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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &#x26; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20220070</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20220070</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Viewpoint</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>The Importance of Controlling Comorbidities in HFpEF and How They Influence Disease Evolution</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8585-7940</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Hoffmann</surname><given-names>Conrado Roberto</given-names><suffix>Filho</suffix></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1506-0327</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Duraes</surname><given-names>Andr&#xE9; R.</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6262-4677</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Erzinger</surname><given-names>Gilmar Sidnei</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Regional Hans Dieter Schmidt</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Cardiologia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Joinville</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SC</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Regional Hans Dieter Schmidt &#x2013; Cardiologia, Joinville, SC &#x2013; Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Bahia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#x2013; Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade da Regi&#xE3;o de Joinville (Univille)</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Joinville</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SC</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade da Regi&#xE3;o de Joinville (Univille), Joinville, SC &#x2013; Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Conrado Roberto Hoffmann Filho</bold> &#x2022; Hospital Regional Hans Dieter Schmidt &#x2013; Cardiologia - Rua Blumenau, 294. Postal Code <postal-code>89204-250</postal-code>, Joinville, SC &#x2013; Brasil E-mail: <email>conrado@corsanus.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2022</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<season>Jul-Sep</season>
<year>2022</year></pub-date>
<volume>2</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>322</fpage>
<lpage>325</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received"><day>30</day><month>08</month><year>2022</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd"><day>13</day><month>09</month><year>2022</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>13</day><month>09</month><year>2022</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Comorbidity</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="2"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="16"/>
<page-count count="4"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<p>Heart failure (HF) is a disease with high morbidity and mortality in Brazil and in the world, and HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) accounts for more than half of cases. Effective pharmacological treatment options for HFpEF are scarce, with poor outcomes and an annual mortality of 10 to 30%. Mortality from noncardiovascular causes is high, which is to be expected given the high number of comorbidities <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). The syndromic diagnosis is composed of several etiologies and diseases, each one with a specific treatment but with common aspects regarding clinical presentation.</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Relationship between comorbidities and HFpEF, percentages, and main interventions. ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; AF: atrial fibrillation; ARB: angiotensin receptor blockers; CAD: coronary artery disease; CKD: chronic kidney disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; OSA: obstructive sleep apnea; PAH: pulmonary arterial hypertension; SAH: systemic arterial hypertension; SGLT2i: sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0322-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>An approach based on the different phenotypes of the disease was proposed, which comprises multiple situations experienced by the group of patients with HFpEF. Each phenotype is dependent on the different presentations of comorbidity severity, which constitutes a challenge for the definitive clinical diagnosis of HFpEF by a clinical cardiologist. Diagnostic scores with probabilistic models were developed to facilitate HFpEF diagnosis, using clinical, echocardiographic, and biomarker variables, such as B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N-terminal portion of BNP. A more detailed description of the diagnosis is beyond the scope of this article.</p>
