammation plays a preponderant role. Biomarkers, especially natriuretic peptides, and ultrasound imaging are fundamental tools in diagnostic detection and follow-up. It is important to emphasize that we are following a huge evolution in treatments, both for HFpEF and for neoplastic diseases, but, in this review, we have found many gaps in knowledge involving populations where both clinical conditions overlap.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Insuficiência Cardíaca com Fração de Ejeção Preservada e Câncer</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Jorge</surname>
						<given-names>Antonio José Lagoeiro</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Villacorta</surname>
						<given-names>Humberto</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5774-2780</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Danzmann</surname>
						<given-names>Luiz Claudio</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mesquita</surname>
						<given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>Obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Programa de Pós-gradução em Ciências Cardiovasculares – Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina – Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina – Universidade Luterana do Brasil, Canoas, RS – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"> Correspondência: Antonio José Lagoeiro Jorge • Avenida Marques do Paraná, 303, 6º andar. CEP 24030-215, Centro, Niterói, RJ – Brasil E-mail: antoniolagoeiro@id.uff.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEp) está associada a alta morbidade e mortalidade. Após a hospitalização por insuficiência cardíaca, a sobrevida em 5 anos da ICFEp é de 35%, sendo pior do que muitas formas de câncer. A ICFEp e o câncer partilham fatores de risco em comum. O uso de quimioterápicos como as antraciclinas está associado ao aumento da rigidez aórtica e à disfunção diastólica, sugerindo que a terapia com antraciclinas pode aumentar o risco de ICFEp, já que a piora da função diastólica, que pode ser associada à ocorrência de ICFEp, é um sinal precoce de cardiotoxicidade. A radioterapia, muito utilizada no tratamento do câncer de mama, leva ao aumento do risco de desenvolver doenças cardíacas já que radiação induz dano endotelial microvascular coronariano e inflamação, levando à rarefação microvascular, inflamação miocárdica, estresse oxidativo e fibrose, que favorecem o desenvolvimento de ICFEp. O diagnóstico precoce da cardiotoxicidade é questão importante no cuidado dos pacientes com câncer e biomarcadores têm sido bastante estudados na predição da disfunção sistólica e insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida, e também no desenvolvimento de ICFEp. A ICFEp e o câncer têm elevada prevalência, compartilham faixa etária, fatores de risco e também o fenômeno fisiopatológico, no qual a inflamação tem papel preponderante. Os biomarcadores, sobretudo os peptídeos natriuréticos e a imagem ultrassonográfica são ferramentas fundamentais na detecção diagnóstica e no seguimento destes pacientes.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca com Fração de Ejeção Preservada</kwd>
				<kwd>Câncer</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiotoxicidade</kwd>
				<kwd>Quimioterapia</kwd>
				<kwd>Radioterapia</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A maioria dos pacientes idosos que desenvolvem insuficiência cardíaca (IC) apresenta a fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo preservada (ICFEp). Pacientes com ICFEp apresentam sintomas graves de intolerância ao exercício, baixa qualidade de vida, hospitalizações frequentes e aumento da mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A ICFEp está associada a alta morbidade e mortalidade. Após a hospitalização por IC, a sobrevida em 5 anos da ICFEp é de 35%, sendo pior do que muitas formas de câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O câncer passou a ocupar a segunda causa de mortalidade no Brasil a partir de 2006 e há previsão de que ultrapasse as doenças cardiovasculares (DCV) em 2025.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>O aumento progressivo da incidência de câncer nos países desenvolvidos tem sido atribuído ao crescimento e envelhecimento populacional, ao sedentarismo e ao padrão alimentar. A ICFEp e o câncer partilham fatores de risco em comum<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref>) tais como a obesidade, o sedentarismo, a hipertensão arterial, o tabagismo, o diabetes mellitus, a faixa etária elevada e o padrão alimentar. O tratamento oncológico com a quimioterapia trouxe aumento da sobrevida, porém também aumentou o risco de cardiotoxicidade, a incidência de disfunção sistólica ventricular ou até mesmo cardiomiopatia irreversível que pode variar de 3% a 26%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Interação entre a insuficiência cardíaca e o câncer envolvendo fatores de risco, o tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca e o tratamento do câncer. Adaptado de Wouter C. Meijers and Rudolf A. De Boer referência 4. BRA: bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina; DAC: doença arterial coronariana; DRC: doença renal crônica; HAS: hipertensão arterial sistêmica; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; IECA: inibidor da enzima de conversão da angiotensina; SGLT2: inibidor do cotransportador de sódio-glicose-2.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0343-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Em cardio-oncologia, a pesquisa e o monitoramento clínico da cardiotoxicidade se concentraram principalmente em reduções assintomáticas da fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE), a qual chamamos de disfunção cardíaca relacionada à terapia do câncer ou insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFEr). No entanto, é cada vez mais reconhecido que diferentes terapias contra o câncer podem ter efeitos cardiovasculares adversos – miocárdicos, vasculares e metabólicos – que predispõe os pacientes a desenvolverem a ICFEp. Além disso, muitos pacientes com câncer podem estar em risco de ICFEp devido à presença de diferentes fatores de risco cardiovascular relacionados à presença de comorbidades ou aos efeitos cardiometabólicos relacionados ao câncer. A ICFEp não foi um dado frequentemente coletado em ensaios clínicos envolvendo pacientes com câncer, portanto, a incidência exata e o risco relativo em comparação com controles de pacientes sem câncer, bem como entre os diferentes tratamentos para o câncer, permanecem desconhecidos. Embora pesquisas futuras sejam necessárias para entender a incidência de ICFEp em sobreviventes de câncer, os profissionais de saúde devem estar cientes agora de que muitas terapias contra o câncer podem aumentar o risco tanto da ICFEr como da ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<sec>
