<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" article-type="review-article" xml:lang="en">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &#x26; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20220061</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20220061</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Pathophysiological Bases of Pulmonary Hypertension in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction and Implications for Management</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3778-7153</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Freitas</surname><given-names>Aguinaldo F.</given-names> <suffix>Jr.</suffix></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9131-0439</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Frota</surname><given-names>Daniela do Carmo Rassi</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7210-6486</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rassi</surname><given-names>Salvador</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#xE1;s</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Goi&#xE2;nia</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Goi&#xE1;s, Goi&#xE2;nia, GO &#x2013; Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Aguinaldo F. Freitas Jr.</bold> &#x2022; Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas da Universidade Federal de Goi&#xE1;s &#x2013; Primeira avenida, 545, Setor Leste Universit&#xE1;rio. Postal Code <postal-code>74605-020</postal-code>, Servi&#xE7;o de Cardiologia, Goi&#xE2;nia, GO &#x2013; Brazil. E-mail: <email>afreitasjr@msn.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2022</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<season>Jul-Sep</season>
<year>2022</year></pub-date>
<volume>2</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>296</fpage>
<lpage>298</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>12</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>24</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>24</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Pulmonary Hypertension</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>HFpEF</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="0"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="13"/>
<page-count count="3"/></counts></article-meta></front>
<body>
<p>Pulmonary hypertension (PH) associated with left heart disease is classified as group 2, and it encompasses both heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In both diseases, the development of PH is associated with an unfavorable clinical course in the natural history of the disease, and knowledge about its pathophysiology is still uncertain, which may have practical implications from the diagnosis to the treatment of heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Prevalence, definition, and diagnosis</title>
<p>The prevalence of PH in patients with HFpEF is widely heterogeneous, with frequencies ranging from 36% to 81%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> and this is due to the diagnostic means used, to the time of progression of the underlying disease,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> and to the different ejection fraction cut-off points used to define HFpEF. For example, in a subanalysis of the PARAGON study, the prevalence of PH in patients with HFpEF was 31%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Moreover, the different phenotypes of HFpEF may present with a lower or higher degree of PH, depending on the increase in pulmonary vascular resistance, the increase in right atrial pressure, and associated concomitant chronic kidney disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Group 2 PH is defined as mean pulmonary artery pressure &#x3E; 20 mmHg and pulmonary capillary pressure &#x3E; 15 mmHg. Right heart catheterization is considered the gold standard for accurate measurement of pulmonary pressures, and it is valuable in evaluation of the hemodynamic response to physical exertion, providing important information for differentiating between group 2 PH and other etiologies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>However, in clinical practice, the most useful test for diagnosis of PH, regardless of ejection fraction, is Doppler echocardiogram. Although it is examiner-dependent and sensitive to variations in posture and blood volume, estimation of pulmonary artery systolic pressure on Doppler echocardiogram serves both as a diagnostic parameter of HFpEF and as a prognostic parameter in estimating the degree of PH.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Left ventricular dysfunction</title>
<p>The first pathophysiological change observed in HFpEF is impairment of left ventricular relaxation and filling with a consequent increase in left atrial pressure and backward transmission of this elevation to the pulmonary system, initially characterizing pulmonary venocapillary hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction, which are common in hypertension and obesity, play a role in altering left ventricular relaxation. However, the multiple comorbidities that are common in patients with HFpEF also have negative effects on the myocardium, stimulating oxidative stress and hypertrophic pathways.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Paulus and Tschope<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> have proposed a unifying hypothesis to centralize the role of pro-inflammatory pathways in increased proliferation of collagen in myocytes and in the impact on elasticity. In this hypothesis, the high rigidity of the myocardial wall would be sustained by increased titin protein phosphorylation, overexpression of growth factor-&#x3B2; signaling, reduced expression of elastase, high mitochondrial oxidative stress, and epigenetic alterations that definitively impair cellular homeostasis.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Left atrial remodeling and dysfunction</title>
