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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &#x26; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20220055</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20220055</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Left Atrial Cardiomyopathy as a Generator of Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Jorge</surname><given-names>Antonio Jos&#xE9; Lagoeiro</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role><role>Acquisition of data</role><role>Writing of the manuscript</role><role>Critical revision of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Martins</surname><given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names></name>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Mesquita</surname><given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names></name>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Carvalho</surname><given-names>Marcio Roberto Moraes de</given-names></name>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Curso de P&#xF3;s-Gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Ci&#xEA;ncias Cardiovasculares</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Curso de P&#xF3;s-Gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Ci&#xEA;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina &#x2013; Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Antonio Jos&#xE9; Lagoeiro Jorge</bold> &#x2022; Avenida Marques do Paran&#xE1;, 303, 6&#xBA; andar. Postal Code <postal-code>24030-215</postal-code>, Centro, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brazil, E-mail: <email>antoniolagoeiro@id.uff.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2022</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<season>Jul-Sep</season>
<year>2022</year></pub-date>
<volume>2</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>259</fpage>
<lpage>267</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>18</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>26</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>26</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>The left atrium is an anatomical structure relevant to the maintenance of the physiological hemodynamics of the cardiovascular system. Atrial cardiomyopathy (aCMP), defined as any change in the structure, architecture, contractility or electrophysiology of the atria, is associated with adverse clinical implications, and responsible for atrial fibrillation and stroke. Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) with a predominance of atrial fibrillation (AF) is a unique clinical phenotype, characterized by mechanical dysfunction of the left atrium, congestive symptoms and poor prognosis. aCMP is a common condition among patients with HFpEF and AF. Due to the strong association between aCMP and HFpEF, the diagnosis of aCMP has clinical relevance in patients with HFpEF. The objective of this review is to help identify aCMP as a risk factor for the development of HFpEF.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>Atrial Function, Left</kwd>
<kwd>Atrial Fibrillation</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure, Diastolic</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="12"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="62"/>
<page-count count="9"/></counts></article-meta></front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>The left atrium is an anatomical structure with great importance for the maintenance of the physiological hemodynamics of the cardiovascular system, serving as a reservoir, conduit and pump, functions that contribute to the left ventricular (LV) filling. Consequently, left atrial (LA) dysfunction is associated with adverse clinical implications, highlighting the importance and applicability of its diagnosis. This is particularly true and known in the setting of mitral stenosis, aortic stenosis, atrial fibrillation (AF) and has recently gained attention in the context of heart failure (HF) syndrome with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>HFpEF is a syndrome of high prevalence and high morbidity and mortality. The pathophysiology of the HFpEF phenotype is partially known, still with pivotal doubts, which surely led to the delay in the establishment of a disease-modifying treatment that only began to advance in recent years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> HFpEF is a prevalent syndrome, particularly in elderly female and hypertensive patients, and one of the mechanisms observed in this group of patients is atrial cardiomyopathy (aCMP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Both aCMP and HFpEF are associated with increased left atrium, which is a recognized marker of LV diastolic dysfunction and is independently associated with increased risk of morbidity and mortality. The role of all three phases of LA function in patients with HFpEF is less well understood, especially in those patients with no history of AF and with normal left atrium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>The objective of this review is to help identify aCMP as a risk factor for the development of HFpEF.</p>
<p>To structure this review article, two databases were searched, Medline and Scielo, for the following keywords in English &#x201C;heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; atrial fibrillation; atrial myocardiopathy&#x201D;. The survey took place in June 2022. Prospective and retrospective studies were included and clinical cases and abstracts presented at scientific meetings were excluded. The eligibility of each study was independently assessed by two investigators. The divergent opinions regarding the relevance of the articles were resolved by consensus among the authors.</p>
<sec>
<title>Atrial cardiomyopathy and HFpEF</title>
<sec>
<title>The atria</title>
<p>The atria have a very complex structure differing from that of the ventricles and provide an important contribution to cardiac physiology. This structural complexity has important implications for the atrial mechanical function that are identified today as markers of aCMP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The atria have an impact on ventricular filling and serve as a reservoir but are also important elements of the cardiac conduction system, as they protect the sinus node and the atrioventricular node. The atria also secrete atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), which are important regulators of homeostasis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Each atrium has a characteristic morphology of atrial body and appendage (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). In the body, there is a venous component with the orifices of the systemic and pulmonary veins and a vestibular component that surrounds the atrial outlet.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The interatrial septum separates the atrial bodies. The venous component of the left atrium is located posterosuperiorly and receives the pulmonary veins at the four corners, forming a prominent atrial dome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Representation of the upper and lower left and right atria; the Bachmann&#x2019;s bundle is part of the conduction system of the atria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf01.tif"/></fig>
<p>The appendix of the left atrium is smaller and narrower than the appendix of the right atrium, with different shapes and a distinct opening to the atrial body covering the left circumflex coronary artery. There are different morphologies of the LA appendage described in the literature and it seems that the appendix morphology is correlated with the risk of developing thrombogenesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> However, despite the apparent inconvenience of the existence of the LA appendix, this structure is attributed a role in volume regulation. Animal studies have shown that the elimination of the LA appendix can inhibit the manifestation of thirst because of hypovolemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Atrial cardiomyocytes are geometrically complex cylinders and the only clear microscopic morphological difference between atrial and ventricular cardiomyocytes is in their size. The transverse diameter of the atrial cardiomyocyte is 12&#xB5;m while the diameter of the ventricular cardiomyocyte is around 22&#xB5;m.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>The atria have a series of electrophysiological characteristics that make them different from the ventricles, and susceptible to the development of arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Atrial cardiomyocytes have action potential properties that are different from ventricular ones, mainly due to the distribution of distinct ion channels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Atrial potassium current is lower than the ventricular potassium current, resulting in a less negative resting potential and a more gradual slope of phase 3 repolarization (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). These cellular electrophysiological features have implications for the mechanism of action of antiarrhythmic drugs and may also alter responses to cardiac arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Action potential of atrial and ventricular myocytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf02.tif"/></fig>
<p>LA pump function represents the increase in LV filling due to active atrial contraction and is estimated by measurements of cardiac output with and without effective atrial systole. The relative importance of the LA contribution to LV filling and cardiac output remains controversial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>The conduit function performed by the left atrium occurs mainly during ventricular diastole and represents the transport of blood volume that cannot be attributed to reservoir or pump functions, corresponding to approximately one third of atrial flow.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> There is a reciprocal relationship between the conduction and the reservoir functions of the LA; a redistribution between these functions is an important compensatory mechanism that facilitates LV filling in the presence of myocardial ischemia, hypertensive heart disease and mitral stenosis. Conduit function is estimated by early diastolic transmitral flow, pulmonary vein flow in diastole, and LA strain during early diastole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Definition of aCMP</title>
