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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &#x26; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20220074</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20220074</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Original Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Efficacy of Different Cumulative Doses of Doxorubicin in the Induction of a Dilated Cardiomyopathy Model in Rats</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5035-9172</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Tanaka</surname><given-names>Denise Mayumi</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Statistical analysis</role> 
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2288-894X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>O&#x2019;Connell</surname><given-names>Jo&#xE3;o Lucas</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Acquisition of data</role> 
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6174-6939</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fabricio</surname><given-names>Camila Godoy</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role> 
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2526-0656</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Romano</surname><given-names>Minna Moreira Dias</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9369-3859</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Campos</surname><given-names>Erica Carolina</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3455-2463</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Oliveira</surname><given-names>Luciano Fonseca Lemos de</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role> 
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1090-8165</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Schmidt</surname><given-names>Andr&#xE9;</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5026-335X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Carvalho</surname><given-names>Eduardo Elias Vieira de</given-names></name>
<role>Acquisition of data</role> 
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Sim&#xF5;es</surname><given-names>Marcus Vin&#xED;cius</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>Statistical analysis</role>
<role>Obtaining financing</role>
<role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#xE3;o Preto</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cl&#xED;nica M&#xE9;dica</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#xED;nica M&#xE9;dica &#x2013; Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#xE3;o Preto &#x2013; Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Uberl&#xE2;ndia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cardiologia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Uberl&#xE2;ndia</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cardiologia &#x2013; Faculdade de Medicina &#x2013; Universidade Federal de Uberl&#xE2;ndia, Uberl&#xE2;ndia, MG &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Uberl&#xE2;ndia</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Fisioterapia</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Uberl&#xE2;ndia</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Fisioterapia &#x2013; Universidade Federal de Uberl&#xE2;ndia, Uberl&#xE2;ndia, MG &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Tri&#xE2;ngulo Mineiro</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Ci&#xEA;ncias da Sa&#xFA;de</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Fisioterapia Aplicada</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Uberaba</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Fisioterapia Aplicada &#x2013; Instituto de Ci&#xEA;ncias da Sa&#xFA;de - Universidade Federal do Tri&#xE2;ngulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG &#x2013; Brazil</institution></aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Marcus Vinicius Sim&#xF5;es</bold> &#x2022; Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas &#x2013; Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#xE3;o Preto &#x2013; Avenida dos Bandeirantes, 3900, Postal Code <postal-code>14.049-900</postal-code>, Ribeir&#xE3;o Preto &#x2013; S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brazil. E-mail: <email>msimoes@fmrp.usp.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2022</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<season>Jul-Sep</season>
<year>2022</year></pub-date>
<volume>2</volume>
<issue>3</issue>
<fpage>242</fpage>
<lpage>249</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>29</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>26</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>26</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p></license></permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<sec>
<title>Background:</title>
<p>Doxorubicin (DOXO) has been used to induce dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) in experimental models.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Objective:</title>
<p>To analyze cardiac changes after DOXO infusion and define the most effective protocol to reproduce an experimental model of DCM.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Methods:</title>
<p>Male Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups and received increasing cumulative doses of DOXO (at a rate of 2 mg/kg/week) or saline solution: the control group (CTR) received saline solution, Group D-8 received a total infusion of 8 mg/kg, Group D-12 received 12 mg/kg, and Group D-16 received 6 mg/kg. All animals underwent echocardiography at baseline and after the end of infusion. The animals were then euthanized and cardiac tissue was collected for histological analysis.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Results:</title>
<p>Mortality rates were 20% (D-8), 30% (D-12), and 67.6% (D-16). The 8 mg/kg dose was not associated with a significant reduction in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) or an increase in left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD). There was significant LVEF impairment with 12 mg/kg and 16 mg/kg doses compared to the control (68.3&#xB1;5% vs 58.4&#xB1;9%, p &#x3C; 0.01, for CTR-12 vs D-12; and 66.0&#xB1;6% vs 47.6&#xB1;15%, p &#x3C; 0.01, for CTR-16 vs D-16). Histological analyses revealed a greater percentage of fibrosis in D-12 (10.6&#xB1;3.3%) and D-16 (9.8&#xB1;2.3%) compared to CTR (2.3&#xB1;1.0%), p &#x3C; 0.001.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Conclusions:</title>
<p>The DOXO dose of 16 mg/kg was associated with severe cardiac changes and high mortality. Thus, we propose a DOXO dose of 12 mg/kg as the most appropriate and effective for inducing DCM with an acceptable mortality rate.</p>
</sec>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>Doxorubicin</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiotoxicity</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Left Ventricular Dysfunction</kwd>
<kwd>Dilated Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<award-group>
<funding-source>Funda&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Apoio &#xE0; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#xE3;o Paulo</funding-source>
<award-id>2014/07722-4</award-id>
</award-group>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="8"/>
<table-count count="4"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="40"/>
<page-count count="8"/></counts></article-meta></front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Animal models of cardiovascular disease are crucial for investigating pathophysiological mechanisms and testing new therapies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Due to the high prevalence and clinical relevance of heart failure (HF) syndrome, several studies have described different models for analyzing this condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> In this context, experimental HF models should mimic the major pathophysiological and morphological changes detected in humans, including cardiac remodeling, reduced ventricular function, hemodynamic changes such as reduced cardiac output and increased systemic vascular resistance, and histopathological changes. Over the last decades, several experimental models of acute and chronic HF with reduced ejection fraction have been developed to reproduce different aspects of dilated cardiomyopathy, a condition that can be induced by different events such as volume overload,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> pressure overload by aortic constriction,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> induction of arterial hypertension,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> tachycardiomyopathy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> acute myocardial infarction,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> and the use of cardiotoxic drugs such as propranolol, imipramine, and doxorubicin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Doxorubicin (DOXO), an anthracycline antineoplastic agent, is one of the drugs most frequently employed by investigators to induce dilated cardiomyopathy and HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> DOXO is associated with dose-dependent cardiotoxicity, which may ultimately progress to HF. However, there is wide variation among protocols regarding the total cumulative dose of DOXO, the interval between doses, and the duration required to induce cardiopathy. In addition, the efficacy of these models in producing structural and functional changes that are consistent with those detected in human dilated cardiomyopathy while inducing acceptable mortality rates has not been clearly defined.</p>
<p>To understand these findings in greater depth, the present study aims to investigate the morphological and functional cardiac changes induced by different cumulative doses of DOXO in rats in terms of the associated mortality rate and to define the most effective and high-yield induction protocol that would reproduce an experimental model of non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="methods">
<title>Methods</title>
<sec>
<title>Animals</title>
<p>Adult male rats with a mean body weight of 250 g were obtained from the Central Animal House of the Ribeirao Preto Medical School, Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo (FMRP-USP). They were maintained in a climate controlled environment on a 12-h light/dark cycle with free access to water and standard chow. The number of animals allocated to each experimental group was based on previous studies and (an expectation of high mortality, especially in the groups that received DOXO infusion. This expectation was based on a series of prior reports in the literature on the use of DOXO to induce non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy, in which mortality was around 50 to 60%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> The Research Ethics Committee at FMRP approved all experimental procedures (protocol No. 041/2005).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Chemical products</title>