<p>The change in left ventricular relaxation is followed by volume and pressure overload in the left atrium. The left atrium, in turn, is very sensitive to these elevations, and it initiates a process of remodeling and dysfunction, which play a determining role in the elevation of pulmonary pressures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>The left atrium becomes more rigid early and dilates slowly, and this is a peculiar substrate in the induction of atrial fibrillation. Furthermore, the coexistence of other comorbidities and the inflammatory pathways described corroborate atrial remodeling and dysfunction and also contribute to the induction of atrial fibrillation. This phenotype is associated with mitral regurgitation and greater elevation of pulmonary vascular resistance in patients with HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Any increase in left atrial pressure directly influences pulmonary hemodynamics and exacerbates symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Although studies on pulmonary circulation in humans are scarce, some data have revealed that the chronic effects of increased left atrial pressure on the pulmonary vasculature may represent different phenotypes according to the level of left atrial pressure elevation.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Pulmonary artery and venocapillary remodeling</title>
<p>The sustained increase in left atrial pressure is transmitted back to the pulmonary veins, which undergo a remodeling process consisting of luminal narrowing due to increased neointimal thickening and medial hypertrophy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Some studies have shown a direct correlation between pulmonary artery systolic pressure and neointimal thickening, but the necessary trigger for this endothelial dysfunction is not yet known; or be it, we do not know what stage or degree of left atrial pressure elevation would be the necessary trigger for vascular alterations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>The maintenance of high pressure on the pulmonary venocapillary system causes insufficiency of pulmonary capillaries and arterioles, with barotrauma that ruptures the endothelial layer and promotes swelling of fluids and proteins in the interstitium. This edema triggers a cascade of molecular and inflammatory markers that inhibit nitric oxide activity and increase endothelin expression, leading to luminal occlusion and alveolar septal thickening. The progression of this cascade leads to remodeling of the pulmonary arteriolar system and to reduced gas diffusion through the alveolar membrane, which, in the second stage, composes the arterial pattern of PH associated with HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>The impairment of right ventricular function in HFpEF occurs in two ways: 1 &#x2013; the sustained elevation of pulmonary pressures promotes hypertrophy, dilation, functional tricuspid insufficiency, and right ventricular dysfunction; 2 &#x2013; right ventricular diastolic dysfunction and increased stiffness occur before systolic dysfunction, with slower progression to dilation and functional deterioration.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Treatment</title>
<p>There is no specific treatment for group 2 PH, and the use of pulmonary vasodilators is contraindicated. Some experiments have tried, unsuccessfully, to test appropriate therapies for pulmonary arterial hypertension in patients with left ventricular diseases, but they may have run into phenotypic differences in patients with HFpEF.</p>
<p>It is believed that the variability of hemodynamic phenotypes in HFpEF (isolated pre-capillary hypertension or combined pre- and post-capillary hypertension) may interfere with the negative results with respect to the use of vasodilators for group 2 PH.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>PH in HFpEF has similar pathophysiological mechanisms, which are also different from PH in HFrEF. In both situations, the patients&#x2019; prognosis and the natural course of the disease are compromised, and there is no specific treatment for this comorbidity, beyond the already widely known standard treatment for the underlying disease, heart failure.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ref-list>
<title>References</title>
<ref id="B1">
<label>1</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Vachi&#xE9;ry</surname><given-names>JL</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tedford</surname><given-names>RJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rosenkranz</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Palazzini</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lang</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Guazzi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Pulmonary Hypertension Due to Left Heart Disease</article-title>
<source>Eur Respir J</source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>53</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>1801897</fpage>
<lpage>1801897</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1183/13993003.01897-2018</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Vachi&#xE9;ry JL, Tedford RJ, Rosenkranz S, Palazzini M, Lang I, Guazzi M, et al. Pulmonary Hypertension Due to Left Heart Disease. Eur Respir J. 2019;53(1):1801897. doi: 10.1183/13993003.01897-2018.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B2">
<label>2</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Guazzi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Pulmonary Hypertension in Heart Failure Preserved Ejection Fraction: Prevalence, Pathophysiology, and Clinical Perspectives</article-title>
<source>Circ Heart Fail</source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>7</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>367</fpage>
<lpage>377</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.113.000823</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Guazzi M. Pulmonary Hypertension in Heart Failure Preserved Ejection Fraction: Prevalence, Pathophysiology, and Clinical Perspectives. Circ Heart Fail. 2014;7(2):367-77. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.113.000823.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B3">
<label>3</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Guazzi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Borlaug</surname><given-names>BA</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Pulmonary Hypertension Due to Left Heart Disease</article-title>
<source>Circulation</source>
<year>2012</year>
<volume>126</volume>