					<title>Classificação</title>
					<p>De Boer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> propuseram um sistema de classificação de 5 níveis para melhor caracterizar a interseção entre cardiologia e oncologia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref>). Os tipos I e II do sistema de classificação abordam como o câncer e as terapias contra o câncer afetam o sistema cardiovascular, enquanto os tipos III e IV mostram como as DCV, as estratégias de monitoramento e as terapias podem contribuir para desmascarar o câncer ou promover um ambiente favorável ao desenvolvimento tumoral. O tipo V aborda condições sistêmicas e genéticas que podem levar a DCV e câncer.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Síndromes cardio-oncológicas. Os cinco tipos de síndromes cardio-oncológicas são classificados, divididos em diretos, indiretos ou secundários. Adaptado de De Boer RA referência 7. DCV: doença cardiovascular; SCO: síndrome cardio-oncológica.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0343-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Síndrome cardio-oncológica tipo I - Efeito da presença do câncer no sistema cardiovascular</title>
					<p>Pacientes com câncer têm maior risco de desenvolver eventos tromboembólicos venosos e arteriais, sendo que o risco de tromboembolismo arterial varia de acordo com o tipo de câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Particularmente os cânceres de pulmão, gástrico e pancreático demonstram oferecer um maior risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A caquexia é um estado de perda de peso involuntária e é comumente observada em pacientes com câncer, sendo que a caquexia tem impacto no coração. A caquexia associada ao câncer é caracterizada pela secreção de mediadores inflamatórios e fatores hormonais de tumores e seu microambiente. Os transtornos alimentares têm múltiplas consequências como complicações cardiovasculares potencialmente fatais caracterizadas por alterações hemodinâmicas e estruturais, cardiomiopatia e morte prematura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Síndrome cardio-oncológica tipo II - Tratamentos antineoplásicos causam doença cardiovascular aguda ou crônica</title>
					<p>As terapias modernas contra o câncer podem levar à disfunção estrutural e funcional cardiovascular sendo que a cardiotoxicidade é um dos efeitos colaterais mais preocupantes da quimioterapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Várias classes de agentes quimioterápicos comumente usados têm disfunção miocárdica e IC como consequências importantes, mais notoriamente antraciclinas e antagonistas do receptor do fator de crescimento epidérmico humano 2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Embora ambos os agentes possam causar disfunção miocárdica reversível, danos irreversíveis aos miócitos são classicamente relatados com antraciclinas e podem levar à IC anos após a administração do quimioterápico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>As terapias modernas contra o câncer podem levar à disfunção estrutural e funcional cardiovascular sendo que a cardiotoxicidade é um dos efeitos colaterais mais preocupantes da quimioterapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A radioterapia pode causar danos nas artérias epicárdicas e na microcirculação tanto a curto como a longo prazo, podendo causar regurgitação relacionada à retração valvar e estenose e induzir alterações fibróticas no pericárdio parietal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Síndrome cardio-oncológica tipo III - A doença cardiovascular promove um ambiente pró-oncogênico</title>
					<p>Dados epidemiológicos sugerem um risco aumentado de câncer em pacientes com DCV prevalente em comparação com indivíduos sem DCV. Em um estudo dinamarquês, todas as faixas etárias demonstraram maiores taxas de incidência de câncer após 1 ano do diagnóstico de infarto do miocárdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A associação de DCV com risco aumentado de câncer é ainda corroborada por um estudo prospectivo de longo prazo que avaliou as características clínicas e a prevalência de neoplasia maligna em pacientes com síndrome coronariana aguda durante um seguimento de 17 anos. A taxa de incidência foi de 17,8 casos por 1.000 pessoas-ano em pacientes com síndrome coronariana aguda, 3 vezes maior do que a observada na população geral. Aqueles que desenvolveram neoplasias após o diagnóstico de síndrome coronariana aguda demonstraram pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A fibrilação atrial também pode estar associada ao câncer. O RE-LY Study revelou que os tumores malignos foram a principal causa de morte não cardiovascular em pacientes com fibrilação atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Além disso, o Women’s Health Study (WHS) mostrou que 10% dos pacientes que tiveram fibrilação atrial de início recente desenvolveram câncer subsequente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> No entanto, a maioria das evidências deriva de análises retrospectivas com relações principalmente não causais. Além disso, os dados disponíveis tendem a mostrar associações positivas devido ao viés de publicação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Síndrome cardio-oncológica tipo IV - A associação entre os tratamentos e métodos diagnósticos de doença cardiovascular e câncer</title>