<p>Adriablastin&#xAE; RD (doxorubicin chloride) was purchased from Pfizer (Pharmacia, Milan, Italy), dissolved in saline solution (10 mg/100 mL), and administered by intravenous injection. In addition, intramuscular injections of ketamine hydrochloride (Vetbrands, Jacare&#xED;, SP, Brazil) and xylazine (Calier, Les Franqueses del Vall&#xE9;s, Barcelona, Spain) were used for anesthesia.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Experimental protocol</title>
<p>A total of 60 animals were randomly divided into 3 experimental groups and 1 control group without specific criteria, receiving intravenous infusions with increasing cumulative doses at a rate of 2 mg/kg/week of DOXO or saline solution: Group D-8 (n = 20 animals) received a total infusion of 8 mg/kg over 4 weeks, D-12 (n = 30 animals) received a total infusion of 12 mg/kg for 6 weeks, and D-16 (n = 28 animals) received a total infusion of 16 mg/kg over 8 weeks. The control group (CTR) consisted of 8 animals matched for age that received 0.9% NaCl solution of the same volume as the DOXO infusion for 8 weeks.</p>
<p>All animals underwent, at baseline and 2 weeks after the end of infusion, an in vivo assessment of ventricular function by echocardiography. Then, they were euthanized for histological assessment and quantitative analysis of collagen areas.</p>
<p>The animals were kept in cages with members of the same group. All of them were submitted to the same stress conditions and order of measurements to minimize potential confounders. All procedures were performed under anesthesia to reduce stress and pain. There was no restriction on feed and water.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Echocardiographic assessment of ventricular remodeling and function</title>
<p>Cardiac function was evaluated at baseline and after DOXO treatment by 2D echocardiography, as previously described.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>After sedation with ketamine and xylazine (20 and 8 mg/kg),the echocardiogram was recorded using a Sonos 5500 Philips (Andover, MA, USA) high-resolution two-dimensional echocardiography system with a 15-MHz high-frequency linear transducer. Using the parasternal window to obtain long-axis and short-axis images of the left ventricle (LV) at the papillary level, M-mode images were used to measure the interventricular septum, LV posterior wall thickness, and LV end-diastolic (LVEDD) and end-systolic (LVESD) dimensions. The diastolic diameter of the LV was measured at the maximum ventricular diastolic dimension, and systolic LV dimension was obtained during the maximum inward motion of the septum and posterior wall.</p>
<p>LV ejection fraction (LVEF) was calculated by the two-dimensional method, in which a two-dimensional LV shortening area was measured from the apical, subcostal, and, particularly, short axis views. In addition, images of left ventricular endocardial areas in diastole and systole were digitalized and measured offline. The shortening area was determined by the formula: EF (2D) = (EDA-ESA)/EDA, in which EDA and ESA are the end-diastolic and end-systolic areas, respectively.</p>
<p>The images were recorded by an echocardiography technician experienced in laboratory work with small animals who was blinded to the groups during the offline analysis at the end of the study.</p>
<p>All measurements represented the mean of five consecutive cardiac cycles using the same transducer position and angle in the same image frame. The interval between two consecutive cardiac cycles was measured for calculating heart rate.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Histopathology &#x2013; harvesting and preparation of hearts</title>
<p>Six animals randomly chosen from each group were used for histopathological analysis. The hearts were rapidly removed, rinsed in ice-cold 0.9% saline solution, and fixed as a whole by immersion in phosphate-buffered 10% formalin for 24 hours at 4&#xB0;C for histological study. Both ventricles from each heart were isolated and cut into two fragments by a midventricular coronal section. Each block was serially cut in the same direction at a thickness of 4&#x2013;7 &#xB5;m appropriate for each stain, and sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&#x26;E) and picrosirius red.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Collagen quantification</title>
<p>The sections stained with picrosirius red were used to quantify the interstitial collagen volume fraction using Leica Qwin Software V 3.2.0 (Leica Imaging Systems Ltd., Cambridge, UK) together with a Leica DMR microscope (Leica Microsystems Wetzlar GmbH, Wetzlar, Switzerland), video camera (Leica DC300F, Leica Microsystems AG, Heerbrugg, Switzerland), and an online computer. Twenty high-magnification fields (&#xD7;400) of the LV free wall were randomly selected for each animal, and interstitial collagen volume fraction values were expressed as percentages of the total LV area.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Statistical analysis</title>
<p>Continuous variables are reported as means &#xB1; standard errors of the mean, and nominal variables are reported as absolute (n) and relative (%) frequencies. Data were analyzed using GraphPad Prism 4 (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, USA). The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to verify the Gaussian distribution of the variables. Student&#x2019;s t-test was used to compare the results between experimental and control groups. The Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test, followed by Dunn&#x2019;s post-test, were used to evaluate the differences between the mean scores obtained at fibrosis quantification. Fischer&#x2019;s exact test was used to compare frequency distributions. The level of significance was set at p &#x3C; 0.05, two-tailed in all analyses.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="results">
<title>Results</title>
<sec>
<title>Mortality</title>
<p>Two weeks after the end of the drug infusion period, in group D-8, four of the 20 animals that had started the experiment died (20%). In group D-12, mortality was 30% (9/30 animals), whereas mortality was extremely elevated in D-16: 67.6% (19/28 animals). No animals in the CTR group died (0%). A significant difference in mortality was detected only between group D-16 and its respective CTR group (p &#x3C; 0.001), <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Mortality rate detected in the study groups (*p &#x3C; 0.001 &#x2013; Fisher&#x2019;s exact test).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0242-gf01.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Body weight</title>
<p>A significant reduction in body weight (compared to the respective controls) occurred in animals in group D-8 (368&#xB1;32 g vs 444&#xB1;19 g, p &#x3C; 0.01), group D-12 (366&#xB1;30 g vs 505&#xB1;23 g, p &#x3C; 0.0001), and group D-16 (331&#xB1;21 g vs 534&#xB1;29 g, p &#x3C; 0.0001). This difference was progressively more evident with the increasing DOXO dose, since the control animals weighed, on average, 20%, 38%, and 61% more than animals in groups D-8, D-12, and D-16, respectively.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Functional and structural LV evaluation by echocardiography</title>
<p><italic>Baseline evaluation:</italic> Baseline echocardiography data are presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>. No significant difference in echocardiography parameters was detected at baseline between groups (p &#x3E; 0.05) before DOXO administration.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Baseline echocardiography parameters assessed in all 86 studied animals</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="20%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"/>
<th align="center" valign="top">CTR (n=8)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-8 (n=20)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-12 (n=30)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-16 (n=28)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Weight</bold> (g)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">251.5&#xB1;18.3</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">248.1&#xB1;17.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">246.1&#xB1;15.5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">253.3&#xB1;8.9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>LVEDD</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">6.0&#xB1;0.7</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">5.8&#xB1;0.4</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">5.6&#xB1;0.6</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">5.9&#xB1;0.7</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>LVESD</bold>(mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">3.1&#xB1;0.8</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">2.8&#xB1;0.5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">2.7&#xB1;0.4</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">3.0&#xB1;1.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>SW thickness</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.5&#xB1;0.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.6&#xB1;0.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.6&#xB1;0.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.4&#xB1;0.2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>PW thickness</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.5&#xB1;0.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.6&#xB1;0.3</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.6&#xB1;0.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.5&#xB1;0.2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>LV mass</bold> (g)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.1&#xB1;0.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.0&#xB1;0.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.0&#xB1;0.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.1&#xB1;0.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>2D LVEF</bold>(%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">72.2&#xB1;9.9</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">72.7&#xB1;4.9</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">73.5&#xB1;7.5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">72.2&#xB1;6.5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Heart rate</bold>(bpm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">289&#xB1;18.8</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">317&#xB1;48.9</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">316&#xB1;26.3</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">295&#xB1;34.7</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>CTR: control group; LVEDD: left ventricular end-diastolic diameter; LVESD: left ventricular end-systolic diameter; PW thickness: posterior wall thickness at maximum diastole; SW thickness: septal wall thickness at maximum diastole; 2D LVEF: ejection fraction determined by the method of LV fractional shortening. ANOVA followed by the Tukey-Kramer multiple comparisons test.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p><italic>Evaluation after doxorubicin infusion:</italic> The echocardiography data obtained after DOXO infusion are presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Mortality, weight, and echocardiographic parameters of the 58 surviving animals according to experimental group</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="14%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"/>