<p>The main comorbidities in HFpEF include systemic arterial hypertension (SAH), obesity, diabetes, atrial fibrillation (AF), chronic kidney disease (CKD), anemia, macro and microvascular coronary artery disease (CAD), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), among others. This population is composed of older patients with an elevated frailty index. Although comorbidities are similar between older patients with and without HFpEF, those with the disease have more symptoms, such as reduced cardiorespiratory fitness and higher rates of obesity. One of the most common symptoms of HFpEF is dyspnea during effort. However, symptoms of poor exercise tolerance are common among older patients and may reflect normal physiological changes related to aging or may be correlated with noncardiac etiologies. Patients with HFpEF commonly have poor quality of life, increased frequency of hospitalizations, and increased mortality, mostly from cardiovascular causes. Regarding drug treatment, the priority is to try to treat current comorbidities with effective therapies, such as renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, aldosterone inhibitors, diuretics to reduce congestion, and, more recently, sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors. Despite the available treatments, hospital readmission rates can reach 20% in 30 days and up to 50% in 1 year.</p>
<p>When treating specific comorbidities, the way they interact with HFpEF and with the treatment should be taken into consideration. SAH is one of the most common comorbidities in HFpEF and is closely involved in HFpEF development and progression. Changes in the ventricular wall, passive stiffness, ventricular-arterial coupling, systolic reserve, and chronotropic response occur. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> SAH treatment is a cornerstone of HFpEF treatment and is associated with regression of left ventricular hypertrophy and improvement of diastolic function. Unfortunately, none of the therapies used to lower blood pressure resulted in reduced mortality in HFpEF.</p>
<p>Patients with HFpEF are 4.5 times more likely to develop COPD than age-matched controls. Patients with COPD have worse symptoms and a greater number of fatal and nonfatal outcomes independently.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Approximately 20% of patients with HF also have COPD and vice-versa. Importantly, the adequate treatment of one disease reduces the morbidity and mortality of the other.</p>
<p>Myocardial ischemia causes systolic and diastolic dysfunction and is part of the pathophysiology of HFpEF. A study with patients with HFpEF identified that most of them had chronic epicardial coronary disease, whereas more than 80% of the remaining patients had microcirculatory dysfunction, highlighting the high burden of unrecognized CAD in HFpEF. Results from the Prevalence of Microvascular Dysfunction in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction (PROMIS-HFpEF) study showed a high prevalence of microvascular dysfunction in patients with HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Myocardial ischemia without obstructive CAD in women increases the risk of major cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Observational studies with patients with microvascular dysfunction have shown that long-term outcomes are marked by hospitalizations due to HFpEF.</p>
<p>In older people, the main clinical manifestation of HFpEF is exercise intolerance, usually of multifactorial cause, in which several comorbidities act together to trigger the clinical condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Pulmonary hypertension is a very prevalent condition in HFpEF that remains without adequate treatment. Pulmonary vascular remodeling in advanced HFpEF was found to be very similar to vascular remodeling in pulmonary arterial hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Both diseases seem to arise at the peripheral level at the systemic and pulmonary vascular beds. At the vascular bed, remodeling is induced by reduced nitric oxide availability, whereas at the pulmonary level, the increased pressure results in vasoconstriction and reduced compliance, mediated by cyclic guanosine monophosphate reduction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Anemia occurs in approximately 50% of patients with HF, and lower hemoglobin levels are independently associated with decreased physical capacity, with consequent worsening of quality of life and increased adverse outcomes. In the Phosphodiesterase-5 Inhibition to Improve Clinical Status and Exercise Capacity in Diastolic Heart Failure (RELAX) trial, patients with anemia and HFpEF had higher levels of biomarkers (NT-proBNP), increased oxidative stress, and increased markers of necrosis. Iron deficiency and low ferritin values were associated with more severe left ventricular systolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Hypoxia-induced OSA stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and the RAAS as a result of alteration and oxidative stress, maintaining a systemic inflammatory state.