					<p>Estudos têm sugerido a possibilidade de uma associação de radiação cumulativa para o diagnóstico cardiovascular com subsequente desenvolvimento de câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> A prevalência de câncer atribuída à exposição à radiação devido ao diagnóstico cardiovascular tem sido extensivamente investigada e os dados existentes sugerem que crianças e adolescentes são mais propensos a desenvolver malignidades associadas à radiação do que indivíduos mais velhos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Consequentemente, tem havido uma discussão sobre o tipo ideal de modalidades de imagem que devem ser usadas para indicações específicas em pacientes jovens com foco na redução de estudos de imagem com exposição à radiação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Síndrome cardio-oncológica tipo V - Condições sistêmicas e genéticas</title>
					<p>Pesquisas ao longo das décadas estabeleceram fatores de risco como tabagismo, alcoolismo, diabetes, obesidade e sedentarismo, associados ao desenvolvimento de câncer e DCV. Esses fatores foram anteriormente interpretados como entidades discretas associadas a câncer ou DCV. Mais recentemente, no entanto, uma apreciação de um modelo de sobreposição veio à tona em relação aos fatores de risco comum a DCV e câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Enquanto os mecanismos envolvidos no desenvolvimento de DCV em pacientes com câncer já foram amplamente elucidados, as vias que conduzem ao aumento da prevalência de malignidades em pacientes com DCV não foram ainda completamente exploradas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Existem vias moleculares comuns centrais como inflamação, predisposição genética, hematopoiese clonal para DCV e câncer, ou seja, inflamação e hematopoiese clonal de potencial ainda não determinado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Quimioterapia e risco de ICFEp</title>
					<p>O uso de antraciclinas pode causar disfunção sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo (estágio B de IC) e que pode evoluir para ICFEr. As antraciclinas estão associadas ao aumento da rigidez aórtica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> e à disfunção diastólica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> sugerindo que a terapia com antraciclinas também pode aumentar o risco de ICFEp, já que a piora da função diastólica, que pode ser associada à ocorrência de ICFEp, é um sinal precoce de cardiotoxicidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em vários estudos de coorte, mudanças significativas nas medidas ecocardiográficas da função diastólica foram observadas com a terapia moderna do câncer de mama, particularmente naquelas tratadas com terapia com antraciclina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Quase metade dos pacientes tratados com antraciclina desenvolve IC. Embora as antraciclinas epirrubicina e doxorrubicina sejam drogas antineoplásicas eficazes usadas no tratamento de inúmeras doenças malignas, seu uso é restrito por efeitos colaterais graves, sendo o principal a cardiotoxicidade crônica seguida de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> O risco de cardiotoxicidade está relacionado com a dose e é promovido por vários fatores de risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> A fisiopatologia é complexa, mas um mecanismo central é o estresse oxidativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> O dano cardiotóxico aparece nas membranas celulares, mitocôndrias e DNA, afetando tanto o metabolismo energético quanto o manuseio de íons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estudo mostrou que o desenvolvimento de disfunção diastólica foi observado em mais de 50% dos pacientes tratados com quimioterapia com antraciclinas no primeiro ano de tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Usando dados do SEER-Medicare, sobreviventes de câncer de mama com 66 anos de idade ou mais apresentaram risco aumentado de IC em comparação com controles sem câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Embora a pesquisa dê resultados, o uso do conjunto de dados baseado em declarações é incapaz de distinguir entre ICFEp e ICFEr; as mulheres mais velhas correm maior risco para ambos. Mais pesquisas são necessárias para entender melhor o impacto clínico dessas alterações na função vascular e diastólica; no entanto, devemos estar cientes de que a cardiotoxicidade após a terapia com antraciclinas pode se apresentar como ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Radioterapia e risco de ICFEp</title>
					<p>A cirurgia conservadora da mama associada à radioterapia surgiu como a abordagem padrão para o tratamento do câncer de mama localizado e, na doença mais avançada, a radioterapia melhora o controle local e também a sobrevida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> As altas doses de radiação torácica usadas no tratamento dos tumores torácicos e técnicas de radioterapia de câncer de mama mais antigas levam ao aumento do risco de desenvolver doença cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Com o avanço no planejamento da radioterapia, incluindo o uso do planejamento de radioterapia assistida por tomografia computadorizada, podemos ter uma redução substancial da exposição à radiação cardíaca durante a radioterapia contemporânea do câncer de mama. No entanto, mesmo níveis baixos de radiação cardíaca durante a radioterapia do câncer de mama aumentam o risco de eventos coronarianos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Os cardiomiócitos são em grande parte resistentes à radiação. No entanto, a radiação induz dano endotelial microvascular coronariano e inflamação levando à rarefação microvascular, inflamação miocárdica, estresse oxidativo e fibrose, que favorecem o desenvolvimento de ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A grande perda de cardiomiócitos devido ao infarto do miocárdio ou outros fatores é o insulto etiológico primário na ICFEr. Por outro lado, o desenvolvimento de inflamação endotelial microvascular devido à presença de comorbidades com