<th align="center" valign="top">CTR-8 (n=8)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-8 (n=16)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">CTR-12 (n=8)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-12 (n=21)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">CTR-16 (n=8)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-16 (n=13)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Mortality</bold></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">0%</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">20%</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">0%</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">30%</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">0%</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">67.9% <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Weight</bold> (g)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">444&#xB1;19</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">368&#xB1;32 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">505&#xB1;23</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">366&#xB1;30 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">534&#xB1;29</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">331&#xB1;21<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>LVEDD</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">7.1&#xB1;0.9</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">6.7&#xB1;0.7</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">8.1&#xB1;0.8</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">7.6&#xB1;0.7 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#x2020;</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">8.1&#xB1;0.4</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">7.7&#xB1;0.8 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#x2020;</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>LVESD</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">3.5&#xB1;0.8</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">3.6&#xB1;0.5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">4.2&#xB1;1.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">4.5&#xB1;0.7 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#x2020;</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">4.3&#xB1;0.5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">5.1&#xB1;0.8 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#x2020;</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">&#x2021;</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>SW thickness</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.5&#xB1;0.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.5&#xB1;0.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.7&#xB1;0.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.6&#xB1;0.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.6&#xB1;0.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.5&#xB1;0.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>PW thickness</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.5&#xB1;0.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.6&#xB1;0.3</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.6&#xB1;0.3</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.5&#xB1;0.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.5&#xB1;0.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.4&#xB1;0.2 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#x2020;</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>LV mass</bold> (g)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.2&#xB1;0.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.2&#xB1;0.3</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.5&#xB1;0.2</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.3&#xB1;0.2 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.3&#xB1;0.1</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1.2&#xB1;0.1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>2D LVEF</bold>(%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">70&#xB1;8</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">66.7&#xB1;5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">68.3&#xB1;5</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">58.4&#xB1;9 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#x2020;</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">66.0&#xB1;6</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">47.6&#xB1;15 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#x2020;</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">&#x2021;</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Heart rate</bold> (bpm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">278&#xB1;22</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">258&#xB1;40</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">271&#xB1;21</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">251&#xB1;27</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">272&#xB1;18</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">227&#xB1;30 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#x2020;</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">&#x2021;</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p>CTR: control group; LVEDD: left ventricular end-diastolic diameter; LVESD: left ventricular end-systolic diameter; PW thickness: posterior wall thickness at maximum diastole; SW thickness: septal wall thickness at maximum diastole; 2D LVEF: ejection fraction determined by the method of LV fractional shortening.</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN3">
<label>*</label>
<p>p &#x3C; 0.05 compared to the control group according to age (unpaired t-test);</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN4">
<label>&#x2020;</label>
<p>p &#x3C; 0.05 compared to group D-8 (ANOVA and Tukey post-test);</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN5">
<label>&#x2021;</label>
<p>p &#x3C; 0.05 compared to group D-12 (ANOVA and Tukey post-test).</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>LVESD was larger in group D-16 compared to the respective control: 5.1&#xB1;0.8 mm vs 4.3&#xB1;0.5 mm, p &#x3C; 0.05. This variable presented no differences in the remaining experimental groups. The final LVESDs of animals in the D-8, D-12, and D-16 groups were similar to those of their controls, p &#x3E; 0.05.</p>
<p>LVEF results obtained by the two-dimensional method revealed that groups D-12 and D-16 exhibited a significant reduction of LV systolic function compared to their respective controls: 68.3&#xB1;5% vs 58.4&#xB1;9%, p &#x3C; 0.01, for groups CTR-12 vs D-12; 66.0&#xB1;6% vs 47.6&#xB1;15%, p &#x3C; 0.01, for group CTR-16 vs D-16. Thus, there was a 14.5% reduction in LVEF in group D-12 and a 27.9% reduction in group D-16. No decrease in LVEF was detected in group D-8, p &#x3E; 0.05 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Mean left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) values obtained in each of the study groups. * p &#x3C; 0.05 compared to the control group according to age (unpaired t-test) and compared between groups (ANOVA and Tukey post-test).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0242-gf02.tif"/></fig>
<p>The heart rate observed during echocardiography was significantly lower among D-16 animals (227&#xB1;30 bpm) than among their controls (272&#xB1;18 bpm), p &#x3C; 0.01. There was no difference in this parameter for the remaining experimental groups.</p>
<p>The LV mass estimated by echocardiography was significantly reduced in D-12 and D-16 animals compared to their controls, p &#x3C; 0.05. No differences in estimated LV mass were observed between D-8 animals and their controls.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Comparative analysis of different groups that received DOXO</title>
<p>A comparative analysis of the groups receiving different DOXO doses revealed a progressive decrease in LVEF (2D LVEF) between D-8 and D-12 (p &#x3C; 0.05), D-8 and D-16 (p &#x3C; 0.001), and D-12 and D-16 (p &#x3C; 0.05) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Quantitative analysis of histological changes by light microscopy</title>
<p>A histopathological analysis of the heart of control animals stained with H&#x26;E did not reveal any pathological changes, whereas the hearts of animals infused with DOXO showed myocyte injury with reduction and degeneration of myocardial fibers, a significant decrease of myofibrils with loss of myofibrillar organization, and periarteriolar fibrosis in the myocardium and interstices, associated with collagen deposition (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). The changes detected in group D-8 were less pronounced than in groups D-12 and D-16.</p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Representative histological sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&#x26;E) from the control (CTR) and doxorubicin (DOXO) groups (D-8, D-12, and D-16). Myocardial fiber loss and degeneration are observed in animals after DOXO infusion (panels B, C, and D), with a significant reduction in myofibrils, edema, and vacuolar degeneration (marked by arrows). These changes are more pronounced with the increment of DOXO cumulative doses.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0242-gf03.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Quantification of fibrosis</title>
<p>For a quantitative analysis of fibrosis, samples were stained with picrosirius red. A higher percentage of fibrosis was observed in groups D-8 (6.0&#xB1;2.3%), D-12 (10.6&#xB1;3.3%), and D-16 (9.8&#xB1;2.3%) compared to the control (2.3&#xB1;1.0%), p &#x3C; 0.001. Additionally, groups D-12 and D-16 showed a larger area of fibrosis than group D-8, p &#x3C; 0.001, but did not differ from one another (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Mean fibrosis values obtained in the study groups. * p &#x3C; 0.05 (ANOVA and Tukey post-test).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0242-gf04.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion">
<title>Discussion</title>