<issue>8</issue>
<fpage>975</fpage>
<lpage>990</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.085761</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Guazzi M, Borlaug BA. Pulmonary Hypertension Due to Left Heart Disease. Circulation. 2012;126(8):975-90. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.085761.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B4">
<label>4</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Lam</surname><given-names>CS</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Roger</surname><given-names>VL</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Rodeheffer</surname><given-names>RJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Borlaug</surname><given-names>BA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Enders</surname><given-names>FT</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Redfield</surname><given-names>MM</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Pulmonary Hypertension in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Community-Based Study</article-title>
<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
<year>2009</year>
<volume>53</volume>
<issue>13</issue>
<fpage>1119</fpage>
<lpage>1126</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2008.11.051</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Lam CS, Roger VL, Rodeheffer RJ, Borlaug BA, Enders FT, Redfield MM. Pulmonary Hypertension in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Community-Based Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53(13):1119-26. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.11.051.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B5">
<label>5</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Shah</surname><given-names>AM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Cikes</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Prasad</surname><given-names>N</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Li</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Getchevski</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Claggett</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Echocardiographic Features of Patients with Heart Failure and Preserved Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction</article-title>
<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>74</volume>
<issue>23</issue>
<fpage>2858</fpage>
<lpage>2873</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2019.09.063</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Shah AM, Cikes M, Prasad N, Li G, Getchevski S, Claggett B, et al. Echocardiographic Features of Patients with Heart Failure and Preserved Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74(23):2858-73. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.09.063.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B6">
<label>6</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Shah</surname><given-names>SJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Katz</surname><given-names>DH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Selvaraj</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Burke</surname><given-names>MA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Yancy</surname><given-names>CW</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Gheorghiade</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Phenomapping for Novel Classification of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
<source>Circulation</source>
<year>2015</year>
<volume>131</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>269</fpage>
<lpage>279</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.010637</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Shah SJ, Katz DH, Selvaraj S, Burke MA, Yancy CW, Gheorghiade M, et al. Phenomapping for Novel Classification of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. Circulation. 2015;131(3):269-79. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.010637.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B7">
<label>7</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Guazzi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ghio</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Adir</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Pulmonary Hypertension in HFpEF and HFrEF: JACC Review Topic of the Week</article-title>
<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>76</volume>
<issue>9</issue>
<fpage>1102</fpage>
<lpage>1111</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2020.06.069</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Guazzi M, Ghio S, Adir Y. Pulmonary Hypertension in HFpEF and HFrEF: JACC Review Topic of the Week. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(9):1102-11. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.06.069.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B8">
<label>8</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Hieda</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Sarma</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hearon</surname><given-names>CM</given-names><suffix>Jr</suffix></name>
<name><surname>Dias</surname><given-names>KA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Martinez</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Samels</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Increased Myocardial Stiffness in Patients with High-Risk Left Ventricular Hypertrophy: The Hallmark of Stage-B Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
<source>Circulation</source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>141</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>115</fpage>
<lpage>123</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.040332</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Hieda M, Sarma S, Hearon CM Jr, Dias KA, Martinez J, Samels M, et al. Increased Myocardial Stiffness in Patients with High-Risk Left Ventricular Hypertrophy: The Hallmark of Stage-B Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction. Circulation. 2020;141(2):115-23. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.040332.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B9">