efeitos miocárdicos subsequentes semelhantes pode contribuir para a disfunção miocárdica, sendo considerado então um fator chave na fisiopatologia da ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> A exposição à radiação cardíaca, que funciona como uma comorbidade, durante a radioterapia para o tratamento do câncer de mama pode aumentar o risco de IC, em particular a ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estudos têm documentado novos defeitos de perfusão cardíaca (sem infarto do miocárdio provisório) após radioterapia de câncer de mama consistente com rarefação microvascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Acredita-se que a inflamação endotelial microvascular coronariana causada por comorbidade desempenhe um papel fundamental na fisiopatologia da ICFEp. A inflamação endotelial microvascular leva à disfunção e rarefação microvascular com redução da reserva de fluxo coronariano e inflamação e à fibrose miocárdica, bem como ao estresse oxidativo, o que pode prejudicar a sinalização do óxido nítrico–guanosina monofosfato cíclico e potencializar a hipertrofia dos cardiomiócitos e a rigidez diastólica da miofibrila.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> mostrou que em mulheres idosas com câncer de mama tratadas com radioterapia as chances de IC após radioterapia aumentaram com maior dose média de radiação cardíaca. A forma predominante de IC foi ICFEp ou IC com fração de ejeção “intermediária” (40% a 49%) e as chances de qualquer IC e de ICFEp aumentaram com a dose média de radiação cardíaca, mesmo após ajuste para outros fatores de risco conhecidos e o estágio do câncer. O tempo médio do início da IC após a radioterapia foi de 5,8 anos. Uma minoria de mulheres desenvolveu eventos isquêmicos entre a radioterapia e o diagnóstico de IC, sugerindo que o infarto do miocárdio por doença coronariana epicárdica não foi o mediador predominante da IC incidente. O efeito da dose média de radiação cardíaca na incidência de IC ainda era aparente nas análises de sensibilidade abordando o potencial de viés de vigilância associado ao estágio mais alto do câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em mulheres com idade maior que 40 anos, os riscos ao longo da vida de câncer de mama (12%) e IC (20%) são significativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> A radioterapia adjuvante reduz a recorrência do câncer de mama e a mortalidade em alguns subgrupos de câncer de mama, porém a excelente sobrevida após o tratamento para o câncer de mama exige atenção quanto às questões de sobrevida, incluindo as complicações cardiovasculares da radioterapia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> sendo que o risco de cardiotoxicidade com radioterapia torácica de alta dose está bem documentado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Portanto, em mulheres mais velhas submetidas à radioterapia do câncer de mama, o risco relativo de ICFEp aumenta proporcionalmente à radiação, inicia-se alguns anos após a radioterapia e não é mediado apenas por eventos coronarianos. Esses dados sugerem que a dose de irradiação e os fatores de risco para IC devem ser considerados nas decisões sobre a radioterapia do câncer de mama e ressaltam a importância de técnicas para reduzir a dose de radiação cardíaca. Além disso, existe um suporte adicional para a importância do comprometimento microvascular coronariano na fisiopatologia da ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>O papel da inflamação no desenvolvimento de câncer em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca</title>
					<p>O câncer e as DCV são atualmente as principais causas de morte em todo o mundo, o que pode sugerir que essas doenças têm mecanismos patogenéticos que são comuns às duas situações. Estudos demonstraram que pacientes com câncer desenvolvem doença cardíaca não apenas como consequência da cardiotoxicidade induzida por quimioterapias, mas também porque as células tumorais liberam fatores que afetam vários órgãos à distância, incluindo o coração.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Moléculas pró-inflamatórias derivadas do câncer causam atrofia de cardiomiócitos e remodelação tecidual, que pode degenerar em caquexia e IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A relação causal entre IC e câncer tem sido uma questão importante de investigação na atualidade, apresentando resultados controversos em estudos epidemiológicos e clínicos. Um risco elevado da incidência de câncer foi mostrado em alguns estudos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> reforçando a hipótese de que a IC pode predispor ao câncer e que um mecanismo inflamatório de baixo grau pode mediar ambas as condições.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Extensas evidências mostraram que a IC está associada a um estado inflamatório crônico e à ativação da resposta imune. A inflamação surge localmente como consequência da lesão na ICFEr e sistemicamente como consequência de várias comorbidades na ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na ICFEp, a inflamação impulsiona o desenvolvimento da IC através de uma sequência de eventos complexa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Comorbidades induzem um estado pró-inflamatório sistêmico. A doença do miocárdio começa então com uma disfunção endotelial coronariana e expressão de moléculas de adesão celular vascular e selectinas, o que causa uma infiltração de leucócitos. As células endoteliais começam a produzir espécies reativas de oxigênio que, por sua vez, desencadeiam uma cascata de eventos com regulação negativa da produção de óxido nítrico, diminuição dos níveis de monofosfato cíclico de guanosina estimulado por óxido nítrico e diminuição da atividade da proteína quinase G.