<p>aCMP can be defined as any change in the structure, architecture, contractility or electrophysiology that affects the atria with the potential to produce clinically relevant manifestations, mainly arrhythmogenic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Diseases and syndromes such as systemic arterial hypertension, HFpEF HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), diabetes mellitus, and myocarditis, or conditions such as aging and endocrine abnormalities are known to induce or contribute to aCMP. However, the changes are not necessarily disease-specific and pathological features often share many similarities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> The extent of pathological changes can vary over time and location in the atrium, causing substantial intra- and inter-individual differences. Pro-inflammatory conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, possibly mediated by interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-&#x3B1;, are associated with atrial arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Furthermore, while some pathological processes can affect the atria very selectively, such as AF-induced remodeling, most cardiomyopathies that affect the atria also involve the ventricles to a greater or lesser extent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>The EHRA/HRS/APHRS/SOLAECE Consensus<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> proposed a pathophysiological classification for atrial cardiomyopathies, with definition of four classes (EHRAS), namely: (I) main alterations of cardiomyocytes; (II) mainly fibrotic changes; (III) cardiomyocyte-pathology/fibrosis combination; (IV) mainly non-collagenous infiltration (with or without cardiomyocyte alterations) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). This simple classification can help convey the primary underlying pathology in various clinical conditions. However, the class may change over time and differ in atrial sites in some patients. Thus, this classification is purely descriptive and, unlike other classifications such as NYHA, there is no progression in severity from EHRAS class I to class IV. This classification can be useful to describe pathological changes in biopsies and to correlate results obtained from imaging tests with diaseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Classification of Atrial Cardiomyopathy</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Class</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Histological Characterization</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>I</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Morphological or molecular changes that &#x201C;mainly&#x201D; affect cardiomyocytes in terms of cellular hypertrophy and myocytolysis; no significant pathological tissue fibrosis or other interstitial changes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>II</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Predominantly fibrotic alterations; cardiomyocytes appear normal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>III</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Combination of cardiomyocyte changes (e.g., cellular hypertrophy, myocytolysis) and fibrotic changes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>IV</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Alteration of the interstitial matrix without accumulation of collagen fibers</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>IVa</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">amyloid accumulation</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>IVf</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">fatty infiltration</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>IVi</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">inflammatory cells</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>IVo</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Other interstitial changes</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>EHRA/HRS/APHRS/SOLAECE Expert Consensus<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Atrial fibrillation</title>
<p>AF is the most common arrhythmia in patients with heart disease, affecting an estimated 33 million people worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> It is important to emphasize that aCMP can be induced or exacerbated by AF, which has unique epidemiological, pathophysiological and clinical characteristics. AF-mediated aCMP is defined as having AF as the sole cause of ventricular dysfunction in patients with existing cardiomyopathy or HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Similar to cardiomyopathy caused by other arrhythmias, AF-induced cardiomyopathy can be at least partially reversed by restoration of sinus rhythm, thus creating a crucial opportunity for clinical intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Experimental and clinical studies have clarified the pathophysiological mechanisms of arrhythmia, especially on a molecular basis. Electrical, contractile and structural remodeling, calcium handling abnormalities, autonomic imbalance, and genetic factors appear to play a crucial role in the initiation and maintenance of AF. However, the exact pathophysiological mechanisms of AF are still not fully understood, and it is not known whether AF is an unclassified cardiomyopathy or a distinct disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>According to Coumel&#x2019;s triangle of arrhythmogenesis, three pillars are needed at the onset of clinical AF: (a) the triggering factor; (b) the arrhythmogenic substrate; and (c) the modulating factors. The interaction between these three elements determines the clinical picture of AF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>According to Coumel&#x2019;s triangle of arrhythmogenesis, three pillars are needed at the onset of clinical arrhythmia: the triggering factor, the arrhythmogenic substrate, and the modulating factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf03.tif"/></fig>
<p>Several modulating factors contribute to the onset and perpetuation of AF, with aging as a significant risk factor for the development of AF. Seminal studies by Spach and Dolber described microscopic evidence of fibrosis in association with an electrical uncoupling of connections in the aged human atrium. These structural changes were associated with conduction anisotropy, providing the necessary substrate for the reentry phenomenon.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>The role of inflammation in the onset of AF was supported by the fact that inflammatory states such as myocarditis, pericarditis and cardiac surgery are often associated with arrhythmia. Histological findings of atrial myocarditis were identified in patients with isolated AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Several prospective epidemiological studies have confirmed that inflammation may confer an increased risk of AF. The epidemiological relationship between the incidence of cancer and AF also supports the thesis that inflammation would be the common trigger between the two clinical conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
<p>Obesity is associated with an increased incidence of AF. There is a 3% to 8% greater risk of new onset AF with each unit increase in body mass index (BMI),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> regardless of other cardiovascular risk factors such as dyslipidemia, hypertension, and diabetes. The mechanisms by which obesity can lead to AF are currently unknown. The increase in LA size correlates with BMI and is a possible explanation for the onset of AF in these patients. Diastolic dysfunction may be a result of myocardial thickening, increased plasma volume and increased neurohormonal activation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> An additional interpretation points out to the inflammatory action of extracellular vesicles of pericardial fat and its influence on cell apoptosis, fibrosis and proarrhythmic effect in the development of aCMP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
<p>Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a strong predictor of AF incidence. OSA induces intermittent hypoxemia and hypercapnia, sympathetic activation, and changes in blood pressure. Elevated intrathoracic pressure caused by inspiration against an obstructed airway leads to an increase in the transmural pressure gradient, which in turn can lead to atrial stretch. In addition, OSA is associated with diastolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> These pathophysiological mechanisms can lead to greater vulnerability to AF. Patients with OSA have been shown to have a higher rate of recurrence of AF after successful cardioversion than patients without OSA, and treatment with continuous positive airway pressure reduces the occurrence of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Atrial cardiomyopathy, FA and HFpEF</title>
<p>The atrial myocardium is affected by many cardiac and non-cardiac conditions and is, in some respects, more sensitive than the ventricular myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> There are three important mechanisms in the development of aCMP: fibrosis, electrical dysfunction, and mechanical dysfunction. Atrial inflammation is a key factor in the formation of atrial fibrosis and the increased risk of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Progressive fibrosis can lead to conduction abnormalities as well as structural changes in the atrium. The loss of viable myocytes and the increase in wall tissue stiffness due to excessive fibrosis ultimately reduce atrial function<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Atrial cardiomyopathy is composed of atrial fibrosis, mechanical dysfunction, and electrical dysfunction. The evaluation of these three components is done through different methods; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf04.tif"/></fig>
<p>The atria are activated, in addition to the three specialized internodal tracts, through functional cardiomyocytes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> so that any change in the atrial myocardium can cause significant electrophysiological disturbances. Furthermore, atrial cells, both cardiomyocytes and non-cardiomyocyte elements such as fibroblasts and endothelial cells, react rapidly and extensively to pathological stimuli and are influenced by many predisposing genetic factors. Responses include hypertrophy and contractile dysfunction of atrial cardiomyocytes, arrhythmogenic changes in the cardiomyocyte ion channel, proliferation of atrial fibroblasts, hyperinnervation, and thrombogenic changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Thus, atrial diseases have a substantial impact on cardiac performance, occurrence of arrhythmia, especially AF, and increased risk of stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
<p>HF is a common cause of AF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> and atrial phenotype induced the disease is complex. A particularly important component is atrial fibrosis, which in experimental models occurs earlier in the course of HF, and to a much greater extent than in the ventricles, at least in part due to phenotype differences of atrioventricular fibroblasts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> In HF, fibrosis is slow and the AF-promoting substrate predominantly accompanies fibrosis rather than other components of atrial remodeling, such as ionic current or connexin changes. In HF, increased ventricular pressure or volume is a strong trigger for atrial enlargement and remodeling. In chronic conditions, LA volume and tension correlate with LV end-diastolic pressures, regardless of ejection fraction. Mechanical stress induces stretching and stiffening of the atria. Atrial fibrosis is perpetuated by atrial distention and is related to activation of profibrotic signaling cascades and apoptosis/necrosis of cells, as well as activation of a fetal genetic program.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Unlike AF-induced remodeling, changes in atrial ionic current in HF do not shorten the action potential duration or cause general slowing of conduction and therefore do not directly contribute to the formation of arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