<p>In the present study, we investigated the effectiveness of different cumulative doses of DOXO in inducing functional and cardiac changes, balancing these results with mortality rates intrinsically associated with higher cumulative doses in order to define the dose of DOXO with the best efficacy. The main results showed a significant reduction of LV systolic function starting with a cumulative dose of 12 mg/kg of DOXO, with greater dysfunction occurring with the cumulative dose of 16 mg/kg and no significant decrease in LVEF with the 8 mg/kg dose. Additionally, we observed a significant increase in myocardial fibrosis compared to control in all 3 studied cumulative doses; the highest degree of fibrosis was observed in groups receiving 12 mg/kg and 16 mg/kg, which exhibited similar degrees of fibrosis. A progressive increase in mortality was associated with higher doses, with an excessive rate at the cumulative dose of 16 mg/kg (67.9%). Taken together, these results suggest that the dose of DOXO with the best efficacy for the induction of dilated cardiomyopathy in rats was 12 mg/kg.</p>
<sec>
<title>Mortality rates</title>
<p>The high mortality rate observed in the present study agrees with values reported in previous studies, ranging from 36 to 82%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Previous studies have shown that variations in mortality rates are related to three main reasons: total dose administered, duration of the period of infusion, and time of observation. Mortality increases with higher doses, shorter periods of administration, and longer periods of observation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>In addition to myocardial injury, high cumulative doses of DOXO produce renal, bone marrow, and gastrointestinal toxicity that may contribute to increased mortality rates due to the induction of hyperkalemia, hypervolemia, anemia, diarrhea, and malnutrition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> In addition to losing weight and muscle mass, the animals become weak and unable to feed properly, with a consequent progressive and generalized muscle weakness that may contribute to increased mortality. In the present study, animals in D-12 and D-16 showed significant differences in general aspect and weight compared to their respective controls, indirectly supporting the presence of these debilitating mechanisms. These changes have also been described by other authors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>In vivo structural and functional cardiac changes</title>
<p>In general, studies using DOXO were designed for investigating histopathological lesions<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> and studying the drug&#x2019;s cardiotoxicity,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> mainly focusing on metabolic changes and oxidative stress<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> instead of assessing the degree of in vivo ventricular dysfunction or mortality. Thus, their objective was not to characterize a model of HF or dilated cardiomyopathy, and we found a wide variety of protocols in the literature. Our study intended to describe a protocol that would be adequate, effective, and of better yield, reproducing an experimental model of non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy based on in vivo structural and functional changes but with acceptable mortality rates.</p>
<p>We highlight that in this study, we chose the intravenous infusion of DOXO at increasing cumulative doses. In a previous study with rats, O&#x2019;Connel et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> compared 2 protocols of DOXO infusion, a short one and a prolonged one, in the induction of dilated cardiomyopathy. In this study, we observed that both protocols generated similar histological injuries, although only the prolonged infusion was associated with structural and functional changes similar to those detected in clinical dilated cardiomyopathy. These findings support the idea that a prolonged infusion time is more effective than a short infusion when the main outcome is the induction of structural and functional changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>In the present study, we observed a clear correlation between the cumulative dose of DOXO and the degree of ventricular dysfunction that occurs progressively from the cumulative dose of 12 mg/kg. Our results show that the animals receiving a cumulative dose of 16 mg/kg presented more marked functional and structural cardiac changes assessed in vivo by 2D echocardiography when compared to their respective control groups. These changes were mainly characterized by an increase in LVESD, a decrease in LVEF, and a reduction of estimated LV mass. However, the mortality rates for this group were excessive, since more than two-thirds of the animals did not survive up to two weeks after the induction of cardiomyopathy.</p>
<p>Conversely, the cumulative dose of 12 mg/kg was assciated with structural changes that were not as marked as those observed with the 16 mg/kg dose, but it enough to cause a significant reduction in LV ejection fraction and an increase in myocardial fibrosis. In addition, the mortality rate for this group (30%) was acceptable, leading us to conclude that this protocol might be adequate for the induction of ventricular dysfunction with DOXO in rats.</p>
<p>Our results corroborate the findings of previous studies suggesting that cumulative doses above 12 mg/kg are associated with increased mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> The results obtained by Spivak et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> using a shorter DOXO dosing time suggested that cumulative doses above 12 mg/kg are associated with a mortality rate of more than 40%, thus being inappropriate for in vivo research on HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Indeed, the study by Schwarz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> demonstrated that higher doses (such as 25 mg/kg over a period of 10 weeks) are associated with a higher degree of ventricular dysfunction but also with high mortality rates, reaching 52%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Histopathological changes</title>
<p>In the present study, we observed clear morphological differences between groups. The injuries were typical from reports of DOXO-induced dilated cardiomyopathy in humans<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> and in other animal models,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> ie, predominantly involving damage to the myocytes with loss and degeneration of myocardial fibers, a significant reduction in myofibrils, fibrosis and collagen deposition, in addition to edema and cardiomyocyte vacuolization, intracellular edema, and myofibril disorganization. The collagen deposition observed in our study was similar to that reported in previous studies using this experimental model.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> The cumulative dose of DOXO associated with significant histological damage in our study was in agreement with reports that suggested a dose of 15 mg/kg as the most effective in inducing histopathological injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
<p>It should be noted that even though ventricular dysfunction was more marked at the 16 mg/kg dose, the degree of tissue injury represented by fibrosis was similar in groups D-12 and D-16, suggesting a possible dissociation between these two parameters in this range of cumulative DOXO doses. These results support previous evidence obtained by our research group showing a relative dissociation between the degree of tissue injury and the intensity of left ventricular dysfunction with the use of different regimens of DOXO infusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>Our results show that the induction model using a total cumulative dose of DOXO of 16 mg/kg with 8 weekly injections of 2 mg/kg is the one that best leads to morphological and functional changes in the animals, but it involves high, ethically unacceptable mortality, which discourages the use of this protocol. In addition, the difficulty in maintaining a highly aggressive model of ventricular dysfunction for the minimum period of time required for evaluating a given therapeutic intervention is a relevant factor in the choice of the most efficient protocol.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusions</title>
<p> Our results indicate that the model with 6 weekly injections of 2 mg/kg of DOXO, with a cumulative dose of 12 mg/kg, presents the best efficacy for inducing dilated cardiomyopathy, resulting in significant left ventricular remodeling, systolic function impairment, and tissue injury associated with acceptable mortality rates.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<ack>
<title>Acknowledgments</title>
<p>This study was supported by a research grant from Funda&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Apoio &#xE0; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#xE3;o Paulo (FAPESP &#x2013; Protocol: 2014/07722-4) and Funda&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Apoio ao Ensino Pesquisa e Assist&#xEA;ncia do Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas (FAEPA).</p>
</ack>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>This study was partially funded by Funda&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Apoio &#xE0; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#xE3;o Paulo (FAPESP &#x2013; Protocolo: 2014/07722-4) and Funda&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Apoio ao Ensino Pesquisa e Assist&#xEA;ncia do Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Jo&#xE3;o Lucas O&#x2019;Connell, from Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5026-335X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Carvalho</surname><given-names>Eduardo Elias Vieira de</given-names>
</name>
<role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<role>An&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role>
<role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Sim&#xF5;es</surname><given-names>Marcus Vin&#xED;cius</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>An&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role>
<role>An&#xE1;lise estat&#xED;stica</role>
<role>Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de financiamento</role>
<role>Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/></contrib>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#xED;nica M&#xE9;dica &#x2013; Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#xE3;o Preto &#x2013; Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Uberl&#xE2;ndia</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cardiologia &#x2013; Faculdade de Medicina &#x2013; Universidade Federal de Uberl&#xE2;ndia, Uberl&#xE2;ndia, MG &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff7">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Uberl&#xE2;ndia</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Fisioterapia &#x2013; Universidade Federal de Uberl&#xE2;ndia, Uberl&#xE2;ndia, MG &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff8">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Uberaba</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Fisioterapia Aplicada &#x2013; Instituto de Ci&#xEA;ncias da Sa&#xFA;de - Universidade Federal do Tri&#xE2;ngulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG &#x2013; Brasil</institution></aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Marcus Vinicius Sim&#xF5;es</bold> &#x2022; Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas - Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#xE3;o Preto &#x2013; Avenida dos Bandeirantes, 3900, CEP <postal-code>14.049-900</postal-code>, Ribeir&#xE3;o Preto &#x2013; S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brasil. E-mail: <email>msimoes@fmrp.usp.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<sec>