<label>9</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Paulus</surname><given-names>WJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Tsch&#xF6;pe</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>A Novel Paradigm for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: Comorbidities Drive Myocardial Dysfunction and Remodeling Through Coronary Microvascular Endothelial Inflammation</article-title>
<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
<year>2013</year>
<volume>62</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<fpage>263</fpage>
<lpage>271</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2013.02.092</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Paulus WJ, Tsch&#xF6;pe C. A Novel Paradigm for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction: Comorbidities Drive Myocardial Dysfunction and Remodeling Through Coronary Microvascular Endothelial Inflammation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;62(4):263-71. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2013.02.092.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B10">
<label>10</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Zakeri</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Moulay</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Chai</surname><given-names>Q</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Ogut</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hussain</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Takahama</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Remodeling and Atrioventricular Coupling in a Canine Model of Early Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
<source>Circ Heart Fail</source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>9</volume>
<issue>10</issue>
<elocation-id>e003238</elocation-id>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.115.003238</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Zakeri R, Moulay G, Chai Q, Ogut O, Hussain S, Takahama H, et al. Left Atrial Remodeling and Atrioventricular Coupling in a Canine Model of Early Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. Circ Heart Fail. 2016;9(10):e003238. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.115.003238.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B11">
<label>11</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Packer</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lam</surname><given-names>CSP</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Lund</surname><given-names>LH</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Redfield</surname><given-names>MM</given-names></name>
</person-group>
<article-title>Interdependence of Atrial Fibrillation and Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction Reflects a Common Underlying Atrial and Ventricular Myopathy</article-title>
<source>Circulation</source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>141</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>4</fpage>
<lpage>6</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.042996</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Packer M, Lam CSP, Lund LH, Redfield MM. Interdependence of Atrial Fibrillation and Heart Failure with a Preserved Ejection Fraction Reflects a Common Underlying Atrial and Ventricular Myopathy. Circulation. 2020;141(1):4-6. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.042996.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B12">
<label>12</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Fayyaz</surname><given-names>AU</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Edwards</surname><given-names>WD</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Maleszewski</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Konik</surname><given-names>EA</given-names></name>
<name><surname>DuBrock</surname><given-names>HM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Borlaug</surname><given-names>BA</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Global Pulmonary Vascular Remodeling in Pulmonary Hypertension Associated with Heart Failure and Preserved or Reduced Ejection Fraction</article-title>
<source>Circulation</source>
<year>2018</year>
<volume>137</volume>
<issue>17</issue>
<fpage>1796</fpage>
<lpage>1810</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.031608</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Fayyaz AU, Edwards WD, Maleszewski JJ, Konik EA, DuBrock HM, Borlaug BA, et al. Global Pulmonary Vascular Remodeling in Pulmonary Hypertension Associated with Heart Failure and Preserved or Reduced Ejection Fraction. Circulation. 2018;137(17):1796-1810. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.031608.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B13">
<label>13</label>
<element-citation publication-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name><surname>Assad</surname><given-names>TR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Hemnes</surname><given-names>AR</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Larkin</surname><given-names>EK</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Glazer</surname><given-names>AM</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Xu</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name>
<name><surname>Wells</surname><given-names>QS</given-names></name>
<etal/>
</person-group>
<article-title>Clinical and Biological Insights Into Combined Post- and Pre-Capillary Pulmonary Hypertension</article-title>
<source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>68</volume>
<issue>23</issue>
<fpage>2525</fpage>
<lpage>2536</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2016.09.942</pub-id>