<p>AF-predominant HFpEF is a unique clinical phenotype, characterized by LA mechanical dysfunction, congestive symptoms, and poor prognosis. ACMP is a common condition among patients with HFpEF and AF, and is associated with worse pulmonary vascular resistance and right ventricular function, and higher oxygen consumption. In addition, these patients may have abnormalities in right atrial function that lead to increased venous congestion. Patients with HFpEF with predominance of AF may have marked LA remodeling without substantial changes in LV performance. While loss of LA contractile function due to AF undoubtedly contributes to the clinical manifestations of aPMC, reduced LA compliance adversely compromises hemodynamics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recently, a new element has been identified as a contributing factor to the pathophysiology of HFpEF. Dilatation of the mitral and tricuspid valve rings contributes to valve regurgitation by worsening atrial remodeling and can lead to an overload in a small, rigid ventricle, thereby causing an increase in filling pressures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> In addition, mitral annulus dilatation results in functional mitral regurgitation, further contributing to LA dysfunction. These findings suggest that aPMC may occur disproportionately to LV dysfunction in HFpEF with a predominance of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>HFpEF and AF share common pathophysiological features including a relative nitric oxide deficiency<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> and symptoms like dyspnea and exercise intolerance. Such nonspecific symptoms in isolated AF are commonly thought to be secondary to the arrhythmia. However, these patients likely have substantial aCMP, and restoration of sinus rhythm may not completely relieve symptoms. These patients should be considered as having HFpEF with a predominance of AF. Indeed, in a cohort of patients with AF and unexplained dyspnea, the probability of undiagnosed HFpEF was greater than 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Recently, a risk score for HFpEF, the H2FpEF score, identified AF as the most important clinical variable to predict HFpEF among patients with dyspnea. Thus, aCMP secondary to AF is one of the main contributors to the pathogenesis of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
<p>The left atrium stretches in HFpEF due to the chronic elevation of LV filling pressure and LA pressure, resulting in LA remodeling. Therefore, atrial size is often increased in HFpEF, which has not only become a diagnostic criterion, but is also useful as a prognostic factor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Although LV diastolic dysfunction is the fundamental pathophysiological change in HFpEF, this condition is difficult to be determined solely by the occurrence of diastolic dysfunction. In fact, LA dilation (LA volume &#x3E;32mL/m<sup>2</sup>) was recommended to be included as an additional structural abnormality for the diagnosis of HFpEF in the European Society of Cardiology<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> guideline and the Brazilian Heart Failure Guideline.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Previous studies have shown that patients with HFpEF had a larger LA size than hypertensive patients with LV hypertrophy. Indeed, LV hypertrophy is also a common precursor of HFpEF and an indicator of elevated left atrial pressure leading to atrial remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
<p>A population-based cohort study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> showed that more than two-thirds of patients with HFpEF had AF before (risk factor), concomitantly or after the diagnosis of HFpEF (comorbidity), highlighting the interaction of these two conditions. At the diagnosis of HFpEF, patients with AF (previous or concomitant) were older and had larger atria, worse diastolic dysfunction, and higher BNP levels than those in sinus rhythm, consistent with more advanced HF. The development of incident AF was associated with advanced age, systemic arterial hypertension, renal dysfunction, LA dilatation and diastolic dysfunction in the diagnosis of HF. Importantly, both prevalent AF and incident AF were associated with worse survival in HFpEF even after adjusting for potential confounding factors. These data suggest that AF may be a risk factor and potentially a comorbidity of increased mortality in HFpEF, independently of other known risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>HFpEF increases the risk of aCMP and AF</title>
<p>The most commonly recognized mechanism by which HFpEF gives rise to AF is the structural and functional remodeling of the left atrium, which is substrate for aCMP. In patients with HFpEF, LA volumes are 68% greater compared to age-matched controls and 40% greater than in patients with hypertensive heart disease without HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> LE enlargement in HFpEF is a well-established proarrhythmic substrate associated with atrial fibrosis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> and the abnormal distribution of gap junctions and loss of cell-to-cell coupling in areas of fibrosis contribute to electrical remodeling, increased atrial refractoriness and development of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
<p>In aCMP, there is also the important role of gap junctions in atrial remodeling, involving atrial connexin proteins<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> and the consequent heterogeneity of impulse propagation, establishing reentry circuits that predispose to AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> In this case, studies have not been able to define the underlying disorder, whether HFpEF or aCMP. Therefore, it remains a diagnostic dilemma to discriminate HFpEF from aCMP/AF due to converging symptoms like shortness of breath and exercise intolerance. However, accurately distinguishing one condition from another is important as their treatments may differ, in part because of the potentially different pathophysiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Therefore, the overlap of AF with HFpEF makes the interpretation of the definitive causal mechanism based on clinical features complex.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Mechanisms by which aCMP and AF give rise to HFpEF</title>
<p>As aCMP leads to LA dilation, alters atrial function and causes atrial fibrosis, it can be a direct cause of HFpEF. Indeed, successful cardioversion of AF is associated with restoration of atrial booster pump function and improved ventricular filling, with the atrial contribution to ventricular filling increasing from 30% to 47% one month after return to sinus rhythm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> AF is also associated with LV myocardial fibrosis, which in turn contributes to diastolic dysfunction and HFpEF. In addition, atrioventricular annulus remodeling with progressive mitral and tricuspid regurgitation may be another mechanism by which aCMP causes HFpEF. ANP depletion, which occurs in permanent AF, can lead to further vasoconstriction and congestion and thus set the stage for incident HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
<p>HFpEF and aCMP share common pathophysiological mechanisms, as a substantial proportion of patients with HFpEF experience AF. Also, these conditions probably share pathophysiological mechanisms, such as systemic inflammation, neurohumoral activation, increased activity of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, endothelial dysfunction, reduced ANP release, mitral and tricuspid annular remodeling, chronotropic incompetence and tachycardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
<p>In aCMP, it has been often proposed that HF develops due to tachycardia or cardiomyopathy induced by hemodynamic changes, cellular effects, and neurohormonal activation. The hemodynamic changes that lead to aCMP are: shortened diastasis, reduced cardiac output, structural effects such as eccentric LV remodeling, subendocardial fibrosis and impaired myocardial perfusion. The main cellular alterations related to aCMP include changes in the cytoskeleton, disruption of the mitochondrial matrix and abnormal manipulation of calcium. Finally, neurohormonal activation, such as the upregulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and natriuretic peptides would also be involved in the development of aCMP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Diagnosis of aCMP</title>
<p>The correct diagnosis of aCMP is of clinical importance and includes electrocardiography (ECG), echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging, and biomarkers, which can identify and quantify structural, mechanical, and electrical dysfunction in the atria (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Main laboratory criteria, electrocardiogram and echocardiogram for the diagnosis of atrial cardiomyopathy;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> PTFV-1: power terminal force on lead V1; PA-TDI: total atrial conduction time assessed by tissue Doppler; LA: left atrial.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf05.tif"/></fig>
<p>An abnormal electrocardiogram (ECG) can provide information about conduction disorders and electrical remodeling. Studies analyzing ECG parameters have reported heterogenous definitions of aCMP<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figure 6</label>
<caption>
<title>Examples of electrocardiogram changes that may indicate atrial cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> PTFV-1: power terminal force on lead V1.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf06.tif"/></fig>
<p>Analysis of fibrillatory waves (f waves) may be suitable for detecting both electrophysiological and structural changes in the atria. Coarse-wave AF, defined as f-wave amplitude in lead V1 &#x2265;1mm, is associated with decreased LA appendage ejection fraction and decreased maximum atrial emptying velocity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> F-wave amplitude strongly correlates with LA volume measured by echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
<p>The P wave represents atrial depolarization and is associated with atrial electrical remodeling. P wave parameters include its duration, dispersion, axis, voltage, area, atrial block and terminal force in lead V1 (PTFV1).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> P-wave parameters are predictive of ischemic stroke, regardless of AF, suggesting that they may reflect atrial remodeling independent of arrhythmogenesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
<p>PTFV1 is an electrocardiographic marker for atrial remodeling. The P wave in lead V1 is usually biphasic, where the second negative portion of the P wave represents the propagation of excitation in the left atrium. PTFV1 is determined by multiplying the amplitude of the second portion of the P wave by its width. A PTFV1 &#x2265; &#x2212;4,000&#xB5;V &#xD7; msis considered pathological.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
<p>An ECG analysis using artificial intelligence was performed to detect CMPa in 613 patients with HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> This method is based on a computer-aided algorithm that analyzes data of resting 12-lead ECG and includes a statement (criteria) about the probability of AF. Structural heart disease was more severe in patients with a higher probability of AF assessed by artificial intelligence, with LV hypertrophy, higher LA volumes, and decreased LA reservoir on echocardiography. Each 10% increase in the likelihood of AF by artificial intelligence resulted in a 31% higher risk of developing new-onset AF among patients with sinus rhythm and without prior AF. In the total population, every 10% increase in the likelihood of AF by artificial intelligence led to a 12% greater risk of death.</p>