<title>Fundamento:</title>
<p>A doxorrubicina (DOXO) tem sido utilizada para induzir a cardiomiopatia dilatada (CMD) em modelos experimentais.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Objetivo:</title>
<p>Analisar as altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es card&#xED;acas ap&#xF3;s a infus&#xE3;o de DOXO e definir o protocolo mais eficaz para reproduzir um modelo experimental de CMD.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>M&#xE9;todos:</title>
<p>Dividiram-se ratos Wistar machos em 4 grupos e administraram-se doses cumulativas crescentes (2 mg/kg/semana) de DOXO ou solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina. Os grupos controle (CTRs) receberam solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina. O grupo D-8 recebeu uma infus&#xE3;o total de 8 mg/kg, o D-12 recebeu 12 mg/kg e o D-16 recebeu 16 mg/kg. Todos os animais foram submetidos a ecocardiograma inicialmente e ap&#xF3;s o t&#xE9;rmino da infus&#xE3;o. Em seguida, os animais foram submetidos a eutan&#xE1;sia para an&#xE1;lise histol&#xF3;gica do tecido card&#xED;aco.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Resultados:</title>
<p>A taxa de mortalidade foi de 20% (D-8), 30% (D-12) e 67,6% (D-16). A dose de 8 mg/kg n&#xE3;o foi associada a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa da FEVE ou a aumento da DDVE. Houve redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa da FEVE com a dose de 12 mg/kg e 16 mg/kg em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o ao CTR 68,3% (DP, 5%) vs 58,4% (DP, 9%), p&#x3C;0,01, para os grupos CTR-12 vs D-12 e 66,0% (DP, 6%) vs 47,6% (DP, 15%), p&#x3C;0,01, para os grupos CTR-16 vs D-16. A an&#xE1;lise histol&#xF3;gica revelou percentual maior de fibrose em D-12 (10,6% DP, 3,3%) e D-16 (9,8% DP, 2,3%) em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o ao CTR (2,3% DP, 1,0%), p&#x3C;0,001.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Conclus&#xF5;es:</title>
<p>Associou-se a dose de DOXO de 16 mg/kg a altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es card&#xED;acas graves e alta mortalidade. Assim, propomos que a dose de DOXO de 12 mg/kg seja a mais apropriada e eficaz para a indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de CMD e taxa de mortalidade aceit&#xE1;vel.</p>
</sec>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
<kwd>Doxorrubicina</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiotoxicidade</kwd>
<kwd>Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca</kwd>
<kwd>Disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o Ventricular Esquerda</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomiopatia Dilatada</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdu&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>Modelos animais de doen&#xE7;as cardiovasculares s&#xE3;o cruciais para investigar os mecanismos fisiopatol&#xF3;gicos e testar os efeitos de novas terapias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Devido &#xE0; alta preval&#xEA;ncia e relev&#xE2;ncia cl&#xED;nica da s&#xED;ndrome de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC), v&#xE1;rios estudos descreveram diferentes modelos para a an&#xE1;lise dessa condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Neste contexto, os modelos experimentais de IC devem mimetizar as principais altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es fisiopatol&#xF3;gicas e morfol&#xF3;gicas encontradas em humanos, incluindo remodela&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular, altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es hemodin&#xE2;micas, tais como redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do d&#xE9;bito card&#xED;aco e aumento da resist&#xEA;ncia vascular sist&#xEA;mica, al&#xE9;m de altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es histopatol&#xF3;gicas. Ao longo das &#xFA;ltimas d&#xE9;cadas, v&#xE1;rios modelos experimentais de IC aguda e cr&#xF4;nica com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o reduzida foram desenvolvidos para reproduzir diferentes aspectos da cardiomiopatia dilatada (CMD), uma condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o que pode ser induzida por diferentes eventos, como sobrecarga de volume,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> sobrecarga da press&#xE3;o de constri&#xE7;&#xE3;o a&#xF3;rtica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de hipertens&#xE3;o arterial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> taquicardiomiopatia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> infarto agudo do mioc&#xE1;rdio<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> ou uso de drogas cardiot&#xF3;xicas como propranolol, imipramina e doxorrubicina (DOXO).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Entre as drogas usadas, a DOXO, um agente antineopl&#xE1;sico antrac&#xED;clico, &#xE9; uma das drogas mais empregadas por investigadores para induzir &#xE0; CMD e IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> A DOXO est&#xE1; associada &#xE0; cardiotoxicidade dose-dependente, que pode progredir sequencialmente para IC. Entretanto, h&#xE1; uma grande varia&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre os protocolos usados em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE0; dose cumulativa total de DOXO, o intervalo entre as doses e a dura&#xE7;&#xE3;o necess&#xE1;ria para induzir &#xE0; CMD. Al&#xE9;m disso, a efic&#xE1;cia desses modelos na produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o de altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es estruturais e funcionais consistentes com aquelas encontradas na CMD humana, embora demonstre ser eficaz ao induzir a uma taxa de mortalidade aceit&#xE1;vel, n&#xE3;o foi claramente definida.</p>
<p>Portanto, para entender essas descobertas com maior profundidade, o presente estudo visa investigar as altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es morfol&#xF3;gicas e funcionais card&#xED;acas induzidas por diferentes doses cumulativas de DOXO em ratos quanto &#xE0; taxa de mortalidade associada e definir o protocolo de indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o mais eficaz e de maior rendimento, que reproduziria um modelo experimental de CMD n&#xE3;o isqu&#xEA;mica.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="methods">
<title>M&#xE9;todos</title>
<sec>
<title>Animais</title>
<p>Obtiveram-se ratos machos adultos com peso m&#xE9;dio de 250 g no Biot&#xE9;rio Geral da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#xE3;o Preto da Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo (FMRP-USP). Eles foram mantidos em um ambiente climaticamente controlado em um ciclo claro-escuro de 12 horas, com livre acesso &#xE0; &#xE1;gua e ra&#xE7;&#xE3;o padr&#xE3;o. O n&#xFA;mero de animais alocados para cada grupo experimental baseou-se em estudos anteriores, com base na expectativa de alta mortalidade, especialmente nos grupos que receberam a infus&#xE3;o de DOXO. Essa expectativa fundamentou-se em uma s&#xE9;rie de relat&#xF3;rios anteriores na literatura sobre o uso de DOXO, para induzir um modelo experimental de CMD n&#xE3;o isqu&#xEA;mica, no qual observou-se mortalidade em torno de 50% a 60%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> O Comit&#xEA; de &#xC9;tica em Pesquisa aprovou todos os procedimentos experimentais da FMRP (protocolo n&#xBA; 041/2005).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Produtos qu&#xED;micos</title>
<p>Adriablastin<sup>&#xAE;</sup> RD (cloreto de doxorrubicina) da Pfizer (Pharmacia, Mil&#xE3;o, It&#xE1;lia) foi dissolvido em soro fisiol&#xF3;gico (10 mg/100 ml) e administrado por inje&#xE7;&#xE3;o intravenosa. Al&#xE9;m disso, para anestesia utilizaram-se inje&#xE7;&#xF5;es intramusculares de cloridrato de ketamina (Vetbrands, Jacarei, SP, Brasil) e xilazina (Calier, Les Franqueses del Vall&#xE9;s, Barcelona, Espanha).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Protocolo experimental</title>
<p>Ao total, inclu&#xED;ram-se 60 animais no protocolo. Os animais foram divididos aleatoriamente em 3 grupos experimentais (D-8, D-12 e D-16) e 1 grupo controle (CTR), sem crit&#xE9;rios espec&#xED;ficos, recebendo infus&#xF5;es intravenosas com doses cumulativas crescentes de 2 mg/kg/semana de DOXO ou solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina. O grupo D-8 (n=20 animais) recebeu uma infus&#xE3;o total de 8 mg/kg durante 4 semanas, o D-12 (n=30 animais) recebeu uma infus&#xE3;o total de 12 mg/kg durante 6 semanas, e o D-16 (n=28 animais) recebeu uma infus&#xE3;o total de 16 mg/kg durante 8 semanas. O CTR consistia de 8 animais pareados por idade que receberam o mesmo volume de solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina durante 8 semanas.</p>
<p>Todos os animais foram submetidos no in&#xED;cio e 2 semanas ap&#xF3;s o final da infus&#xE3;o a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o <italic>in vivo</italic> da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular por ecocardiograma. Em seguida, os animais foram submetidos a eutan&#xE1;sia para avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o histol&#xF3;gica e an&#xE1;lise quantitativa das &#xE1;reas de col&#xE1;geno.</p>
<p>Os animais foram mantidos em gaiolas com o mesmo grupo e inclu&#xED;am apenas animais machos. Todos foram submetidos &#xE0;s mesmas condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es de estresse e &#xE0; mesma ordem de medidas, para minimizar potenciais confundidores. Todos os procedimentos foram realizados sob anestesia para reduzir o estresse e a dor. N&#xE3;o houve restri&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE0; alimenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o e &#xE0; &#xE1;gua.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o ecocardiogr&#xE1;fica da remodela&#xE7;&#xE3;o e fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular</title>
<p>A fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca foi avaliada por ecocardiografia 2D inicialmente e ap&#xF3;s o tratamento com doxorrubicina, como descrito anteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<p>Ap&#xF3;s a seda&#xE7;&#xE3;o com ketamina e xilazina (20 e 8 mg/kg), o ecocardiograma foi registrado com o sistema de ecocardiografia bidimensional de alta resolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o Sonos 5500 Philips (Andover, MA, EUA), com transdutor linear de alta frequ&#xEA;ncia de 15 MHz. Empregando-se a janela paraesternal para obter imagens de eixo longo e curto do VE a n&#xED;vel papilar, utilizaram-se imagens em modo M para medir o septo interventricular, a espessura da parede posterior do VE e os di&#xE2;metros diast&#xF3;lico (DDVE) e sist&#xF3;lico (DSVE) da extremidade do VE. O DDVE foi medido na dimens&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica ventricular m&#xE1;xima e o DSVE foi obtido durante o movimento interno m&#xE1;ximo do septo e da parede posterior.</p>