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Essa sequência de eventos culmina na hipofosforilação da titina dependente de proteína quinase G, sendo que a titina é responsável pela rigidez do cardiomiócito, dependendo do seu estado de fosforilação. Cardiomiócitos rígidos, em associação com fibrose intersticial e rarefação capilar, contribuem para a perda do relaxamento diastólico que é uma característica da ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Assim, o estresse oxidativo e a inflamação podem ser considerados a consequência ou a causa da IC, gerando uma condição sistêmica crônica com desfecho clínico adverso. Embora seja uma inflamação sistêmica crônica e de baixo grau, ela é muitas vezes clinicamente silenciosa, sendo que suas consequências também podem aumentar o risco de diferentes tipos de câncer. De acordo com essas observações, polimorfismos genéticos em genes que codificam interleucina (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8 e IL-10 anti-inflamatória, mostraram predispor os indivíduos com ICFEp ao câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Vários estudos epidemiológicos e clínicos relataram que pacientes com IC têm maior risco de desenvolver câncer e uma inflamação sistêmica crônica de baixo grau foi proposta como o principal processo fisiopatológico que liga a IC e a carcinogênese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Ainda existem questões pendentes que cardiologistas e oncologistas precisam responder por meio de ações cooperativas. A principal delas é se as variantes da IC, incluindo a maioria dos casos de ICFEp, são propensas a desenvolver câncer.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Fatores de risco associados a ICFEp e câncer de mama</title>
					<p>Os avanços no tratamento do câncer levaram a um aumento da sobrevida, que é compensado pelo aumento do risco de comorbidades de longo prazo, incluindo IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> A maioria dos estudos realizados em cardio-oncologia tem se concentrado predominantemente na ICFEr devido principalmente a associações bem reconhecidas entre o tratamento do câncer e o declínio da FEVE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Um tema pouco estudado é o desenvolvimento de ICFEp em sobreviventes do câncer de mama, apesar de a ICFEp ser mais comum do que a ICFEr em mulheres mais velhas e câncer de mama e ICFEp compartilharem múltiplos fatores de risco, por exemplo, obesidade e hipertensão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Atualmente, não está claro até que ponto as diferenças nos fatores de risco para os subtipos de IC são verdadeiras para os sobreviventes do câncer de mama nos quais o tratamento do câncer pode alterar as vias causais dos fatores de risco tradicionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Por exemplo, índice de massa corporal elevado e aumento da adiposidade central estão associados ao declínio da FEVE em sobreviventes de câncer,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> apesar de não haver relação entre obesidade e FEVE na população geral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Existem poucos dados sobre a incidência de ICFEp e os fatores de risco associados à ICFEp em sobreviventes de câncer de mama.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> avaliou a incidência de ICFEp e ICFEr em pacientes sobreviventes de câncer de mama na menopausa e associações com fatores de risco. Os resultados demonstram uma taxa relativamente maior de hospitalizações por ICFEp em relação à ICFEr. O estudo também demonstrou que fatores antropométricos, história prévia de distúrbios cardiometabólicos e tabagismo foram associados a um risco elevado de ICFEp e, em geral, as mesmas características foram sugestivas de risco elevado de ICFEr, indicando que os sobreviventes de câncer de mama são afetados por fatores de risco convencionais para subtipos de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na literatura até o momento, pouca atenção tem sido dada à ICFEp em sobreviventes de câncer de mama,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> potencialmente devido ao diagnóstico de IC ser amplamente baseado em medidas de FEVE que podem perder os casos de ICFEp, e sintomas associados de ICFEp, como falta de ar, podem ser atribuídos a efeitos colaterais da quimioterapia/radioterapia ou descondicionamento em vez de ICFEp. Na maioria dos ensaios clínicos de câncer de mama e cardioproteção o foco do monitoramento durante o tratamento baseou-se na FEVE, em vez de uma visão mais holística da função cardíaca que incorpora parâmetros diastólicos além da função sistólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Do mesmo modo do que foi observado em estudos populacionais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> o estudo observou uma maior incidência de ICFEp nessa população idosa de sobreviventes de câncer de mama. Apesar de um risco maior de ICFEp em mulheres idosas, o fenótipo ICFEp continua sendo um componente pouco estudado após o câncer de mama. No entanto, a ICFEp contribui para uma proporção igual de hospitalizações como ICFEr e um risco igualmente aumentado de mortalidade a longo prazo após o diagnóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Os fatores de risco para IC foram muito semelhantes ao da população geral, com exceção de infarto do miocárdio prévio para ICFEp. Notavelmente, tanto a circunferência da cintura quanto o tabagismo representam fatores potencialmente modificáveis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Biomarcadores na predição e diagnóstico da ICFEp em pacientes com câncer</title>