<p>Echocardiography is the imaging technique of choice for screening and monitoring patients with abnormal LA morphology and function due to its widespread, non-invasive, and cost-effective use. Thus, echocardiography may be useful in detecting aCMP. In studies that investigated the usefulness of echocardiography, aCMP was defined by demonstrating an association of abnormal LA size with primarily clinical outcomes such as AF and AF recurrence after ablation and ischemic stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
<p>The LA volume (LAV) index is more accurate to estimate atrial size than LA diameter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Increased LAV index has been described as a potential early marker of aCMP and is often present in patients with AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
<p>In addition to LAV abnormalities that represent structural remodeling, assessment of atrial function can provide other important indicators for the presence of aCMP. Both increased LA and decreased LA void fraction are common phenomena in patients with AF, with a negative correlation between LA size and void fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
<p>The assessment of LA function is also possible by Doppler echocardiographic measurements, and altered LA function may be indicative of aCMP. While LA conduction function, represented by transmitral E wave velocity, increases with greater incidence of AF, there is an opposite effect on LA contractile function, represented by transmitral A wave velocity and the mitral annular tissue Doppler velocity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
<p>Another important marker of aCMP would be LA deformity (atrial strain), a cyclic process analyzed in three phases: reservoir phase, conduit phase and contraction phase. Traces of LA strain obtained by speckle-tracking echocardiography are largely a mirror image of strain in the left ventricle, since the LA and left ventricle share the mitral annulus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> The superiority of atrial strain over left atrial volume index, a variable already well established in the evaluation of patients with HFpEF, has been discussed.<sup>63</sup></p>
<p>CMR imaging is considered the gold standard for assessing structural and functional changes in the heart. Gadolinium-enhanced CMR shows good performance in the assessment of atrial fibrosis, helping to identify eligible patients for AF ablation and to predict the course of sinoatrial node dysfunction, AF progression, and stroke risk in AF patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Several circulating biomarkers, including inflammatory and fibrosis biomarkers and atrial peptides, have been proposed to estimate atrial remodeling and aCMP. However, there are conflicting results, as biomarkers related to inflammation and fibrosis are not specific to these conditions. In view of this, the clinical value of biomarkers in the assessment of aCMP is unclear and their use in routine screening is questionable.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Treatment of aCMP</title>
<p>The treatment of aCMP should involve the control of underlying risk factors, anticoagulation, and the use of medical therapy established in the guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Controlling heart rate is a reasonable first step in controlling clinical symptoms and restoring cardiac function. Heart rate control with short-term cardioversion can also be attempted in the initial phase. For long-term treatment, existing evidence supports the use of AF ablation as a preferred strategy for patients who are good candidates for the method. Long-term heart rate control can be used as an alternative for patients who are not good candidates for AF ablation or who prefer a conservative management strategy even knowig it may be inferior to ablation in long-term clinical outcomes. With close monitoring, antiarrhythmic drugs can be used in a group of patients independently or as an adjunct to AF ablation to aid in rhythm control. When this control is not possible and pharmacological rate control is inadequate, atrioventricular nodal ablation with physiological stimulation may be considered.</p>
<p>Numerous randomized controlled trials and multicenter observational registries have demonstrated the superiority of AF ablation over drug therapy for maintaining sinus rhythm. However, late recurrences are common and associated with more advanced atrial substrate and structural heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>aCMP has been associated with HFpEF and has a significant impact on atrial function and the development of arrhythmias, especially AF. AF occurs in more than half of individuals with HFpEF, and HFpEF occurs in more than a third of individuals with AF. Although HFpEF and aCMP frequently coexist, there are numerous unanswered questions about the pathophysiology, symptomatology, diagnosis, and prognosis of both conditions. When together, aCMP and HFpEF offer a poor prognosis to patients.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revis&#xE3;o</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Cardiomiopatia Atrial Esquerda como Geradora de Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca com Fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o Preservada</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Jorge</surname><given-names>Antonio Jos&#xE9; Lagoeiro</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Martins</surname><given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names></name>
<role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Mesquita</surname><given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names></name>
<role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Carvalho</surname><given-names>Marcio Roberto Moraes de</given-names></name>
<role>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Curso de P&#xF3;s-Gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Ci&#xEA;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina &#x2013; Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Antonio Jos&#xE9; Lagoeiro Jorge</bold> &#x2022; Avenida Marques do Paran&#xE1;, 303, 6&#xBA; andar. CEP <postal-code>24030-215</postal-code>, Centro, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ &#x2013; Brasil, E-mail: <email>antoniolagoeiro@id.uff.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>O &#xE1;trio esquerdo (AE) &#xE9; uma estrutura anat&#xF4;mica importante para a manuten&#xE7;&#xE3;o da hemodin&#xE2;mica fisiol&#xF3;gica do sistema cardiovascular. A cardiomiopatia atrial (CMPa), definida como qualquer altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o na estrutura, arquitetura, contratilidade ou eletrofisiologia dos &#xE1;trios, est&#xE1; associada com implica&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas adversas, e &#xE9; respons&#xE1;vel por fibrila&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial e acidente vascular cerebral. A insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o preservada (ICFEp), com predomin&#xE2;ncia de fibrila&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial (FA) consiste em um fen&#xF3;tipo cl&#xED;nico &#xFA;nico, caracterizado por disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o mec&#xE2;nica do &#xE1;trio esquerdo, sintomas congestivos e progn&#xF3;stico ruim. Devido &#xE0; forte associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre CMPa e ICFEp, o diagn&#xF3;stico da CMPa tem relev&#xE2;ncia cl&#xED;nica em pacientes com ICFEp. O objetivo desta revis&#xE3;o &#xE9; ajudar a identificar CMPa como um fator de risco para o desenvolvimento da ICFEp.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
<kwd>Fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do &#xC1;trio Esquerdo</kwd>
<kwd>Fibrila&#xE7;&#xE3;o Atrial</kwd>
<kwd>Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca Diast&#xF3;lica</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdu&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>O &#xE1;trio esquerdo (AE) &#xE9; uma estrutura anat&#xF4;mica de grande import&#xE2;ncia para a manuten&#xE7;&#xE3;o da hemodin&#xE2;mica fisiol&#xF3;gica do sistema cardiovascular, servindo como reservat&#xF3;rio, condutor ou bomba, fun&#xE7;&#xF5;es que contribuem para o enchimento do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo (VE). Consequentemente, a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial esquerda est&#xE1; associada com implica&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas adversas, destacando-se, assim, a import&#xE2;ncia e a aplicabilidade de seu diagn&#xF3;stico. Tal fato &#xE9; conhecido no contexto da estenose mitral, estenose a&#xF3;rtica, fibrila&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial (FA), e recentemente tem chamado aten&#xE7;&#xE3;o na s&#xED;ndrome de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC) com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o preservada (ICFEp).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>A ICFEp &#xE9; uma s&#xED;ndrome de alta preval&#xEA;ncia e alta morbidade e mortalidade. A fisiopatologia do fen&#xF3;tipo da ICFEp foi parcialmente descrita, com d&#xFA;vidas ainda cruciais, que certamente levaram a um atraso no estabelecimento de um tratamento modificador da doen&#xE7;a, que s&#xF3; come&#xE7;ou a avan&#xE7;ar nos &#xFA;ltimos anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A ICFEp &#xE9; uma s&#xED;ndrome altamente prevalente, particularmente em pacientes idosos hipertensos do sexo feminino, e um dos mecanismos observado nesse grupo de pacientes &#xE9; a cardiomiopatia atrial (CMPa).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Tanto a CMPa como a ICFEp est&#xE3;o associadas com aumento do AE, o qual &#xE9; um marcador reconhecido de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica do VE, associado de modo independente com risco aumentado de morbidade e mortalidade. O papel das tr&#xEA;s fases da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do AE &#xE9; menos conhecido, principalmente naqueles pacientes sem hist&#xF3;ria de FA e com fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial esquerda normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>O objetivo desta revis&#xE3;o &#xE9; ajudar a identificar a CMPa como um fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de ICFEp.</p>
<p>Para estruturar este artigo de revis&#xE3;o, realizou-se uma pesquisa em dois bancos de dados, Medline e Scielo, das seguintes palavras-chave em ingl&#xEA;s: &#x201C;<italic>heart failure with preserved ejection fraction</italic>; <italic>atrial fibrillation</italic>; <italic>atrial myocardiopathy</italic>&#x201D;. A pesquisa ocorreu em junho de 2022. Estudos prospectivos e retrospectivos foram inclu&#xED;dos, e casos cl&#xED;nicos e resumos apresentados em reuni&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas foram exclu&#xED;dos. Opini&#xF5;es divergentes quanto &#xE0; relev&#xE2;ncia dos artigos foram resolvidas por consenso entre os autores.</p>
<sec>
<title>CMPa e ICFEp</title>
<sec>
<title>Os &#xE1;trios</title>