<p>A FEVE foi calculada pelo m&#xE9;todo bidimensional no qual mediu-se a &#xE1;rea bidimensional de encurtamento do VE a partir das vistas apical, subcostal e, particularmente, as vistas do eixo curto. Al&#xE9;m disso, as imagens das &#xE1;reas endoc&#xE1;rdicas do VE em di&#xE1;stole e s&#xED;stole foram digitalizadas e medidas <italic>offline</italic>. Determinou-se a &#xE1;rea de encurtamento pela f&#xF3;rmula FE (2D) = (AD-AS)/AD, na qual AD e AS s&#xE3;o &#xE1;reas de di&#xE1;stole e s&#xED;stole, respectivamente.</p>
<p>As imagens foram registradas por um ecocardiografista experiente no trabalho de laborat&#xF3;rio com animais de pequeno porte, que era indiferente quanto ao grupo ao qual os animais pertenciam, para a an&#xE1;lise <italic>offline</italic> ao final do estudo.</p>
<p>Todas as medi&#xE7;&#xF5;es representaram a m&#xE9;dia de 5 ciclos card&#xED;acos consecutivos usando a mesma posi&#xE7;&#xE3;o e &#xE2;ngulo do transdutor no mesmo quadro de imagem congelada. Mediu-se o intervalo entre 2 ciclos card&#xED;acos consecutivos para calcular a frequ&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Histopatologia - Colheita e prepara&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos cora&#xE7;&#xF5;es</title>
<p>Utilizaram-se 6 animais escolhidos aleatoriamente de cada grupo para a an&#xE1;lise histopatol&#xF3;gica. Os cora&#xE7;&#xF5;es foram rapidamente retirados, enxaguados em solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina gelada a 0,9% e fixados como um todo por imers&#xE3;o em formalina com tamp&#xE3;o de fosfato a 10% durante 24 horas a 4&#xB0;C, para estudo histol&#xF3;gico. Ambos os ventr&#xED;culos de cada cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o foram isolados e cortados em 2 fragmentos pela se&#xE7;&#xE3;o coronal ventricular m&#xE9;dia. Cada bloco foi cortado sequencialmente na mesma dire&#xE7;&#xE3;o a uma espessura apropriada de 4-7 &#xB5;m para cada colora&#xE7;&#xE3;o, sendo as se&#xE7;&#xF5;es coradas com hematoxilina-eosina (HE) e vermelho picrosirius.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Quantifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de col&#xE1;geno</title>
<p>As se&#xE7;&#xF5;es coradas com vermelho picrosirius foram usadas para quantificar a fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de volume de col&#xE1;geno intersticial usando o programa Leica Qwin, vers&#xE3;o 3.2.0 (Leica Imaging Systems Ltd., Cambridge, Reino Unido) juntamente com um microsc&#xF3;pio Leica DMR (Leica Microsystems Wetzlar GmbH, Wetzlar, Su&#xED;&#xE7;a), uma c&#xE2;mera de v&#xED;deo (Leica DC300F, Leica Microsystems AG, Heerbrugg, Su&#xED;&#xE7;a) e um computador <italic>online</italic>. Selecionaram-se 20 campos de alta amplia&#xE7;&#xE3;o (&#xD7;400) da parede livre do VE em cada animal, e os valores da fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de volume de col&#xE1;geno intersticial foram expressos como percentual da &#xE1;rea total do VE.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>An&#xE1;lise estat&#xED;stica</title>
<p>Os dados das vari&#xE1;veis cont&#xED;nuas s&#xE3;o reportados como m&#xE9;dia (DP), e as vari&#xE1;veis nominais s&#xE3;o reportadas como frequ&#xEA;ncia absoluta (n) e relativa (%). Os dados foram analisados utilizando o <italic>software</italic> estat&#xED;stico GraphPad Prism 4 (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, EUA). Utilizou-se o teste Kolmogorov-Smirnov para verificar a distribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o Gaussiana das vari&#xE1;veis. Para comparar os resultados entre os grupos experimentais e controle, utilizou-se o teste <italic>t</italic> de Student. Utilizou-se o teste n&#xE3;o param&#xE9;trico Kruskal-Wallis, seguido pelo teste de Dunn, para avaliar as diferen&#xE7;as entre os escores m&#xE9;dios obtidos na quantifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fibrose. Na compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o das distribui&#xE7;&#xF5;es de frequ&#xEA;ncia utilizou-se o teste exato de Fischer. O n&#xED;vel de signific&#xE2;ncia foi estabelecido em p&#x3C;0,05, bicaudal em todas as an&#xE1;lises.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="results">
<title>Resultados</title>
<sec>
<title>Mortalidade</title>
<p>Ap&#xF3;s 2 semanas do t&#xE9;rmino do per&#xED;odo de infus&#xE3;o dos f&#xE1;rmacos, 4 (20%) dos 20 animais que haviam iniciado o experimento morreram no grupo D-8. A taxa de mortalidade foi de 30% (9/30 animais) no grupo D-12, enquanto a mortalidade foi extremamente elevada, 67,6% (19/28 animais) no grupo D-16. No CTR, nenhum (0%) animal morreu. Detectou-se diferen&#xE7;a significativa na mortalidade somente entre o grupo D-16 e seu CTR (p&#x3C;0,001) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Gr&#xE1;fico de barras representando a taxa de mortalidade observada nos grupos analisados (*p&#x3C;0,001 &#x2013; Teste exato de Fisher).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0242-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Peso corporal</title>
<p>Observou-se redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa do peso corporal em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o aos respectivos CTR nos animais do grupo D-8 368 g (DP, 32 g) vs 444 g (DP, 19 g), p&#x3C;0,01, grupo D-12 366 g (DP, 30 g) vs 505 g (DP, 23 g), p&#x3C;0,0001 e grupo D-16 331 g (DP, 21 g) vs 534 g (DP, 29 g), p&#x3C;0,0001. Essa diferen&#xE7;a foi progressivamente mais evidente com o aumento da dose de DOXO, j&#xE1; que os animais dos CTR pesavam, em m&#xE9;dia, 20%, 38% e 61% a mais do que os animais dos grupos D-8, D-12 e D-16, respectivamente.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o funcional e estrutural do VE por ecocardiografia</title>
<p><italic>Avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o basal:</italic> Os dados da ecocardiografia basal s&#xE3;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">tabela 1</xref>. N&#xE3;o se detectou diferen&#xE7;a significativa nos par&#xE2;metros da ecocardiografia basal entre os grupos de estudo (p&#x3E;0,05) antes da administra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de DOXO.</p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Par&#xE2;metros basais de ecocardiografia avaliados nos 86 animais de estudo</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="20%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"/>
<th align="center" valign="top">CTR (n=8)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-8 (n=20)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-12 (n=30)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-16 (n=28)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Peso</bold> (g)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">251,5 (18,3)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">248,1 (17,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">246,1 (15,5)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">253,3 (8,9)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>DDVE</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">6,0 (0,7)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">5,8 (0,4)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">5,6 (0,6)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">5,9 (0,7)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>DSVE</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">3,1 (0,8)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">2,8 (0,5)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">2,7 (0,4)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">3,0 (1,1)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>espessura PS</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,5 (0,2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,6 (0,2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,6 (0,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,4 (0,2)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>espessura PP</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,5 (0,2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,6 (0,3)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,6 (0,2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,5 (0,2)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>massa do VE</bold> (g)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,1 (0,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,0 (0,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,0 (0,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,1 (0,1)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>FEVE 2D</bold>(%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">72,2 (9.9)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">72,7 (4,9)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">73.5 (7,5)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">72,2 (6,5)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Frequ&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca</bold>(bpm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">289 (18,8)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">317 (48,9)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">316 (26,3)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">295 (34,7)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN6">
<p>DDVE: di&#xE2;metro diast&#xF3;lico do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo; DSVE: di&#xE2;metro sist&#xF3;lico do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo; espessura PP: espessura da parede posterior na di&#xE1;stole m&#xE1;xima; espessura PS: espessura da parede septal na di&#xE1;stole m&#xE1;xima; FEVE 2D: fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o determinada pelo m&#xE9;todo de encurtamento fracion&#xE1;rio do VE. ANOVA seguido pelo teste de compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o m&#xFA;ltipla Tukey-Kramer.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p><italic>Avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o ap&#xF3;s a infus&#xE3;o de doxorrubicina:</italic> Os dados de ecocardiografia obtidos ap&#xF3;s a infus&#xE3;o de DOXO s&#xE3;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">tabela 2</xref>.</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Mortalidade, peso e par&#xE2;metros ecocardiogr&#xE1;ficos dos 58 animais sobreviventes, de acordo com o grupo experimental</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="14%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th align="left" valign="top"/>
<th align="center" valign="top">CTR-8 (n=8)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-8 (n=16)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">CTR-12 (n=8)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-12 (n=21)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">CTR-16 (n=8)</th>