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The final process pathway consists of alterations in collagen and cardiac titin, with the development of myocardial fibrosis and stiffening, leading to HFpEF progression. OSA treatment improved some surrogate outcomes, but there were no improvements in hard outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Approximately 65% of patients with HFpEF have AF, and both conditions share similar risk factors. The worsening of left ventricular dysfunction is followed by remodeling and fibrosis of the left atrium, increasing the arrhythmogenic substrate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Interestingly, the risk factors for HFpEF are identical to triggers of arrhythmia substrate. Atrial fibrillation increases the risk of readmission due to HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>Obesity is very prevalent among patients with HFpEF. In the Irbesartan in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction (I-PRESERVE) study, approximately 83% of patients were overweight or had obesity. The mechanisms proposed for patients with obesity include systemic inflammation, sodium retention, neurohormonal changes, and pulmonary hypertension. Proper diagnosis of HFpEF in euvolemic patients with obesity and unexplained dyspnea is difficult, especially because natriuretic peptides levels may be low and the echocardiographic window may be of poor technical quality in this group.</p>
<p>The paradox of obesity leading to a reduced risk of adverse events is debatable<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> and could be better assessed if waist circumference, which is a more direct marker of central adiposity, was used instead of body mass index in HFpEF with obesity.</p>
<p>Diabetes is a highly prevalent comorbidity, affecting 45% of patients with HFpEF. This group of patients often has more congestion and worse renal function, with an inadequate response to diuretics, elevated inflammatory markers, and an increased readmission rate within 30 days. New studies of diabetes and HFpEF have shown important results in hard outcomes, especially with the use of SGLT2 inhibitors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Renal dysfunction may trigger HFpEF. Approximately 50% of patients with HFpEF have CKD. Patients with CKD have impaired levels of diastolic function compared with those without CKD. A meta-analysis of more than 1 million patients with established HF reported higher rates of mortality among patients with HFpEF and CKD than among patients with HF with reduced ejection fraction and CKD. The opposite is also true: increased filling pressures and reduced cardiac output increase central venous pressure, leading to reduced renal flow and consequent worsening of renal function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> The good outcomes of SGLT2 studies, with improvement of renal function and HF, promote the possibility of a joint treatment for these conditions for the populations in question.</p>
<p>The lack of a HFpEF diagnosis is related to poor knowledge, uncertainty about pathophysiology and treatment, and more specific diagnostic criteria. Understanding the actual pathophysiological aspects of the disease, with a focus on optimizing the treatment of comorbidities, should significantly improve disease outcomes.</p>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Conrado Roberto Hoffmann Filho, from Universidade da Regi&#xE3;o de Joinville.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn></fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Ponto de Vista</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>A Import&#xE2;ncia do Controle das Comorbidades na ICFEP e como Elas Influenciam a Evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da Doen&#xE7;a</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8585-7940</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Hoffmann</surname><given-names>Conrado Roberto</given-names><suffix>Filho</suffix></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<role>An&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role>
<role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1506-0327</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Duraes</surname><given-names>Andr&#xE9; R.</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<role>An&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role>
<role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>2</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6262-4677</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Erzinger</surname><given-names>Gilmar Sidnei</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<role>An&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role>
<role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Joinville</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SC</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital Regional Hans Dieter Schmidt &#x2013; Cardiologia, Joinville, SC &#x2013; Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#x2013; Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Joinville</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SC</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade da Regi&#xE3;o de Joinville (Univille), Joinville, SC &#x2013; Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Conrado Roberto Hoffmann Filho</bold> &#x2022; Hospital Regional Hans Dieter Schmidt &#x2013; Cardiologia - Rua Blumenau, 294. CEP <postal-code>89204-250</postal-code>, Joinville, SC - Brasil E-mail: <email>conrado@corsanus.com.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Comorbidade</kwd>