<p>Os &#xE1;trios possuem uma estrutura muito complexa, que se difere daquela dos ventr&#xED;culos e contribui para a fisiologia card&#xED;aca. Essa complexidade estrutural tem importantes implica&#xE7;&#xF5;es para a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o mec&#xE2;nica atrial que s&#xE3;o atualmente identificadas como marcadores de CMPa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Os &#xE1;trios afetam o enchimento ventricular e servem como um reservat&#xF3;rio, mas tamb&#xE9;m s&#xE3;o elementos importantes do sistema de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aco, ao protegerem o n&#xF3; sinusal e o n&#xF3; atrioventricular. Os &#xE1;trios tamb&#xE9;m secretam pept&#xED;deo natriur&#xE9;tico atrial (ANP) e pept&#xED;deo natriur&#xE9;tico do tipo B (BNP), que s&#xE3;o importantes reguladores da homeostase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Cada &#xE1;trio apresenta uma morfologia caracter&#xED;stica do corpo e ap&#xEA;ndice (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref>). No corpo, h&#xE1; um componente venoso com orif&#xED;cios das veias sist&#xEA;micas e pulmonar, e um componente vestibular que circunda a sa&#xED;da do &#xE1;trio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> O septo interatrial separa os corpos atriais. O componente venoso do AE est&#xE1; localizado de modo posterossuperior, e recebe as veias pulmonares nos quatro cantos, formando uma c&#xFA;pula proeminente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Representa&#xE7;&#xE3;o das por&#xE7;&#xF5;es superior e inferior dos &#xE1;trios direito e esquerdo; o feixe de Bachmann faz parte do sistema de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos &#xE1;trios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>O ap&#xEA;ndice do AE &#xE9; menor e mais estreito que o ap&#xEA;ndice do &#xE1;trio direito, com diferentes formas e uma abertura distinta para o corpo atrial que cobre a art&#xE9;ria circunflexa esquerda. Existem diferentes morfologias do ap&#xEA;ndice atrial esquerdo descritas na literatura, e a morfologia do ap&#xEA;ndice parece estar correlacionada com o risco de trombog&#xEA;nese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> No entanto, embora a exist&#xEA;ncia do ap&#xEA;ndice atrial esquerdo parece ser inapropriada, essa estrutura tem um papel na regula&#xE7;&#xE3;o de volume. Estudos animais mostraram que a elimina&#xE7;&#xE3;o do ap&#xEA;ndice do AE pode inibir a manifesta&#xE7;&#xE3;o de sede como resultado de hipovolemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os cardiomi&#xF3;citos do &#xE1;trio s&#xE3;o cilindros geometricamente complexos, e a &#xFA;nica diferen&#xE7;a morfol&#xF3;gica microsc&#xF3;pica clara entre os cardiomi&#xF3;citos do &#xE1;trio e do ventr&#xED;culo &#xE9; o tamanho. O di&#xE2;metro transversal do cardiomi&#xF3;cito atrial &#xE9; de 12&#xB5;m, e o di&#xE2;metro do cardiomi&#xF3;citos ventricular &#xE9; de aproximadamente 22&#xB5;m.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os &#xE1;trios t&#xEA;m uma s&#xE9;rie de caracter&#xED;sticas eletrofisiol&#xF3;gicas que os tornam diferentes dos ventr&#xED;culos e suscept&#xED;veis ao desenvolvimento de arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Os cardiomi&#xF3;citos atriais t&#xEA;m propriedades de potencial de a&#xE7;&#xE3;o diferentes dos ventr&#xED;culos, principalmente devido &#xE0; distribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o de canais i&#xF4;nicos distintos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> A corrente de pot&#xE1;ssio atrial &#xE9; menor que a corrente ventricular, resultando em um potencial de repouso menos negativo e um aumento mais gradual da repolariza&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fase 3 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2</xref>). Essas caracter&#xED;sticas eletrofisiol&#xF3;gicas celulares t&#xEA;m implica&#xE7;&#xF5;es para o mecanismo de a&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos medicamentos antiarr&#xED;tmicos e podem tamb&#xE9;m alterar as respostas &#xE0;s arritmias card&#xED;acas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Potencial de a&#xE7;&#xE3;o no mi&#xF3;cito atrial e no mi&#xF3;cito ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>A fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o da bomba do AE representa o aumento no enchimento do VE devido &#xE0; contra&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial ativa, e &#xE9; estimada por medidas do d&#xE9;bito card&#xED;aco com e sem s&#xED;stole atrial efetiva. A import&#xE2;ncia da contribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o do AE para o enchimento do VE e o d&#xE9;bito card&#xED;aco ainda &#xE9; controversa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>A fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do AE ocorre principalmente durante a di&#xE1;stole ventricular e representa o transporte do volume sangu&#xED;neo que n&#xE3;o pode ser atribu&#xED;do &#xE0;s fun&#xE7;&#xF5;es de reservat&#xF3;rio ou bomba, correspondendo a aproximadamente um ter&#xE7;o do fluxo atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> H&#xE1; uma rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o rec&#xED;proca entre a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o e a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o de reservat&#xF3;rio do VE; uma redistribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre essas fun&#xE7;&#xF5;es &#xE9; um importante mecanismo compensat&#xF3;rio que facilita o enchimento do VE na presen&#xE7;a de isquemia mioc&#xE1;rdica, doen&#xE7;a card&#xED;aca hipertensiva e estenose mitral. A fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9; estimada pelo fluxo transmitral diast&#xF3;lico precoce, fluxo da veia pulmonar na di&#xE1;stole, e deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o (<italic>strain</italic>) do AE no in&#xED;cio da di&#xE1;stole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Defini&#xE7;&#xE3;o da CMPa</title>
<p>A CMPa pode ser definida como qualquer altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o na estrutura, arquitetura, contratilidade ou eletrofisiologia que afeta os &#xE1;trios, com potencial de produzir manifesta&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas relevantes, principalmente arritmog&#xEA;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Doen&#xE7;as e s&#xED;ndromes tais como hipertens&#xE3;o arterial sist&#xEA;mica, ICFEp, IC com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o reduzida (ICFEr), diabetes mellitus, e miocardite, ou condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es tais como envelhecimento e anormalidades end&#xF3;crinas induzem ou contribuem para MCPa. Contudo, as altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es n&#xE3;o s&#xE3;o necessariamente espec&#xED;ficas &#xE0;s doen&#xE7;as, e as caracter&#xED;sticas patol&#xF3;gicas geralmente t&#xEA;m muitas semelhan&#xE7;as.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> A extens&#xE3;o das altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es patol&#xF3;gicas pode variar ao longo do tempo e local no &#xE1;trio, resultando em diferen&#xE7;as substanciais entre indiv&#xED;duos e intraindividuais. Condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es pr&#xF3;-inflamat&#xF3;rias tais como doen&#xE7;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#xF4;nica, possivelmente medida por interleucina-6 e fator de necrose tumoral alfa, est&#xE3;o associadas com arritmias atriais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Al&#xE9;m disso, enquanto alguns processos patol&#xF3;gicos podem afetar os &#xE1;trios de maneira muito seletiva, como no remodelamento induzido por FA, a maioria das cardiomiopatias que afetam os &#xE1;trios tamb&#xE9;m envolvem os ventr&#xED;culos em maior ou menor extens&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>O Consenso EHRA/HRS/APHRS/SOLAECE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> prop&#xF4;s uma classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o fisiopatol&#xF3;gica para as cardiomiopatias atriais, com defini&#xE7;&#xE3;o de quatro classes pela <italic>European Heart Rhythm Association</italic> (EHRA): (I) altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es dos cardiomi&#xF3;citos, (II) altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es predominantemente fibr&#xF3;ticas; (III) combina&#xE7;&#xE3;o de patologia dos cardiomi&#xF3;citos com fibrose; (IV) infiltra&#xE7;&#xE3;o n&#xE3;o colagenosa (com ou sem altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es de cardiomi&#xF3;citos) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>). Essa simples classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o ajuda a definir a patologia prim&#xE1;ria subjacente em v&#xE1;rias condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas. No entanto, a classe pode mudar ao longo do tempo e variar quanto aos locais atriais em alguns pacientes. Assim, essa classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9; meramente descritiva e, diferentemente de outras classifica&#xE7;&#xF5;es tais como da <italic>New York Heart Association</italic> (NYHA), n&#xE3;o h&#xE1; progress&#xE3;o na gravidade da classe I &#xE0; classe IV. Essa classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o pode ser &#xFA;til para descrever altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es patol&#xF3;gicas em bi&#xF3;psias e para correlacionar achados de exames de imagens com doen&#xE7;as.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Classifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o da cardiomiopatia atrial</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Classe</th>
<th align="left" valign="middle">Caracteriza&#xE7;&#xE3;o histol&#xF3;gica</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>I</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Principais altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es morfol&#xF3;gicas ou moleculares que afetam os cardiomi&#xF3;citos em termos de hipertrofia celular e miocit&#xF3;lise; sem fibrose patol&#xF3;gica importante ou outras altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es intersticiais</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>II</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es predominantemente fibr&#xF3;ticas; cardiomi&#xF3;citos com apar&#xEA;ncia normal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>III</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Combina&#xE7;&#xE3;o de altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es do cardiomi&#xF3;citos (p.ex. hipertrofia celular, miocit&#xF3;lise) e altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es fibr&#xF3;ticas</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>IV</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o da matriz intersticial sem ac&#xFA;mulo de fibras col&#xE1;genas</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>IVa</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ac&#xFA;mulo de amiloide</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>IVf</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Infiltra&#xE7;&#xE3;o gordurosa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>IVi</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">C&#xE9;lulas inflamat&#xF3;rias</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>IVo</bold></td>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Outras altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es intersticiais</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p>EHRA/HRS/APHRS/SOLAECE Expert Consensus<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Fibrila&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial</title>