<th align="center" valign="top">D-16 (n=13)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Mortalidade</bold></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">0%</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">20%</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">0%</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">30%</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">0%</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">67,9% <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Peso</bold> (g)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">444 (19)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">368 (32) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">505 (23)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">366 (30) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">534 (29)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">331 (21) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>DDVE</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">7,1 (0,9)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">6,7 (0,7)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">8,1 (0,8)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">7,6 (0,7) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#x2020;</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">8,1 (0,4)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">7,7 (0,8) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#x2020;</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>DSVE</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">3,5 (0,8)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">3,6 (0,5)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">4,2 (1,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">4,5 (0,7) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#x2020;</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">4,3 (0,5)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">5,1 (0,8) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#x2020;</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">&#x2021;</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>espessura PS</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,5 (0,2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,5 (0,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,7 (0,2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,6 (0,2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,6 (0,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,5 (0,1)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>espessura PP</bold> (mm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,5 (0,2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,6 (0,3)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,6 (0,3)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,5 (0,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,5 (0,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,4 (0,2) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#x2020;</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>massa do VE</bold> (g)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,2 (0,2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,2 (0,3)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,5 (0,2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,3 (0,2) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,3 (0,1)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">1,2 (0,1)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>FEVE 2D</bold> (%)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">70 (8)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">66,7 (5)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">68,3 (5)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">58,4 (9) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#x2020;</xref></td>
<td align="center" valign="top">66,0 (6)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">47,6 (15) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#x2020;</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">&#x2021;</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Frequ&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca</bold> (bpm)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">278 (22)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">258 (40)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">271 (21)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">251 (27)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">272 (18)</td>
<td align="center" valign="top">227 (30) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">&#x2020;</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">&#x2021;</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN7">
<p>DDVE: di&#xE2;metro diast&#xF3;lico do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo; DSVE: di&#xE2;metro sist&#xF3;lico do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo; espessura PP: espessura da parede posterior na di&#xE1;stole m&#xE1;xima; espessura PS: espessura da parede septal na di&#xE1;stole m&#xE1;xima; FEVE 2D: fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o determinada pelo m&#xE9;todo de encurtamento fracion&#xE1;rio do VE.</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN8">
<label>*</label>
<p>p&#x3C;0,05 comparado ao grupo controle, de acordo com a idade (teste t n&#xE3;o pareado);</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN9">
<label>&#x2020;</label>
<p>p&#x3C;0,05 comparado ao grupo D-8 (ANOVA seguido do teste de Tukey);</p></fn>
<fn id="TFN10">
<label>&#x2021;</label>
<p>p&#x3C;0,05 comparado ao grupo D-12 (ANOVA seguido do teste de Tukey).</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>O DSVE foi maior no grupo D-16 em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com seu CTR, 5,1 mm (DP, 0,8 mm) vs 4,3 mm (DP, 0,5 mm), p&#x3C;0,05. Essa vari&#xE1;vel n&#xE3;o apresentou diferen&#xE7;a nos demais grupos experimentais. O DSVE dos animais dos grupos D-8, D-12 e D-16 foi semelhante ao de seus CTRs, p&#x3E;0,05.</p>
<p>Os resultados da FEVE obtidos pelo m&#xE9;todo bidimensional revelaram que os grupos D-12 e D-16 apresentaram redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica do VE em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com seus respectivos CTRs: 68,3% (DP, 5%) vs 58,4% (DP, 9%), p&#x3C;0,01, para o grupo CTR-12 vs D-12 e 66,0% (DP, 6%) vs 47,6% (DP, 15); (p&#x3C;0,01), para o grupo CTR-16 vs D-16. Assim, pode-se observar redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de 14,5% da FEVE no grupo D-12 e redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de 27,9% no grupo D-16. N&#xE3;o se detectou diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o da FEVE no grupo D-8, p&#x3E;0,05. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Gr&#xE1;fico de barras representando os valores m&#xE9;dios da fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo (FEVE) obtidos nos grupos de estudo. * p&#x3C;0,05 em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o ao grupo controle, de acordo com a idade (teste t n&#xE3;o pareado), e compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre os grupos (ANOVA seguido do teste de Tukey).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0242-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>A frequ&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca observada durante a ecocardiografia foi significativamente menor entre os animais do grupo D-16 227 bpm (DP, 30 bpm) do que entre os do CTR 272 bpm (DP, 18 bpm), p&#x3C;0,01. Esse par&#xE2;metro n&#xE3;o apresentou diferen&#xE7;a nos demais grupos experimentais.</p>
<p>A massa estimada pelo ecocardiograma do VE foi significativamente reduzida nos animais dos grupos D-12 e D-16 em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com os dos CTRs, p&#x3C;0,05. N&#xE3;o houve diferen&#xE7;a na massa estimada do VE entre os animais do grupo D-8 e os do CTR.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>An&#xE1;lise comparativa dos diferentes grupos que receberam doxorrubicina</title>
<p>A an&#xE1;lise comparativa dos grupos que recebem diferentes doses de DOXO revelou uma diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o progressiva da FEVE (FEVE 2D) entre os grupos D-8 e D-12 (p&#x3C;0,05), D-8 e D-16 (p&#x3C;0,001) e D-12 e D-16 (p&#x3C;0,05) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>An&#xE1;lise quantitativa das altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es histol&#xF3;gicas por microscopia &#xF3;ptica</title>
<p>A an&#xE1;lise histopatol&#xF3;gica do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos animais dos CTRs corados com HE n&#xE3;o revelou nenhuma altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o patol&#xF3;gica, enquanto que os cora&#xE7;&#xF5;es dos animais infundidos com DOXO mostraram les&#xE3;o de mi&#xF3;citos com redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o e degenera&#xE7;&#xE3;o das fibras mioc&#xE1;rdicas e diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa das miofibrilas, com perda da organiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o miofibrilar, fibrose periarteriolar no mioc&#xE1;rdio e interst&#xED;cios, associada &#xE0; deposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de col&#xE1;geno (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>). As altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es detectadas no grupo D-8 foram menos pronunciadas que em D-12 e D-16.</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Se&#xE7;&#xF5;es histol&#xF3;gicas representativas coradas com HE dos grupos controle (A) e doxorrubicina (D-8, D-12 e D-16). Observam-se perda e degenera&#xE7;&#xE3;o das fibras mioc&#xE1;rdicas nos animais ap&#xF3;s a infus&#xE3;o de doxorrubicina (DOXO) (pain&#xE9;is B, C e D), com redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa das miofibrilas, edema e degenera&#xE7;&#xE3;o vacuolar (marcado por setas). Essas altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es s&#xE3;o mais pronunciadas com o incremento das doses cumulativas de DOXO.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0242-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Quantifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fibrose</title>
<p>Para a an&#xE1;lise quantitativa de fibrose, as amostras foram coradas com vermelho picrosirius. Observou-se um porcentual maior de fibrose nos grupos D-8 6,0% (DP, 2,3%), D-12 10,6% (DP,3,3%) e D-16 9,8%, (DP, 2,3%) em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com o CTR 2,3% (DP, 1,0%), p&#x3C;0,001. Al&#xE9;m disso, os grupos D-12 e D-16 apresentaram &#xE1;rea de fibrose maior do que o grupo D-8, p&#x3C;0,001, mas n&#xE3;o diferiram um do outro (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Gr&#xE1;fico de barras representando os valores m&#xE9;dios de fibrose obtidos nos grupos de estudo. * p&#x3C;0,05 (ANOVA seguido do teste de Tukey).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-03-0242-gf04-pt.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="discussion">