<kwd>Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca</kwd>
<kwd>Hipertens&#xE3;o</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<p>A insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC) &#xE9; uma doen&#xE7;a com alta morbimortalidade no Brasil e no mundo, sendo que a IC com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o preservada (ICFEP) corresponde a mais da metade dos casos dessa doen&#xE7;a. As op&#xE7;&#xF5;es de tratamentos farmacol&#xF3;gicos eficazes para ICFEP s&#xE3;o escassas, com desfechos ruins e mortalidade anual de 10 a 30%. A mortalidade por causas n&#xE3;o cardiovasculares &#xE9; alta, fato esperado em virtude do elevado n&#xFA;mero de comorbidades<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>). O diagn&#xF3;stico sindr&#xF4;mico &#xE9; composto por diversas etiologias e doen&#xE7;as, cada uma com um tratamento espec&#xED;fico, mas com pontos em comum no que tange &#xE0; maneira da apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica.</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o de comorbidades com ICFEP, percentuais e principais interven&#xE7;&#xF5;es. AOS: apneia obstrutiva do sono; BRA: bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina DAC: doen&#xE7;a arterial coronariana; DM: diabetes melito; DPOC: doen&#xE7;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#xF4;nica; DRC: doen&#xE7;a renal cr&#xF4;nica; FA: fibrila&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial; HAP: hipertens&#xE3;o arterial pulmonar; HAS: hipertens&#xE3;o arterial sist&#xEA;mica; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina; ISGLT2: inibidores do cotransportador de s&#xF3;dio-glicose tipo 2.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0322-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Foi proposta uma abordagem baseada nos diferentes fen&#xF3;tipos da doen&#xE7;a, que comp&#xF5;e m&#xFA;ltiplas situa&#xE7;&#xF5;es representadas pelo grupo de pacientes da ICFEP. Cada fen&#xF3;tipo &#xE9; dependente da presen&#xE7;a em diferentes apresenta&#xE7;&#xF5;es de gravidade das comorbidades, o que torna o diagn&#xF3;stico cl&#xED;nico definitivo de ICFEP um desafio para o cardiologista cl&#xED;nico. Escores diagn&#xF3;sticos com modelos probabil&#xED;sticos foram desenvolvidos para facilitar o diagn&#xF3;stico dessa patologia, utilizando-se vari&#xE1;veis cl&#xED;nicas, ecocardiogr&#xE1;ficas e de biomarcadores, como o pept&#xED;deo natriur&#xE9;tico tipo B (BNP) e a por&#xE7;&#xE3;o N-terminal do BNP (NT-proBNP). Um detalhamento maior do diagn&#xF3;stico foge do escopo deste artigo.</p>
<p>As principais comorbidades presentes na ICFEP s&#xE3;o hipertens&#xE3;o arterial sist&#xEA;mica (HAS), obesidade, diabetes melito (DM), fibrila&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial (FA), doen&#xE7;a renal cr&#xF4;nica (DRC), anemia, doen&#xE7;a arterial coronariana (DAC) macro e microvascular, doen&#xE7;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#xF4;nica (DPOC) e apneia obstrutiva do sono (AOS), entre outras. Essa popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o ainda &#xE9; composta de pacientes idosos e com maior &#xED;ndice de fragilidade. Apesar de as comorbidades serem semelhantes entre estes indiv&#xED;duos com e sem ICFEP, aqueles com a doen&#xE7;a apresentam mais sintomas, como aptid&#xE3;o cardiorrespirat&#xF3;ria reduzida e maior &#xED;ndice de obesidade. Um dos sintomas mais comuns da ICFEP &#xE9; a dispneia ao esfor&#xE7;o. Todavia, sintomas de baixa toler&#xE2;ncia ao esfor&#xE7;o s&#xE3;o comuns em idosos e podem refletir altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es fisiol&#xF3;gicas normais relacionadas ao envelhecimento ou estarem correlacionados a etiologias n&#xE3;o card&#xED;acas. Pacientes com ICFEP comumente apresentam baixa qualidade de vida, aumento na frequ&#xEA;ncia de interna&#xE7;&#xF5;es e aumento da mortalidade, principalmente por causas cardiovasculares. Em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o ao tratamento medicamentoso, a prioridade &#xE9; tentar tratar as comorbidades presentes com terapias efetivas, que incluem inibidores do sistema renina angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA), bloqueadores de canal de c&#xE1;lcio, inibidores da aldosterona, diur&#xE9;ticos para reduzir a congest&#xE3;o e, mais recentemente, os antagonistas do cotransportador de s&#xF3;dio-glicose tipo 2 (SGLT2). Apesar dos tratamentos, as taxas de reinterna&#xE7;&#xE3;o hospitalar podem chegar a 20% em 30 dias e at&#xE9; 50% em 1 ano.</p>