<p>A FA &#xE9; a arritmia mais comum em pacientes com doen&#xE7;a card&#xED;aca, afetando um n&#xFA;mero estimado de 33 milh&#xF5;es de pessoas no mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> &#xC9; importante enfatizar que a MCPa pode ser induzida ou exacerbada pela FA, que por sua vez apresenta caracter&#xED;sticas cl&#xED;nicas, fisiopatol&#xF3;gicas, e epidemiol&#xF3;gicas &#xFA;nicas. A CMPa mediada por FA ocorre quando a FA &#xE9; a &#xFA;nica causa de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular em pacientes com cardiomiopatia ou IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Similar a outras cardiomiopatias causadas por outras arritmias, a cardiomiopatia induzida por FA pode ser ao menos em parte revertida com restaura&#xE7;&#xE3;o do ritmo sinusal, criando, assim, uma oportunidade crucial para interven&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
<p>Estudos cl&#xED;nicos e experimentais elucidaram os mecanismos fisiopatol&#xF3;gicos da arritmia, principalmente a n&#xED;vel molecular. Remodelamento el&#xE9;trico, contr&#xE1;til e estrutural, anormalidades no manejo do c&#xE1;lcio, desequil&#xED;brio auton&#xF4;mico, e fatores gen&#xE9;ticos parecem exercer um papel crucial no in&#xED;cio e na manuten&#xE7;&#xE3;o da FA. No entanto, os mecanismos fisiopatol&#xF3;gicos exatos da FA n&#xE3;o s&#xE3;o completamente compreendidos, e n&#xE3;o se sabe se a FA &#xE9; uma cardiomiopatia n&#xE3;o classificada ou uma doen&#xE7;a distinta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>Segundo tri&#xE2;ngulo da arritmog&#xEA;nese de Coumel, s&#xE3;o necess&#xE1;rios tr&#xEA;s pilares no in&#xED;cio da FA cl&#xED;nica: (a) o fator desencadeante; (b) o substrato arritmog&#xEA;nico; e (c) os fatores de modula&#xE7;&#xE3;o. A intera&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre esses tr&#xEA;s elementos determina o cen&#xE1;rio cl&#xED;nico da FA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Segundo tri&#xE2;ngulo da arritmog&#xEA;nese de Coumel, s&#xE3;o necess&#xE1;rios tr&#xEA;s pilares no in&#xED;cio da arritmia cl&#xED;nica: (a) o fator desencadeante; (b) o substrato arritmog&#xEA;nico; e (c) os fatores de modula&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>V&#xE1;rios fatores de modula&#xE7;&#xE3;o contribuem para o in&#xED;cio e a manuten&#xE7;&#xE3;o da FA, sendo o envelhecimento um fator de risco significativo para o desenvolvimento de FA. Estudos fundamentais conduzidos por Spach e Dolber descreveram evid&#xEA;ncias microsc&#xF3;picas de fibrose em associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o com um desajuste el&#xE9;trico de conex&#xF5;es no &#xE1;trio humano envelhecido. Essas altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es estruturais foram associadas com anisotropia de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o, fornecendo um substrato necess&#xE1;rio para o fen&#xF4;meno de reentrada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
<p>O papel da inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o no in&#xED;cio da FA baseia-se no fato de que estados inflamat&#xF3;rios tais como miocardite, pericardite e cirurgia card&#xED;aca s&#xE3;o geralmente associados com arritmia. Achados histol&#xF3;gicos de miocardite atrial foram identificados em pacientes com FA isolada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> V&#xE1;rios estudos epidemiol&#xF3;gicos prospectivos confirmaram que a inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o pode conferir um risco aumentado de FA. A rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o epidemiol&#xF3;gica entre a incid&#xEA;ncia de c&#xE2;ncer e FA tamb&#xE9;m corrobora a tese de que a inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o seria o gatilho comum entre as duas condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
<p>A obesidade est&#xE1; associada com incid&#xEA;ncia aumentada de FA. H&#xE1; um risco de 3% a 8% maior de nova FA a cada aumento na unidade do &#xCD;ndice de Massa Corporal (IMC),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> independentemente de outros fatores de risco cardiovasculares tais como dislipidemia, hipertens&#xE3;o e diabetes. Os mecanismos pelos quais a obesidade pode levar &#xE0; FA s&#xE3;o desconhecidos. O aumento no tamanho do AE correlaciona-se com IMC e &#xE9; poss&#xED;vel explica&#xE7;&#xE3;o para o in&#xED;cio da FA nesses pacientes. A disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica pode ser resultante de espessamento do mioc&#xE1;rdio, e aumento do volume plasm&#xE1;tico ou da ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o neurohormonal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Uma interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o adicional aponta para a a&#xE7;&#xE3;o inflamat&#xF3;ria de ves&#xED;culas extracelulares de gordura epic&#xE1;rdica e sua influ&#xEA;ncia na apoptose celular, fibrose, e efeito pr&#xF3;-arr&#xED;tmico no desenvolvimento da CMPa.</p>
<p>A apneia obstrutiva do sono (AOS) &#xE9; um forte preditor da incid&#xEA;ncia de FA. A AOS induz hipoxemia intermitente e hipercapnia, ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o simp&#xE1;tica, e altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es na press&#xE3;o arterial. Press&#xE3;o intrator&#xE1;cica elevada causada por inspira&#xE7;&#xE3;o contra uma via a&#xE9;rea obstru&#xED;da leva a um aumento no gradiente de press&#xE3;o transmural, que por sua vez, leva &#xE0; distens&#xE3;o atrial. Ainda, a AOS est&#xE1; associada com disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Esses mecanismos fisiopatol&#xF3;gicos podem levar &#xE0; maior vulnerabilidade para FA. Foi mostrado que pacientes com AOS apresentam maior taxa de recorr&#xEA;ncia de FA ap&#xF3;s cardiovers&#xE3;o bem-sucedida que pacientes sem AOS, e tratamento com press&#xE3;o positiva cont&#xED;nua nas vias a&#xE9;reas reduz a ocorr&#xEA;ncia de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Cardiomiopatia atrial, FA e ICFEp</title>
<p>O mioc&#xE1;rdio atrial &#xE9; afetado por muitas condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es card&#xED;acas e n&#xE3;o card&#xED;acas e &#xE9;, em alguns aspectos, mais sens&#xED;vel que o mioc&#xE1;rdio ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> H&#xE1; tr&#xEA;s importantes mecanismos no desenvolvimento da CMPa: fibrose, disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o el&#xE9;trica, e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o mec&#xE2;nica. A inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial &#xE9; um fator chave na forma&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fibrose atrial e no risco aumentado de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> A fibrose progressiva pode levar a anomalias de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o bem como a altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es estruturais no &#xE1;trio. A perda de mi&#xF3;citos vi&#xE1;veis e o aumento na espessura do tecido da parede causado por fibrose excessiva leva &#xE0; diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>A cardiomiopatia atrial &#xE9; composta por fibrose atrial, disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o mec&#xE2;nica e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o el&#xE9;trica. A avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o desses tr&#xEA;s componentes &#xE9; realizada por m&#xE9;todos diferentes;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> ICFEP: insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o preservada.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf04-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>Os &#xE1;trios s&#xE3;o ativados, al&#xE9;m dos tr&#xEA;s tratos internodais especializados, por meio de cardiomi&#xF3;citos funcionais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> de modo que qualquer altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o no mioc&#xE1;rdio atrial pode causar dist&#xFA;rbios eletrofisiol&#xF3;gicos significativos. Al&#xE9;m disso, c&#xE9;lulas atriais, tanto cardiomi&#xF3;citos como outras c&#xE9;lulas tais como fibroblastos e c&#xE9;lulas endoteliais, reagem rapidamente e extensivamente a est&#xED;mulos patol&#xF3;gicos e s&#xE3;o influenciadas por muitos fatores gen&#xE9;ticos predisponentes. As respostas incluem hipertrofia e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o contr&#xE1;til dos cardiomi&#xF3;citos atriais, altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es arritmog&#xEA;nicas no canal i&#xF4;nico do cardiomi&#xF3;citos, prolifera&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos fibroblastos atriais, aumento da inerva&#xE7;&#xE3;o, e altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es trombog&#xEA;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Portanto, as doen&#xE7;as atriais t&#xEA;m um grande impacto no desempenho card&#xED;aco, ocorr&#xEA;ncia de arritmia, principalmente FA, e risco aumentado de acidente vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
<p>A IC &#xE9; uma causa comum da FA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> e o fen&#xF3;tipo atrial induzido pela doen&#xE7;a &#xE9; complexa. Um componente particularmente importante &#xE9; a fibrose atrial, que em modelos experimentais ocorre mais precocemente no curso da IC, e em maior extens&#xE3;o que nos ventr&#xED;culos, ao menos em parte devido a diferen&#xE7;as fenot&#xED;picas dos fibroblastos atrioventriculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Na IC, a fibrose ocorre lentamente e o substrato induzido pela FA acompanha predominantemente fibrose que outros componentes do remodelamento atrial, tais como altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es na corrente i&#xF4;nica ou das conexinas. Ainda na IC, um aumento na press&#xE3;o ou no volume do ventr&#xED;culo &#xE9; um forte est&#xED;mulo para o aumento e remodelamento atrial. Em condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es cr&#xF4;nicas, o volume e a tens&#xE3;o do AE correlacionam-se com a press&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica final do VE independentemente da fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o. O estresse mec&#xE2;nico induz o estiramento e o espessamento dos &#xE1;trios. A fibrose atrial &#xE9; perpetuada pela distens&#xE3;o atrial e est&#xE1; relacionada &#xE0; ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de cascatas de sinaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o pr&#xF3;-fibr&#xF3;tica e pela apoptose/necrose das c&#xE9;lulas, bem como &#xE0; ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de um programa gen&#xE9;tico fetal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Diferentemente do remodelamento induzido pela FA, mudan&#xE7;as na corrente i&#xF4;nica na IC n&#xE3;o reduzem a dura&#xE7;&#xE3;o do potencial de a&#xE7;&#xE3;o ou a velocidade de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o e, portanto, n&#xE3;o contribuem diretamente para a forma&#xE7;&#xE3;o de arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