					<p>As terapias usadas no tratamento do câncer, principalmente antraciclínicos e trastuzumabe, podem causar danos ao coração. A maioria dos estudos tem focado na disfunção assintomática do ventrículo esquerdo causada por esses agentes e na ICFEr. No entanto, apesar de pouco reconhecido, esses tratamentos podem causar danos cardíacos, vasculares e metabólicos que podem evoluir com ICFEp. Essa pode ocorrer como manifestação inicial e depois evoluir para ICFEr ou mesmo ser a única manifestação, durante o tratamento ou meses após o tratamento, em sobreviventes de câncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Além disso, devido à presença de comorbidades e ao efeito direto do próprio câncer, esses pacientes têm risco basal aumentado de desenvolver ICFEp (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Mecanismos envolvidos no desenvolvimento da ICFEp em pacientes com câncer. A ICFEp pode ser causada pelo tratamento quimioterápico ou radioterápico levando a alterações diastólicas, podendo estar associadas a doença arterial coronariana e fibrilação atrial. Além disso, o paciente pode ter ICFEp antes mesmo do início do tratamento, devido a comorbidades comuns ao câncer e à ICFEp e também por ação direta do próprio câncer sobre o miocárdio. ICFEp: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada; VEGF: fator de crescimento endotelial vascular.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0343-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Biomarcadores são substâncias secretadas na circulação ou na urina que nos dão informações precoces sobre diagnóstico e prognóstico em uma determinada condição. Nessa seção, vamos abordar os principais biomarcadores envolvidos na predição de ICFEp e de seu prognóstico, incluindo os biomarcadores cardíacos clássicos – troponinas e peptídeos natriuréticos – e biomarcadores sistêmicos, não cardíacos, relacionados tanto ao câncer quanto ao aparelho cardiovascular. Esses biomarcadores tem sido bastante estudados na predição da disfunção sistólica e ICFEr, mas estão relacionados também ao desenvolvimento de ICFEp.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Biomarcadores cardíacos no câncer</title>
					<p>Os biomarcadores cardíacos podem ser usados de diversas formas no manuseio do paciente com câncer: 1) antes do início do tratamento do câncer, como preditores de complicações cardíacas durante o tratamento; 2) no monitoramento durante o tratamento do câncer, para detectar precocemente a cardiotoxicidade; e 3) em pacientes sobreviventes do câncer, para monitorar a cardiotoxicidade em longo prazo.</p>
					<sec>
						<title>Troponinas cardíacas</title>
						<p>As troponinas cardíacas T e I são os marcadores padrão-ouro de infarto agudo do miocárdio. No entanto, as troponinas cardíacas, principalmente as de alta sensibilidade, podem estar elevadas em situações não relacionadas a outras agressões miocárdicas que não a isquemia, por exemplo, na injúria miocárdica. Elas são o principal marcador usado para detectar cardiotoxicidade na cardio-oncologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Podem detectar alterações miocárdicas subclínicas precoces, que podem orientar na prevenção da disfunção sistólica irreversível.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Além disso, podem predizer o risco de cardiotoxicidade antes do tratamento para câncer ser iniciado. A presença de comorbidades cardiovasculares, alterações sistêmicas como a inflamação e estresse oxidativo, e os efeitos do próprio câncer sobre o coração, podem provocar elevações de biomarcadores cardíacos, indicando maior risco de toxicidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Em um estudo com 452 pacientes portadoras de câncer de mama, virgens de tratamento, a dosagem basal de troponinas T e I foi preditora de risco aumentado para desenvolver disfunção miocárdica com o tratamento com trastuzumab.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> No entanto, não há estudos específicos para a predição de ICFEp.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Peptídeos natriuréticos</title>
						<p>Peptídeos natriuréticos podem estar aumentados em pacientes com câncer sob tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Em um estudo em 40 mulheres com câncer (37 com câncer de mama, 2 com linfoma e 1 com sarcoma) tratadas com doxorrubicina, o BNP alterou-se precocemente nas pacientes que desenvolveram disfunção sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo, sendo que nenhuma desenvolveu IC clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Interessante observar que os parâmetros de função diastólica do ventrículo esquerdo ao ecocardiograma também se alteraram precocemente, porém o BNP foi o único marcador que se correlacionou com a dose cumulativa de doxorrubicina. Embora os valores de peptídeos natriuréticos possam se elevar com o tratamento do câncer, é descrito que as próprias células cancerosas podem secretar BNP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Níveis basais de peptídeos natriuréticos, antes do início do tratamento do câncer, estão associados à progressão e à gravidade do câncer. Em um estudo de Pavo et al., com 555 pacientes com diagnóstico primário de câncer e sem tratamento prévio, NT-proBNP, assim como outros marcadores (troponinas, proteína C-reativa, copeptina, IL-6, entre outros), elevaram-se de acordo com o estadiamento do tumor e foram preditores de mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Biomarcadores oncológicos e marcadores inflamatórios</title>
						<p>Vários biomarcadores associados ao câncer são utilizados como marcadores diagnóstico e prognóstico nessa doença. Muitos deles associam-se à gravidade cardiovascular, por exemplo, a classe funcional da New York Heart Association, e a desfechos de mortalidade cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Além disso, correlacionam-se com níveis de peptídeos natriuréticos. Entre os marcadores oncológicos e marcadores inflamatórios, podemos citar o CA125, CEA, galectina-3, GDF-15, PIGF, CHIP, IL-1, IL-6 e IL-8, proteína C-reativa, TNF-a, ST2 e mieloperoxidase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 4</xref> mostra a relação bidirecional entre câncer e coração, com biomarcadores cardíacos predizendo complicações cardíacas do câncer e biomarcadores inflamatórios e relacionados ao câncer prognosticando o próprio câncer e complicações cardíacas.</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f04002">
								<label>Figura 4</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Relação bidirecional entre o coração e câncer. Biomarcadores cardíacos avaliam o impacto do câncer e seus tratamentos no coração e biomarcadores de câncer e inflamatórios, que são também preditores da gravidade cardiovascular no câncer.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0343-gf04-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Perspectivas de biomarcadores na ICFEp</title>