<p>No tratamento das comorbidades espec&#xED;ficas, devemos lembrar da intera&#xE7;&#xE3;o delas com a ICFEP e seu tratamento. A mais frequente dessas comorbidades &#xE9; a HAS, que est&#xE1; intimamente envolvida com o desenvolvimento e a progress&#xE3;o da ICFEP. Ocorrem altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es na parede ventricular, na rigidez passiva, no acoplamento ventricular arterial, na resposta cronotr&#xF3;pica e na reserva sist&#xF3;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> O tratamento da HAS &#xE9; uma pedra angular do tratamento dessa patologia, estando relacionada a regress&#xE3;o da hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e melhoria da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica. Infelizmente, nenhuma das terapias utilizadas para a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o arterial resultou em redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de mortalidade na ICFEP.</p>
<p>A DPOC est&#xE1; presente 4,5 vezes mais na ICFEP do que em controles pareados para idade. Pacientes com DPOC apresentam sintomas piores e um n&#xFA;mero maior de desfechos fatais e n&#xE3;o fatais de forma independente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A propor&#xE7;&#xE3;o de DPOC em pacientes com IC &#xE9; de aproximadamente 20%, e o reverso &#xE9; id&#xEA;ntico. Vale ressaltar que o tratamento adequado de uma patologia reduz a morbimortalidade da outra.</p>
<p>A isquemia mioc&#xE1;rdica causa disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica e diast&#xF3;lica, participando da fisiopatologia de ICFEP. Em um estudo de pacientes com ICFEP, a maioria apresentava doen&#xE7;a coronariana cr&#xF4;nica epic&#xE1;rdica e, entre os restantes, mais de 80% apresentavam doen&#xE7;a de microcircula&#xE7;&#xE3;o, ressaltando a alta carga de DAC n&#xE3;o reconhecida na ICFEP. Resultados do estudo <italic>Prevalence of Microvascular Dysfunction in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection</italic> (PROMIS-HFPEF) evidenciaram alta preval&#xEA;ncia de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o microvascular em pacientes com ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A isquemia mioc&#xE1;rdica sem doen&#xE7;a arterial coronariana obstrutiva em mulheres aumenta o risco de eventos cardiovasculares maiores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Estudos observacionais em indiv&#xED;duos com disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o microvascular demonstraram que, em acompanhamento longo, os desfechos s&#xE3;o marcados por interna&#xE7;&#xF5;es por ICFEP.</p>
<p>Nos idosos, a principal manifesta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica da ICFEP &#xE9; a intoler&#xE2;ncia ao exerc&#xED;cio, habitualmente de causa multifatorial, em que diversas comorbidades agem conjuntamente para o desencadeamento do quadro cl&#xED;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>A hipertens&#xE3;o pulmonar &#xE9; uma condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o muito prevalente na ICFEP, ainda sem um tratamento adequado. Percebeu-se que o remodelamento vascular pulmonar na ICFEP de grau avan&#xE7;ado &#xE9; muito semelhante ao da hipertens&#xE3;o arterial pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> As duas doen&#xE7;as parecem iniciar em n&#xED;vel perif&#xE9;rico nos territ&#xF3;rios vasculares sist&#xEA;micos e pulmonares. No territ&#xF3;rio sist&#xEA;mico, por redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da disponibilidade de &#xF3;xido n&#xED;trico (NO); na vasculatura pulmonar, o aumento de press&#xE3;o resulta em vasoconstri&#xE7;&#xE3;o e redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de complac&#xEA;ncia mediada pela redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do monofosfato de guanosina c&#xED;clico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>A anemia ocorre em cerca de 50% dos pacientes com IC, e os n&#xED;veis mais baixos de hemoglobina est&#xE3;o associados de forma independente com a diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o de capacidade f&#xED;sica, com consequente piora de qualidade de vida e aumento de desfechos adversos. No estudo <italic>Phosphodiesterase-5 Inhibition to Improve Clinical Status and Exercise Capacity in Diastolic Heart Failure</italic> (RELAX), pacientes com anemia e ICFEP apresentaram valores elevados de biomarcadores (NT-proBNP), aumento do estresse oxidativo e eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o de marcadores de necrose. Defici&#xEA;ncia de ferro e valores baixos de ferritina foram associados com disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica mais grave do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>A AOS induzida por hipoxia causa estimula&#xE7;&#xE3;o do sistema nervoso simp&#xE1;tico e do SRAA, resultante de altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o e estresse oxidativo, com manuten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de um estado inflamat&#xF3;rio sist&#xEA;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A via final do processo consiste na altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o do col&#xE1;geno e da titina mioc&#xE1;rdica, com desenvolvimento de fibrose e enrijecimento mioc&#xE1;rdicos, levando &#xE0; progress&#xE3;o da ICFEP. O tratamento da AOS obteve melhora em alguns desfechos substitutos, por&#xE9;m sem melhora em desfechos duros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Cerca de 65% de pacientes