<p>A ICFEp com FA predominante &#xE9; um fen&#xF3;tipo cl&#xED;nico &#xFA;nico, caracterizado pela disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o mec&#xE2;nica do AE, sintomas congestivos, e progn&#xF3;stico ruim. A CMPa &#xE9; uma condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o comum entre pacientes com ICFEp e FA e est&#xE1; associada com piores resist&#xEA;ncia vascular pulmonar e fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular direita, e consumo mais alto de oxig&#xEA;nio. Al&#xE9;m disso, esses pacientes apresentam anormalidades na fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial direita que levam &#xE0; congest&#xE3;o venosa aumentada. Pacientes com ICFEp e FA predominante podem apresentar um claro remodelamento do AE sem necessariamente um pior desempenho do VE. Enquanto a perda da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o contr&#xE1;til do AE causada por FA contribui, sem d&#xFA;vida, para manifesta&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas da CMPa, uma menor complac&#xEA;ncia do AE causa comprometimento da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o hemodin&#xE2;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recentemente, um novo elemento foi identificado como um fator contribuinte para a fisiopatologia da ICFEP. A dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos an&#xE9;is das v&#xE1;lvulas tric&#xFA;spide e mitral contribui para a regurgita&#xE7;&#xE3;o da v&#xE1;lvula ao piorar o remodelamento atrial, e pode levar a uma sobrecarga em um ventr&#xED;culo r&#xED;gido e reduzido, causando assim um aumento na press&#xE3;o de enchimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> A dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o do anel mitral tamb&#xE9;m causa regurgita&#xE7;&#xE3;o mitral funcional, contribuindo ainda mais para a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do AE. Esses dados sugerem que a CMPa pode ocorrer desproporcionalmente &#xE0; disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do VE na ICFEP com predomin&#xE2;ncia da FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
<p>A ICFEp e a FA possuem caracter&#xED;sticas fisiopatol&#xF3;gicas e sintomas em comum incluindo defici&#xEA;ncia relativa de &#xF3;xido n&#xED;trico,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> dispneia e intoler&#xE2;ncia ao exerc&#xED;cio. Tais sintomas n&#xE3;o espec&#xED;ficos na FA isolada s&#xE3;o comumente atribu&#xED;dos &#xE0; arritmia. No entanto, esses pacientes apresentam, provavelmente, CMPa, e a restaura&#xE7;&#xE3;o do ritmo sinusal pode n&#xE3;o aliviar os sintomas completamente. Deve-se considerar que esses pacientes apresentem ICFEp como FA predominante. De fato, em uma coorte de pacientes com FA e dispneia sem etiologia clara, a probabilidade de uma ICFEp n&#xE3;o diagnosticada foi maior que 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Recentemente, um escore de risco para ICFEp, o escore H2FpEF, identificou a FA como a vari&#xE1;vel cl&#xED;nica mais importantes na predi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de ICFEp em pacientes com dispneia. Assim, a CMPa secund&#xE1;ria &#xE0; FA &#xE9; um dos principais fatores contribuintes para a patog&#xEA;nese da ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
<p>A distens&#xE3;o do AE na ICFEp devido &#xE0; eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o cr&#xF4;nica da press&#xE3;o de enchimento do VE e da press&#xE3;o no AE resulta em remodelamento do AE. Assim, o tamanho do &#xE1;trio est&#xE1; geralmente aumentado na ICFEp, o que n&#xE3;o s&#xF3; se tornou um crit&#xE9;rio diagn&#xF3;stico, como tamb&#xE9;m &#xE9; um fator progn&#xF3;stico &#xFA;til.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Embora a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica do VE seja uma altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o fisiopatol&#xF3;gica fundamental na ICFEp, &#xE9; dif&#xED;cil determinar essa condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o exclusivamente pela ocorr&#xEA;ncia de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica. De fato, recomendou-se incluir a dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o do AE (volume do AE &#x3E; 32mL/m<sup>2</sup>) como uma anormalidade estrutural adicional no diagn&#xF3;stico de ICFEp nas diretrizes da <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> e na Atualiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de T&#xF3;picos Emergentes da Diretriz Brasileira de Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Estudos pr&#xE9;vios mostraram que pacientes com ICFEp apresentaram um AE de maior tamanho que pacientes hipertensos com hipertrofia do VE. De fato, a hipertrofia do VE &#xE9; um precursor comum da ICFEp e um indicador de press&#xE3;o aumentada do AE, levando ao remodelamento atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
<p>Um estudo populacional do tipo coorte<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> mostrou que dois ter&#xE7;os dos pacientes com ICFEp apresentaram FA antes (fator de risco), concomitantemente ou ap&#xF3;s o diagn&#xF3;stico de ICFEp (comorbidade), destacando a intera&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre essas duas condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es. No diagn&#xF3;stico da ICFEp, pacientes com FA (pr&#xE9;via ou concomitante) eram mais velhos, e apresentavam &#xE1;trio com maiores dimens&#xF5;es, pior disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica, e n&#xED;veis mais elevados de BNP em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o a pacientes em ritmo sinusal, consistente com IC mais avan&#xE7;ada. O desenvolvimento de FA incidente foi associado com idade avan&#xE7;ada, hipertens&#xE3;o arterial sist&#xEA;mica, disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal, dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o do AE e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica no diagn&#xF3;stico de IC. Importante mencionar que tanto FA prevalente como FA incidente foram associadas com pior sobrevida na ICFEp, mesmo ap&#xF3;s ajuste quanto a potenciais fatores de confus&#xE3;o. Esses dados sugerem qe a FA pode ser um fator de risco e, potencialmente, uma comorbidade de mortalidade aumentada na ICFEp, independentemente de outros fatores de risco conhecidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>A ICFEp aumenta o risco de CMPa e FA</title>
<p>O mecanismo mais comumente reconhecido pelo qual a ICFEp conduz &#xE0; FA &#xE9; o remodelamento funcional e estrutural do AE, substrato para a CMPa. Em pacientes com ICEFp, volumes do AE s&#xE3;o 68% maiores em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o a controles pareados por idade, e 40% maiores que em pacientes com doen&#xE7;a card&#xED;aca hipertensiva sem IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Um AE aumentado &#xE9; um substrato pr&#xF3;-arr&#xED;tmico associado com fibrose atrial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> e a distribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o anormal de <italic>gap junctions</italic> e perda do acoplamento das c&#xE9;lulas em &#xE1;reas de fibrose contribuem para o remodelamento el&#xE9;trico, aumento da refratariedade atrial e desenvolvimento de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na CMPa, tamb&#xE9;m observa-se o importante papel das <italic>gap junctions</italic> no remodelamento atrial, envolvendo prote&#xED;nas conexinas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> e a consequente heterogeneidade da propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o de impulso, estabelecendo circuitos de reentrada que predisp&#xF5;em &#xE0; FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Nesse caso, estudos n&#xE3;o conseguiram ainda definir a doen&#xE7;a de base, se ICFEp ou CMPa. Portanto, h&#xE1; ainda um dilema diagn&#xF3;stico em se discriminar ICFEp de CMPa/FA devido a sintomas em comum como falta de ar e intoler&#xE2;ncia ao exerc&#xED;cio. No entanto, &#xE9; importante distinguir uma condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de outra de maneira precisa, devido, em parte, da fisiopatologia potencialmente diferente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Assim, a sobreposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de FA e ICFEp dificulta a interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o de um mecanismo causal definitivo com base nas caracter&#xED;sticas cl&#xED;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Mecanismos pelos quais a CMPa e a FA conduzem &#xE0; ICFEp</title>
<p>A CMPa leva &#xE0; dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o do AE, altera a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial e causa fibrose atrial e, por isso, pode ser causa direta de ICFEp. De fato, uma cardiovers&#xE3;o bem-sucedida da FA est&#xE1; associada com restaura&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o de bomba propulsora do &#xE1;trio e melhora do enchimento ventricular, com um aumento na contribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial para o enchimento ventricular de 30% para 47% um m&#xEA;s ap&#xF3;s o retorno do ritmo sinusal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> A FA tamb&#xE9;m est&#xE1; associada com fibrose do mioc&#xE1;rdio do VE, que, por sua vez, contribui para a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica e ICFEp. Ainda, o remodelamento do anel atrioventricular com regurgita&#xE7;&#xE3;o mitral e tric&#xFA;spide progressiva pode ser outro mecanismo pelo qual a CMPa causa ICFEp. A deple&#xE7;&#xE3;o de ANP, observada na FA permanente, pode levar a mais vasoconstri&#xE7;&#xE3;o e congest&#xE3;o, dando condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es para o desenvolvimento de ICFEp incidente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
<p>A ICFEp e a CMPa apresentam mecanismos fisiopatol&#xF3;gicos em comum, uma vez que muitos pacientes com ICFEp apresentam FA. Al&#xE9;m disso, ambas provavelmente compartilham mecanismos fisiopatol&#xF3;gicos comuns, tais como inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xEA;mica, ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o neuro-humoral, atividade aumentada do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o endotelial, libera&#xE7;&#xE3;o reduzida de ANP, remodelamento do anel mitral e tric&#xFA;spide, incompet&#xEA;ncia cronotr&#xF3;pica, e taquicardiomiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na CMPa, o desenvolvimento da IC &#xE9; geralmente atribu&#xED;do &#xE0; taquicardia ou &#xE0; cardiomiopatia induzida por altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es hemodin&#xE2;micas, efeitos celulares, e ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o neuro-hormonal. As altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es hemodin&#xE2;micas que levam &#xE0; CMPa s&#xE3;o: di&#xE1;stase mais curta, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do d&#xE9;bito card&#xED;aco, efeitos estruturais como remodelamento exc&#xEA;ntrico do VE, fibrose subendoc&#xE1;rdica e perfus&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica deficiente. As principais altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es celulares relacionadas &#xE0; CMPa incluem mudan&#xE7;as no citoesqueleto, ruptura da matriz mitocondrial e manipula&#xE7;&#xE3;o anormal do c&#xE1;lcio. Finalmente, a ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o neuro-hormonal, como o aumento na atividade do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona e de pept&#xED;deos natriur&#xE9;ticos, tamb&#xE9;m estaria envolvida no desenvolvimento da CMPa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Diagn&#xF3;stico da CMPa</title>
<p>O diagn&#xF3;stico correto da CMPa &#xE9; importante e inclui exames de eletrocardiograma (ECG), ecocardiograma, resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca e biomarcadores, que identificam e quantificam disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o el&#xE9;trica, mec&#xE2;nica e estrutural nos &#xE1;trios (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Principais crit&#xE9;rios laboratoriais, de eletrocardiograma e ecocardiograma para o diagn&#xF3;stico de cardiomiopatia atrial.57 ECG: eletrocardiografia; PTFV1: for&#xE7;a terminal da onda na deriva&#xE7;&#xE3;o 1; AE: &#xE1;trio esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf05-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>Um ECG anormal pode dar informa&#xE7;&#xF5;es sobre dist&#xFA;rbios de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o e remodelamento el&#xE9;trico. Estudos que analisaram par&#xE2;metros eletrocardiogr&#xE1;ficos apresentaram defini&#xE7;&#xF5;es muito heterog&#xEA;neas da CMPa<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 6</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f12">