</element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Assad TR, Hemnes AR, Larkin EK, Glazer AM, Xu M, Wells QS, et al. Clinical and Biological Insights Into Combined Post- and Pre-Capillary Pulmonary Hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;68(23):2525-36. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2016.09.942.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revis&#xE3;o</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Bases Fisiopatol&#xF3;gicas da Hipertens&#xE3;o Pulmonar na Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca com Fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o Preservada e Implica&#xE7;&#xF5;es no Manejo</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3778-7153</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Freitas</surname><given-names>Aguinaldo F.</given-names><suffix>Jr.</suffix></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9131-0439</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Frota</surname><given-names>Daniela do Carmo Rassi</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7210-6486</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rassi</surname><given-names>Salvador</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Goi&#xE2;nia</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Goi&#xE1;s, Goi&#xE2;nia, GO &#x2013; Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Aguinaldo F. Freitas Jr.</bold> &#x2022; Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas da Universidade Federal de Goi&#xE1;s &#x2013; Primeira avenida, 545, Setor Leste Universit&#xE1;rio. CEP <postal-code>74605-020</postal-code>, Servi&#xE7;o de Cardiologia, Goi&#xE2;nia, GO &#x2013; Brasil. E-mail: <email>afreitasjr@msn.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Hipertens&#xE3;o Pulmonar</kwd>
<kwd>Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca</kwd>
<kwd>ICFEp</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<p>A hipertens&#xE3;o pulmonar (HP) associada a doen&#xE7;as do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o esquerdo &#xE9; classificada como do grupo 2 e abrange tanto a insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o reduzida (ICFEr) como a com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o preservada (ICFEp).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Em ambas, o desenvolvimento de HP est&#xE1; associado &#xE0; evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica desfavor&#xE1;vel na hist&#xF3;ria natural da doen&#xE7;a e o conhecimento de sua fisiopatologia ainda &#xE9; incerto, o que pode ter implica&#xE7;&#xF5;es pr&#xE1;ticas desde o diagn&#xF3;stico at&#xE9; o tratamento da insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Preval&#xEA;ncia, defini&#xE7;&#xE3;o e diagn&#xF3;stico</title>
<p>A preval&#xEA;ncia de HP nos pacientes com ICFEp &#xE9; amplamente heterog&#xEA;nea, com frequ&#xEA;ncias variando de 36% a 81%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> e isso decorre dos meios diagn&#xF3;sticos utilizados, do tempo de progress&#xE3;o da doen&#xE7;a de base,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> bem como dos diferentes pontos de corte de fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o utilizados na defini&#xE7;&#xE3;o da ICFEp. Por exemplo, em uma suban&#xE1;lise do estudo PARAGON, a preval&#xEA;ncia de HP em pacientes com ICFEp foi de 31%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Al&#xE9;m do mais, os diferentes fen&#xF3;tipos de ICFEp podem-se apresentar com menor ou maior grau de HP, a depender do aumento da resist&#xEA;ncia vascular pulmonar, da press&#xE3;o do &#xE1;trio direito e concomit&#xE2;ncia de doen&#xE7;a renal cr&#xF4;nica associada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>A HP do grupo 2 &#xE9; definida como uma press&#xE3;o arterial pulmonar m&#xE9;dia &#x3E; 20 mmHg e press&#xE3;o capilar pulmonar &#x3E; 15mmHg. O cateterismo card&#xED;aco direito &#xE9; a ferramenta considerada padr&#xE3;o-ouro para a correta medida das press&#xF5;es pulmonares, al&#xE9;m de ser valiosa na avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da resposta hemodin&#xE2;mica ao esfor&#xE7;o f&#xED;sico, informa&#xE7;&#xE3;o importante na diferencia&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre a HP do grupo 2 e outras etiologias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>No entanto, na pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica o exame de maior utilidade no diagn&#xF3;stico da HP, independente da fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o, &#xE9; o ecodopplercardiograma. Apesar de ser examinador dependente e sens&#xED;vel a varia&#xE7;&#xF5;es posturais e de volemia, a estimativa da press&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica da art&#xE9;ria pulmonar ao ecodoppler serve tanto como par&#xE2;metro diagn&#xF3;stico de ICFEp como de progn&#xF3;stico na estimativa do grau de HP.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular esquerda</title>
<p>A primeira altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o fisiopatol&#xF3;gica que se observa na ICFEp &#xE9; o comprometimento do relaxamento e enchimento ventricular esquerdo com consequente aumento da press&#xE3;o atrial esquerda e transmiss&#xE3;o retr&#xF3;grada dessa eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o para o sistema pulmonar, caracterizando, em um primeiro momento, uma hipertens&#xE3;o venocapilar pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>A hipertrofia e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica, comuns na hipertens&#xE3;o e obesidade, t&#xEA;m seu papel na altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o do relaxamento do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo. Por&#xE9;m, as m&#xFA;ltiplas comorbidades comuns em pacientes com ICFEp, tamb&#xE9;m, exercem efeitos negativos sobre o mioc&#xE1;rdio, estimulando o estresse oxidativo e as vias hipertr&#xF3;ficas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Paulus e Tschope<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> propuseram hip&#xF3;tese unificadora para centralizar o papel das vias pr&#xF3;-inflamat&#xF3;rias no aumento da prolifera&#xE7;&#xE3;o do col&#xE1;geno de mi&#xF3;citos e no impacto sobre a elasticidade. Nela, a alta rigidez da parede mioc&#xE1;rdica seria sustentada pelo aumento da fosforila&#xE7;&#xE3;o da prote&#xED;na titina, super express&#xE3;o da sinaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o do fator de crescimento &#x3B2;, express&#xE3;o reduzida de elastases, alto estresse oxidativo mitocondrial e altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es epigen&#xE9;ticas que prejudicam definitivamente a homeostase celular.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Remodelamento e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial esquerda</title>