com ICFEP apresentam FA, sendo que ambas as condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es compartilham fatores de risco semelhantes. A piora da disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular esquerda &#xE9; seguida por remodelamento e fibrose do &#xE1;trio esquerdo, aumentando o substrato arritmog&#xEA;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> De maneira peculiar, os fatores de risco para ICFEP s&#xE3;o id&#xEA;nticos aos desencadeadores do substrato para arritmias. A fibrila&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial aumenta o risco de reinterna&#xE7;&#xE3;o por ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>A obesidade &#xE9; uma entidade muito prevalente na popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o com ICFEP. No estudo <italic>Irbesartan in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</italic> (I-PRESERVE), cerca de 83% dos pacientes tinham sobrepeso ou obesidade. Os mecanismos propostos nos pacientes obesos incluem inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xEA;mica, reten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de s&#xF3;dio, altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es neuro-hormonais e hipertens&#xE3;o pulmonar. O diagn&#xF3;stico adequado de ICFEP em obesos euvol&#xEA;micos com dispneia inexplicada &#xE9; dif&#xED;cil, principalmente porque, nesse grupo, os valores de pept&#xED;deos natriur&#xE9;ticos podem estar baixos e a janela ecocardiogr&#xE1;fica pode ser de m&#xE1; qualidade t&#xE9;cnica.</p>
<p>O paradoxo de a obesidade levar &#xE0; redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do risco de eventos adversos &#xE9; discut&#xED;vel<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> e poderia ser mais bem avaliado se fosse utilizada a circunfer&#xEA;ncia abdominal, que &#xE9; um marcador mais direto de adiposidade central, no lugar do &#xED;ndice de massa corporal na ICFEP com obesidade.</p>
<p>O DM apresenta-se como uma comorbidade de alta preval&#xEA;ncia, acometendo 45% dos pacientes com ICFEP. Habitualmente, esse grupo de pacientes apresenta mais congest&#xE3;o e pior fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal, com resposta inadequada aos diur&#xE9;ticos, eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o de marcadores inflamat&#xF3;rios e aumento de taxa de readmiss&#xE3;o em 30 dias. Novos estudos em DM e ICFEP t&#xEA;m mostrado resultados importante em desfechos duros, principalmente com a utiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos antagonistas de SGLT2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>A disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal pode desencadear ICFEP. Cerca de 50% dos pacientes com ICFEP tem DRC. Em uma popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o com DRC, o n&#xED;vel de fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica est&#xE1; prejudicado em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o aos pacientes sem DRC. Foi realizada uma metan&#xE1;lise com mais de 1 milh&#xE3;o de pacientes com IC estabelecida, na qual a mortalidade foi maior entre os pacientes com ICFEP e DRC do que entre os pacientes com IC com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o reduzida e DRC. O reverso tamb&#xE9;m &#xE9; verdadeiro: o aumento de press&#xF5;es de enchimento e a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do d&#xE9;bito card&#xED;aco aumentam a press&#xE3;o venosa central, levando &#xE0; redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do fluxo renal e consequente piora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Com os bons resultados dos estudos de SGLT2, com melhora de fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal e IC, surge no horizonte a possibilidade de um tratamento conjunto dessas patologias t&#xE3;o delet&#xE9;rias para as popula&#xE7;&#xF5;es em quest&#xE3;o.</p>
<p>A falta de diagn&#xF3;stico da ICFEP est&#xE1; relacionada &#xE0; falta de conhecimento, a d&#xFA;vidas quanto &#xE0; sua fisiopatologia e ao seu tratamento e a crit&#xE9;rios diagn&#xF3;sticos mais espec&#xED;ficos. O entendimento das reais bases fisiopatol&#xF3;gicas da doen&#xE7;a, com foco na otimiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o do tratamento das comorbidades, deve melhorar significativamente o desfecho da doen&#xE7;a.</p>
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<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo n&#xE3;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
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<p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o acad&#xEA;mica</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo &#xE9; parte de tese de doutorado de Conrado Roberto Hoffmann Filho pela Universidade da Regi&#xE3;o de Joinville.</p></fn>
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<p><bold>Aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9;tica e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo n&#xE3;o cont&#xE9;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
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