<label>Figura 6</label>
<caption>
<title>Exemplos de altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es eletrocardiogr&#xE1;ficas que podem indicar cardiomiopatia atrial;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> PTFV-1: for&#xE7;a terminal da onda na deriva&#xE7;&#xE3;o.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0259-gf06-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>A an&#xE1;lise de ondas f pode ser adequada para detectar tanto altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es fisiol&#xF3;gicas como estruturais nos &#xE1;trios. FA de ondas grossa (&#x201C;coarse-wave&#x201D;) definida como amplitude da onda f na deriva&#xE7;&#xE3;o V1&#x2265;1mm, est&#xE1; associada &#xE0; redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o do AE e da velocidade m&#xE1;xima de esvaziamento atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> A amplitude de onda f est&#xE1; fortemente correlacionada com volume do AE medido por ecocardiografia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
<p>A onda P representam a despolariza&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial e est&#xE1; associada a remodelamento el&#xE9;trico do AE. Os par&#xE2;metros de onda P incluem sua dura&#xE7;&#xE3;o, dispers&#xE3;o, eixo, voltagem, bloqueio atrial e for&#xE7;a terminal da onda na deriva&#xE7;&#xE3;o V1 (PTFV1).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Os par&#xE2;metros de onda P s&#xE3;o preditivos de acidente vascular cerebral isqu&#xEA;mico, independentemente de FA, sugerindo que eles podem refletir o remodelamento independente de arritmog&#xEA;nese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
<p>A PTFV1 &#xE9; um marcador eletrocardiogr&#xE1;fico do remodelamento atrial. A onda P na deriva&#xE7;&#xE3;o V1 &#xE9; normalmente bif&#xE1;sica, em que a segunda por&#xE7;&#xE3;o negativa da onda P representa a propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o da excita&#xE7;&#xE3;o no AE. A PTFV1 &#xE9; determinada multiplicando-se a amplitude da segundo por&#xE7;&#xE3;o da onda P por sua largura. Uma PTFV1 &#x2265; &#x2212;4,000&#xB5;V &#xD7; ms &#xE9; considerada patol&#xF3;gica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
<p>Uma an&#xE1;lise de ECG utilizando intelig&#xEA;ncia artificial foi realizada para detectar CMPa em 613 pacientes com ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> O m&#xE9;todo baseia-se em um algoritmo assistido por computador que analisa dados de ECG de 12 deriva&#xE7;&#xF5;es de repouso e inclui crit&#xE9;rios sobre a probabilidade de FA. A doen&#xE7;a card&#xED;aca estrutural foi mais grave nos pacientes com maior probabilidade de FA avaliada por intelig&#xEA;ncia artificial, com hipertrofia do VE, maiores volumes do AE, e diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o no reservat&#xF3;rio do AE no ecocardiograma. Cada aumento em 10% na probabilidade de FA por intelig&#xEA;ncia artificial resultou em um risco 31% maior de se desenvolver FA incidente em pacientes com ritmo sinusal e sem FA pr&#xE9;via. Na popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o total, cada aumento de 10% na probabilidade de FA por intelig&#xEA;ncia artificial levou a um aumento de 12% no risco de morte.</p>
<p>A ecocardiografia &#xE9; o m&#xE9;todo de imagem de escolha para rastrear e monitorar pacientes com morfologia e fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o anormais do AE, devido ao seu uso amplo, n&#xE3;o invasivo, e de baixo custo. Assim, o ecocardiograma pode ser &#xFA;til na detec&#xE7;&#xE3;o da CMPa. Em estudos que investigaram a utilidade do ecocardiograma, a CMPa foi identificada ao se demonstrar uma associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre tamanho anormal do AE e desfechos cl&#xED;nicos prim&#xE1;rios tais como FA e recorr&#xEA;ncia da FA ap&#xF3;s acidente vascular cerebral isqu&#xEA;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
<p>O &#xCD;ndice de Volume do AE (IVAE) &#xE9; mais preciso para estimar o tamanho atrial que o di&#xE2;metro do AE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Um IVAE aumentado foi descrito como um marcador precoce da CMPa e est&#xE1; geralmente presente em pacientes com FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
<p>Al&#xE9;m das anormalidades no volume atrial esquerdo que indicam um remodelamento estrutural, a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial pode fornecer outros indicadores importantes da presen&#xE7;a de CMPa. Tanto um AE aumentado como uma fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de vazio diminu&#xED;da no AE s&#xE3;o fen&#xF4;menos comuns em pacientes com FA, com uma correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o negativa entre tamanho do AE e fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de vazio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
<p>A avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do AE tamb&#xE9;m &#xE9; poss&#xED;vel por medidas de ecocardiograma com Doppler, e fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o alterada do AE pode ser indicativo de CMPa. Enquanto a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do AE, representada pela velocidade da onda E transmitral, aumenta com a maior incid&#xEA;ncia da FA, ocorre um efeito oposto sobre a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o contr&#xE1;til, representada pela velocidade da onda A transmitral card&#xED;aco, e a velocidade Doppler do tecido anular mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
<p>Outro importante marcador de CMPa &#xE9; a deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o (<italic>strain</italic>) do AE, um processo c&#xED;clico analisado em tr&#xEA;s fases: fase de reservat&#xF3;rio, fase de condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o e fase de contra&#xE7;&#xE3;o. Tra&#xE7;os do <italic>strain</italic> do AE obtidos por ecocardiografia com <italic>speckle tracking</italic> s&#xE3;o em grande parte, reflexos do <italic>strain</italic> no VE, uma vez que o AE e o VE compartilham o anel mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> A superioridade do <italic>strain</italic> atrial sobre o IVAE, uma vari&#xE1;vel bem estabelecida para a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos pacientes com ICFEp, foi discutida.<sup>63</sup></p>
<p>O exame de CMR &#xE9; considerado o padr&#xE3;o ouro para avaliar altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es funcionais e estruturais no cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o. A RMC com gadol&#xED;nio apresenta bom desempenho na avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o de fibrose atrial. A fibrose atrial identificada por esse m&#xE9;todo pode ajudar a selecionar pacientes eleg&#xED;veis para abla&#xE7;&#xE3;o da FA e predizer o curso da disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do n&#xF3; sinoatrial, progress&#xE3;o da FA, e risco de acidente vascular cerebral em pacientes com FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>V&#xE1;rios biomarcadores circulantes, incluindo marcadores inflamat&#xF3;rios e de fibroses, e pept&#xED;deos atriais, foram propostos para estimar o remodelamento atrial e CMPa. No entanto, os resultados s&#xE3;o conflitantes, uma vez que os biomarcadores relacionados &#xE0; inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o e &#xE0; fibrose n&#xE3;o s&#xE3;o espec&#xED;ficos para essas condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es. Assim, o valor cl&#xED;nico dos biomarcadores na avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o de CMPa n&#xE3;o est&#xE1; claro, bem como seu uso rotineiro no rastreamento &#xE9; question&#xE1;vel.</p>
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<title>Tratamento da CMPa</title>
<p>O tratamento da CMPa deve incluir o controle dos fatores de risco subjacentes, anticoagula&#xE7;&#xE3;o e o uso de terapia medicamentosa definida nas diretrizes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> O controle da frequ&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca &#xE9; o primeiro passo para o controle de sintomas cl&#xED;nicos e restaura&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca. O controle da frequ&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca com cardiovers&#xE3;o em curto prazo tamb&#xE9;m pode ser uma tentativa na fase inicial. Para o tratamento em longo prazo, evid&#xEA;ncias corroboram o uso de abla&#xE7;&#xE3;o da FA como estrat&#xE9;gia preferencial para pacientes que s&#xE3;o bons candidatos ao m&#xE9;todo. O controle da frequ&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca em longo prazo pode ser usado como alternativa para pacientes que n&#xE3;o s&#xE3;o bons candidatos para abla&#xE7;&#xE3;o da FA ou que preferem uma estrat&#xE9;gia conservadora, mesmo sabendo que essa pode ser inferior &#xE0; abla&#xE7;&#xE3;o em desfechos cl&#xED;nicos de longo prazo. Se monitorados de perto, as drogas antiarr&#xED;tmicas podem ser usadas em um grupo de pacientes, de modo independente ou como adjuvante &#xE0; abla&#xE7;&#xE3;o para auxiliar no controle do ritmo card&#xED;aco. Quando esse controle n&#xE3;o &#xE9; poss&#xED;vel, ou quando o controle da taxa farmacol&#xF3;gica &#xE9; inadequado, a abla&#xE7;&#xE3;o do n&#xF3; atrioventricular com estimula&#xE7;&#xE3;o fisiol&#xF3;gica pode ser considerada.</p>
<p>Muitos ensaios controlados randomizados e registros observacionais multic&#xEA;ntricos demonstraram a superioridade da abla&#xE7;&#xE3;o da FA sobre a terapia medicamentosa para manuten&#xE7;&#xE3;o do ritmo sinusal. No entanto, recorr&#xEA;ncias tardias s&#xE3;o comuns e est&#xE3;o associadas com substrato atrial mais avan&#xE7;ado e doen&#xE7;a card&#xED;aca estrutural.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
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</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclus&#xE3;o</title>
<p>A CMPa foi associada com ICFEp e tem um impacto significativo sobre a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o atrial e desenvolvimento de arritmias, principalmente FA. A FA ocorre em mais da metade dos indiv&#xED;duos com ICFEp, e a ICFEp ocorre em mais de um ter&#xE7;o dos indiv&#xED;duos com FA. Embora a ICFEp e a CMPa frequentemente coexistam, h&#xE1; muitas quest&#xF5;es n&#xE3;o respondidas sobre a fisiopatologia, sintomatologia, diagn&#xF3;stico e progn&#xF3;stico de ambas as condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es. Quando combinadas, a CMPa e a ICFEp oferecem um progn&#xF3;stico ruim aos pacientes.</p>
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<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo n&#xE3;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
<p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o acad&#xEA;mica</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o deste estudo a programas de p&#xF3;s-gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
<p><bold>Aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9;tica e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo n&#xE3;o cont&#xE9;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
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