<p>A altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o de relaxamento do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo &#xE9; seguida da sobrecarga de volume e press&#xE3;o no &#xE1;trio esquerdo. Esse, por sinal, muito sens&#xED;vel a essas eleva&#xE7;&#xF5;es, inicia um processo de remodelamento e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o, papel determinante na eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o das press&#xF5;es pulmonares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>O &#xE1;trio esquerdo torna-se mais r&#xED;gido precocemente e dilata-se lentamente, substrato peculiar na indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de fibrila&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial. Al&#xE9;m do mais, a coexist&#xEA;ncia de outras comorbidades e das vias inflamat&#xF3;rias descritas corroboram para o remodelamento e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial e contribuem, tamb&#xE9;m, na indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fibrila&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial, fen&#xF3;tipo que est&#xE1; associado &#xE0; regurgita&#xE7;&#xE3;o mitral e maior eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o da resist&#xEA;ncia vascular pulmonar nos pacientes com ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Qualquer eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o atrial esquerda influi diretamente na hemodin&#xE2;mica pulmonar e exacerba os sintomas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Apesar de os estudos sobre a circula&#xE7;&#xE3;o pulmonar em humanos serem escassos, alguns dados permitiram desvendar que os efeitos cr&#xF4;nicos do aumento da press&#xE3;o do &#xE1;trio esquerdo sobre a vasculatura pulmonar podem representar diferentes fen&#xF3;tipos de acordo com o n&#xED;vel de eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o no &#xE1;trio esquerdo.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Remodelamento venocapilar e arterial pulmonar</title>
<p>A eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o sustentada da press&#xE3;o do &#xE1;trio esquerdo transmite-se retrogradamente para as veias pulmonares as quais sofrem processo de remodelamento que consiste no estreitamento luminal pelo aumento do espessamento neointimal e hipertrofia medial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Alguns estudos mostraram correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o direta entre a press&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica da art&#xE9;ria pulmonar e o espessamento neointimal, mas ainda n&#xE3;o se sabe o gatilho necess&#xE1;rio para essa disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o endotelial, ou seja, em qual est&#xE1;gio ou grau de eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o do &#xE1;trio esquerdo ter&#xED;amos o gatilho necess&#xE1;rio para as altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es vasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>A manuten&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o elevada sobre o sistema venocapilar pulmonar causa insufici&#xEA;ncia dos capilares e arter&#xED;olas pulmonares, com barotrauma que rompe a camada endotelial e promove incha&#xE7;o de flu&#xED;dos e prote&#xED;nas no interst&#xED;cio. Esse edema desencadeia uma cascata de marcadores moleculares e inflamat&#xF3;rios que inibem a atividade do &#xF3;xido n&#xED;trico e aumentam a express&#xE3;o da endotelina, levando &#xE0; oclus&#xE3;o luminal e ao espessamento dos septos alveolares. A progress&#xE3;o dessa cascata leva a um remodelamento do sistema arteriolar pulmonar e &#xE0; redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da difus&#xE3;o gasosa pela membrana alveolar, o que comp&#xF5;e, em um segundo tempo, o padr&#xE3;o arterial da HP associada &#xE0; ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>O comprometimento da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular direita, na ICFEp, ocorre de duas maneiras: 1 &#x2013; a eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o mantida das press&#xF5;es pulmonares promove hipertrofia, dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o, insufici&#xEA;ncia tric&#xFA;spide funcional e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do ventr&#xED;culo direito; 2 &#x2013; a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica do ventr&#xED;culo direito e o aumento da rigidez ocorrem antes da disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica, com progress&#xE3;o mais lenta para dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o e deteriora&#xE7;&#xE3;o funcional.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Tratamento</title>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; tratamento espec&#xED;fico para a HP do grupo 2 e o uso de vasodilatadores pulmonares est&#xE1; contraindicado. Alguns experimentos tentaram, sem sucesso, testar terapia apropriada para hipertens&#xE3;o arterial pulmonar nos pacientes com doen&#xE7;as do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo, mas talvez tenham esbarrado nas diferen&#xE7;as fenot&#xED;picas dos pacientes com ICFEp.</p>
<p>Acredita-se que a variabilidade dos fen&#xF3;tipos hemodin&#xE2;micos na ICFEp (hipertens&#xE3;o pr&#xE9;-capilar isolada ou pr&#xE9;- e p&#xF3;s-capilar associada) possam interferir nos resultados negativos no que tange ao uso de vasodilatadores para a HP do grupo 2.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclus&#xE3;o</title>
<p>A HP na ICFEp tem mecanismos fisiopatol&#xF3;gicos semelhantes e, tamb&#xE9;m, diferentes do da HP na ICFEr. Em ambas as situa&#xE7;&#xF5;es, o progn&#xF3;stico dos pacientes e a evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o natural da doen&#xE7;a est&#xE1; comprometida e n&#xE3;o h&#xE1; tratamento espec&#xED;fico para essa comorbidade, al&#xE9;m do tratamento padr&#xE3;o j&#xE1; amplamente conhecido para a doen&#xE7;a de base, a insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4"><p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo n&#xE3;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o acad&#xEA;mica</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o deste estudo a programas de p&#xF3;s-gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9;tica e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo n&#xE3;o cont&#xE9;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