						<p>A maioria dos estudos até o momento tem avaliado o papel dos biomarcadores para predizer disfunção sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo ou desfechos de mortalidade. Não há estudos específicos na predição de ICFEp. No entanto, estudos em andamento podem vir a identificar marcadores úteis nessa relação bidirecional entre DCV e câncer, incluindo ICFEp basal ou adquirida após tratamento do câncer.</p>
						<p>Um estudo recente identificou um biomarcador de colágeno do tipo XXVIII que pode futuramente ter algum papel. O colágeno XXVIII foi recentemente descrito e situa-se na interface entre a membrana basal e a matriz intersticial, podendo estar envolvido no reparo tecidual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Reese-Petersen et al. desenvolveram uma técnica de ELISA que consegue detectar o fragmento C-terminal do colágeno XXVIII, chamado de PRO-C28. Eles observaram que esse biomarcador está elevado na ICFEp e em pacientes com vários tipos de câncer em comparação a indivíduos sadios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Essa elevação foi mais significativa no câncer de pulmão, onde a área sob a curva foi de 98% para diferenciar indivíduos com câncer de indivíduos sadios. Além disso, o PRO-C28 se correlacionou com os níveis de NT-proBNP. Estudos futuros devem estabelecer a utilidade desse novo marcador na predição de ICFEp em pacientes com câncer e seu papel prognóstico.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Papel dos biomarcadores no diagnóstico da ICFEp no paciente com câncer</title>
						<p>O diagnóstico da ICFEp no paciente com câncer é feito da mesma forma que no paciente sem câncer, embora não haja validação em estudos específicos nessa população. De um modo geral, caracteriza-se ICFEp em pacientes com sinais e sintomas de IC, alterações estruturais cardíacas na presença de fração de ejeção ≥ 50% e elevação de peptídeos natriuréticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> Dois escores de risco podem ser usados no diagnóstico da ICFEp – o escore H2FPEF e o escore HFA-PEFF (da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia). O escore HFA-PEFF utiliza peptídeos natriuréticos no seu fluxograma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> Os passos detalhados para o diagnóstico da ICFEp estão além do escopo dessa revisão, mas podem ser encontradas na Diretriz Brasileira de Insuficiência Cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Inibidores imunológicos e ICFEp</title>
						<p>Os inibidores de checkpoint imunológico (ICI) representam um tratamento inovador para um grande número de tipos de câncer. Os ICIs são prescritos para tumores primários e para metástases bem como terapia adjuvante e neoadjuvante. Os ICIs tornam-se tóxicos porque levam a processos autoimunes que afetam todos os órgãos. Em relação ao coração, notou-se que está levando à IC aguda com FEVE preservada ou reduzida e até mesmo à morte por diversos mecanismos, como: miocardite, pericardite, arritmia e cardiomiopatia de takotsubo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Portanto, há uma necessidade de métodos aprimorados para detecção e estratificação de risco de cardiopatias associadas ao uso de ICIs e entre elas a miocardite. O estudo de Awadalla et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> em pacientes em uso de ICIs mostrou que nos pacientes que desenvolveram miocardite o ECG alterado foi observado em 89% dos pacientes, a elevação do NT-proBNP em 66% e somente 49% dos pacientes tinham a FEVE menor que 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup></p>
						<p>O estudo mostrou que entre os pacientes com miocardite devido ao uso de ICI, o strain longitudinal global, que é um marcador sensível de cardiotoxicidade entre os pacientes que recebem quimioterapia padrão, é menor entre os pacientes que apresentam a FEVE preservada e reduzida. No seguimento desses pacientes, a diminuição do strain longitudinal global está fortemente associada a eventos cardíacos adversos maiores na miocardite devido ao uso de ICI e, mais importante, entre aqueles com FEVE preservada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Assim, para identificar o envolvimento miocárdio e estabelecer o risco de ICFEp, o strain longitudinal global é útil na monitorização de pacientes com câncer que recebem terapia com ICIs.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Imagem na ICFEp associada ao câncer</title>
						<p>A detecção da ICFEp associada ao câncer está relacionada às síndromes cardio-oncológicas do tipo I, II e V de De Boer et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref>) anteriormente citadas nesse artigo e o diagnóstico por imagem desse fenótipo de IC tem no ecocardiograma transtorácico compreensivo a sua mais utilizada ferramenta, fornecendo informações sobre 3 fenômenos básicos que devem ser detectados:</p>
						<list list-type="order">
							<list-item>
								<p>Presença de função sistólica global normal ou muito discretamente diminuída;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Remodelamento atrioventricular, incluindo dilatação atrial esquerda e das câmaras direitas, mas não incluindo dilatação ventricular esquerda;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Disfunção diastólica determinando sobrecarga à circulação pulmonar.</p>
							</list-item>
						</list>
						<p>Nesse contexto, segundo a mais recente Diretriz de Cardio-oncologia da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> os respectivos índices ultrassonográficos sugeridos são:</p>
						<list list-type="order">
							<list-item>
								<p>FEVE estimada por método tri ou bidimensional;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Dimensões, volumes das câmaras e massa cardíaca corrigidos pela superfície corporal;</p>
							</list-item>
							<list-item>
								<p>Velocidades E e A de influxo diastólico no ventrículo esquerdo, velocidades e’ e a’ de deslocamento diastólico do miocárdio, a razão E/e’ de estimativa da pressão diastólica no ventrículo esquerdo, a taxa de deformação do miocárdio (<italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global) e a estimativa da pressão pulmonar, traduzindo a repercussão das pressões nas câmaras esquerdas na circulação pulmonar (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
								<p>
									<fig id="f05002">
										<label>Figura 5</label>
										<caption>
											<title>– Índices ecocardiográficos para detecção e seguimento de pacientes com ICFEp e câncer. AD: átrio direito; AE: átrio esquerdo; E/e’: razão entre a velocidade de enchimento precoce do VE e o deslocamento diastólico precoce do anel mitral; PAP: pressão pulmonar sistólica; S’: velocidade sistólica pela técnica de Doppler tissular; SC: superfície corporal; strain: percentual de deformação miocárdica; TAPSE: deslocamento diastólico do anel da valva tricúspide; VAEi: volume atrial esquerdo indexado pela superfície corporal; VD: ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VTR: velocidade de regurgitação tricúspide.</title>
										</caption>
										<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-04-0343-gf05-pt.tif"/>
									</fig>
								</p>
							</list-item>
						</list>
						<p>Outros parâmetros relativos à função ventricular direita, valvas cardíacas e pericárdio também são sugeridos para o exame basal pré-terapia para a neoplasia específica e seu seguimento.</p>
						<p>Na avaliação pré-terapia oncológica, os índices FEVE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> e <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal são os principais balizadores basais e também para seguimento de cardiotoxicidade aos oncoterápicos e, principalmente, em pacientes que já apresentam o diagnóstico de ICFEp, o <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal é um preditor mais sensível do que a fração de ejeção. Em pacientes de uma série de casos de 2.234 pacientes em pré-terapia com antracíclicos, destacaram-se como preditores independentes de eventos cardíacos maiores, além do <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal, também o volume diastólico final do ventrículo esquerdo indexado pela superfície corporal (VDFVE/SC). Quando comparadas, as médias de <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal dos pacientes que apresentaram o evento foram menores (−17,8% ± 2,5% versus −16% ± 2,5%; p = 0,0015) e as médias de VDFVE/SC foram maiores em pacientes que desenvolveram eventos (53 ± 12 ml/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> versus 61 ± 5 ml/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>; p = 0,02). O interessante nesse estudo foi a não significância da FEVE como preditor de risco nesse tipo de população com função sistólica preservada (54% ± 3% versus 53% ± 3%; p = 0,27).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> Portanto, sob o ponto de vista de prevenção de risco, a determinação de <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal inicial com o uso da técnica <italic>speckle tracking</italic> está bem embasada e é recomendada, particularmente em pacientes com moderado ou alto risco de desenvolvimento de toxicidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A disfunção diastólica no exame pré-tratamento oncoterápico pode estar associada a um maior risco de disfunção sistólica. Upshaw et al. detectaram, em uma população de participantes submetidos a tratamento para câncer de mama, que a disfunção diastólica se associou a diminuição subsequente na FEVE (2,1%; intervalo de confiança de 95%: 3,1 a 1,2; p &lt; 0,001) e piora no <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal (0,6%; intervalo de confiança de 95%: 0,1 a 1,1; p = 0,013) ao longo do tempo. Alterações em E/e’ não foram contundentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Sob o ponto de vista contemporâneo, o último consenso sobre cardio-oncologia que foi publicado esse ano recomenda em classe I de indicação: a) o ecocardiograma como modalidade de primeira linha para avaliação de função em pacientes com câncer; b) o ecocardiograma tridimensional como modalidade ecocardiográfica preferida para medir; c) <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal, se disponível, em todos os pacientes com câncer; d) o ecocardiograma compreensivo em todos os pacientes com câncer de alto risco e muito alto risco de toxicidade cardiovascular antes de iniciar o tratamento antineoplásico.</p>
						<p>Outros exames de imagem também podem ser úteis no binômio ICFEp e câncer. A tomografia computadorizada de tórax ou a ressonância magnética cardíaca podem elucidar imagens de pacientes com janelas acústicas difíceis, identificar doença isquêmica subclínica e massas intracardíacas. Exames funcionais provocadores de isquemia são importantes também no paciente com ICFEp e elevada probabilidade pré-teste para doença aterosclerótica importante, especialmente em pacientes com necessidade de tratamento com fármacos com toxicidade vascular como as fluoropirimidinas, inibidores do fator de crescimento endotelial vascular, inibidores da tirosinoquinase, entre outros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
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				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A síndrome de ICFEp e o câncer têm elevada prevalência, com tendência a crescimento, compartilham faixa etária, fatores de risco e também o fenômeno fisiopatológico, no qual a inflamação tem papel preponderante. Os biomarcadores, sobretudo os peptídeos natriuréticos e a imagem ultrassonográfica são ferramentas fundamentais na detecção diagnóstica e no seguimento. É importante destacar que estamos acompanhando uma enorme evolução nos tratamentos, tanto para a ICFEp, quanto para as doenças neoplásicas, mas verificamos nessa revisão muitas lacunas no conhecimento envolvendo populações que têm a sobreposição das duas condições clínicas.</p>
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					<p>Vinculação acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
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					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
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					<p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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