<title>Discuss&#xE3;o</title>
<p>No presente estudo, investigamos a efic&#xE1;cia de diferentes doses cumulativas de DOXO na indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es funcionais e card&#xED;acas, equilibrando esses resultados em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE0;s taxas de mortalidade intrinsecamente associadas a doses cumulativas mais altas, a fim de definir a dose de DOXO com a melhor efic&#xE1;cia. Os principais resultados mostraram redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica do VE a partir da dose cumulativa de 12 mg/kg de DOXO, ocorrendo uma disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o maior com a dose cumulativa de 16 mg/kg, e nenhuma redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa da FEVE com a dose de 8 mg/kg. Al&#xE9;m disso, observamos aumento significativo da fibrose mioc&#xE1;rdica em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o ao CTR em todas as 3 doses cumulativas testadas, observando-se maior grau de fibrose nos grupos D-12 e D-16, os quais exibiram graus semelhantes de fibrose. Verificou-se aumento progressivo da mortalidade associada a doses mais elevadas, com um &#xED;ndice excessivo (67,9%) na dose cumulativa de 16 mg/kg. Analisados em conjunto, esses resultados sugerem que a dose de DOXO com a melhor efic&#xE1;cia para a indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de CMD em ratos foi a de 12 mg/kg.</p>
<sec>
<title>Taxas de mortalidade</title>
<p>A alta taxa de mortalidade observada no presente estudo coincide com os valores relatados em estudos anteriores, variando de 36% a 82%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Estudos anteriores mostraram que varia&#xE7;&#xF5;es nas taxas de mortalidade est&#xE3;o relacionadas a 3 raz&#xF5;es principais: dose total administrada, dura&#xE7;&#xE3;o do per&#xED;odo de infus&#xE3;o e tempo de observa&#xE7;&#xE3;o. A mortalidade aumenta proporcionalmente &#xE0; dose maior, menor per&#xED;odo de administra&#xE7;&#xE3;o e maior per&#xED;odo de observa&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
<p>Al&#xE9;m da les&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica, altas doses cumulativas de DOXO produzem toxicidade renal, da medula &#xF3;ssea e gastrointestinal, que podem contribuir para o aumento das taxas de mortalidade devido &#xE0; indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de hipercalemia, hipervolemia, anemia, diarreia e desnutri&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Al&#xE9;m de perder peso e massa muscular, os animais tornam-se fracos e incapazes de se alimentar adequadamente, resultando em fraqueza muscular progressiva e generalizada, que pode contribuir para o aumento da mortalidade. No presente estudo, os animais dos grupos D-12 e D-16 apresentaram diferen&#xE7;as significativas no aspecto geral e no peso em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com seus respectivos CTRs, corroborando indiretamente a presen&#xE7;a desses mecanismos debilitantes. Essas altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es tamb&#xE9;m foram descritas por outros autores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es estruturais e funcionais card&#xED;acas <italic>in vivo</italic></title>
<p>Em geral, realizaram-se estudos utilizando DOXO para a investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o de les&#xF5;es histopatol&#xF3;gicas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> e estudo da cardiotoxicidade do f&#xE1;rmaco,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> com &#xEA;nfase principalmente em altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es metab&#xF3;licas e estresse oxidativo desse modelo,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> e n&#xE3;o na avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o do grau de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular <italic>in vivo</italic> ou mortalidade. Assim, o objetivo desses modelos n&#xE3;o era caracterizar um modelo de IC ou CMD. Observamos, pois, uma ampla variedade de protocolos na literatura. Nosso estudo pretendia descrever um protocolo que fosse adequado, eficaz e de melhor rendimento, reproduzindo um modelo experimental de CMD n&#xE3;o isqu&#xEA;mica baseado em altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es estruturais e funcionais <italic>in vivo</italic>, mas com taxas de mortalidade aceit&#xE1;veis.</p>
<p>Ressaltamos que, neste estudo, escolhemos a infus&#xE3;o intravenosa de DOXO em doses cumulativas crescentes. Em um estudo anterior com ratos, O&#x2019;Connel et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> compararam 2 protocolos de tempo de infus&#xE3;o de DOXO, um curto e um longo, para a indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de CMD. Neste estudo, observamos que ambos os protocolos geraram les&#xF5;es histol&#xF3;gicas similares, embora apenas a infus&#xE3;o prolongada estivesse associada a altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es estruturais e funcionais similares &#xE0;quelas detectadas na CMD cl&#xED;nica. Essas descobertas respaldam a ideia de que a infus&#xE3;o prolongada &#xE9; mais eficaz que a infus&#xE3;o curta quando o desfecho prim&#xE1;rio &#xE9; a indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es estruturais e funcionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>No presente estudo, observamos uma clara correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre a dose cumulativa de DOXO e o grau de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular que ocorre progressivamente, a partir da dose cumulativa de 12 mg/kg. Nossos resultados mostram que os animais que receberam uma dose cumulativa de 16 mg/kg apresentaram altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es funcionais e estruturais card&#xED;acas mais marcantes, avaliadas por ecocardiograma bidimensional <italic>in vivo</italic>, em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com seus respectivos CTRs, caracterizados principalmente por um aumento do DSVE, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da FEVE e da massa estimada do VE. No entanto, as taxas de mortalidade para esse grupo foram excessivas, uma vez que mais de dois ter&#xE7;os dos animais n&#xE3;o sobreviveram at&#xE9; 2 semanas ap&#xF3;s a indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da CMD.</p>
<p>Por outro lado, a dose cumulativa de 12 mg/kg foi associada a altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es estruturais que n&#xE3;o foram t&#xE3;o acentuadas quanto as observadas com a dose de 16 mg/kg, mas foi suficiente para causar redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa da FEVE e aumento da fibrose mioc&#xE1;rdica. Al&#xE9;m disso, a taxa de mortalidade para o grupo D-12 (30%) foi aceit&#xE1;vel, levando-nos a concluir que esse protocolo poderia ser adequado para a indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular com o uso de DOXO em ratos.</p>
<p>Nossos resultados corroboram os de estudos anteriores, que sugerem que doses cumulativas acima de 12 mg/kg est&#xE3;o associadas a aumento da mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Os resultados obtidos por Spivak et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> usando um tempo de dosagem mais curto de DOXO, sugeriram que doses cumulativas acima de 12 mg/kg est&#xE3;o associadas a taxa de mortalidade superior a 40%, sendo assim inadequada para pesquisas <italic>in vivo</italic> sobre IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Com efeito, o estudo de Schwarz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> demonstrou que doses maiores, como 25 mg/kg, durante um per&#xED;odo de 10 semanas, est&#xE3;o associadas a maior grau de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular, mas com altas taxas de mortalidade, que chegam a 52%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es histopatol&#xF3;gicas</title>
<p>No presente estudo, observamos diferen&#xE7;as morfol&#xF3;gicas n&#xED;tidas entre os grupos que receberam DOXO. As les&#xF5;es foram as tipicamente relatadas na CMD induzida por DOXO em humanos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> e em outros modelos animais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> ou seja, predominantemente danos aos mi&#xF3;citos, com perda e degenera&#xE7;&#xE3;o das fibras mioc&#xE1;rdicas, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa das miofibrilas, fibrose e deposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de col&#xE1;geno, al&#xE9;m de edema e vacuoliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o cardiomiocit&#xE1;ria, edema intracelular e desorganiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o das miofibrilas. Observamos que a deposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de col&#xE1;geno foi semelhante &#xE0; relatada em estudos anteriores que utilizavam esse modelo experimental.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> A dose cumulativa de DOXO associada a danos histol&#xF3;gicos significativos em nosso estudo foi semelhante aos achados relatados em outros, que sugeriram uma dose de 15 mg/kg como a mais eficaz na indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de les&#xF5;es histopatol&#xF3;gicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
<p>Deve-se ressaltar que embora a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular tenha sido mais acentuada na dose de 16 mg/kg, o grau de les&#xE3;o tecidual representada pela fibrose foi semelhante para os grupos D-12 e D-16, sugerindo poss&#xED;vel dissocia&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre esses 2 par&#xE2;metros nessa faixa de doses cumulativas de DOXO. Esses resultados confirmam evid&#xEA;ncias anteriores obtidas por nosso grupo de pesquisa, revelando relativa dissocia&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre o grau de les&#xE3;o tecidual e a intensidade da disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular esquerda com o uso de diferentes regimes de infus&#xE3;o de DOXO.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os resultados atuais mostram que o modelo de indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o usando uma dose cumulativa total de 16 mg/kg de DOXO, com 8 inje&#xE7;&#xF5;es semanais de 2 mg/kg, &#xE9; o que melhor induz a altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es morfol&#xF3;gicas e funcionais em animais, embora implique em mortalidade elevada e eticamente inaceit&#xE1;vel, o que desencoraja o uso desse protocolo. Al&#xE9;m disso, a dificuldade em manter um modelo altamente agressivo de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular pelo per&#xED;odo m&#xED;nimo de tempo suficiente para a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o de uma determinada interven&#xE7;&#xE3;o terap&#xEA;utica &#xE9; um fator relevante na escolha do protocolo mais eficiente.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclus&#xF5;es</title>
<p>Nossos resultados indicam que o modelo de 6 inje&#xE7;&#xF5;es semanais de 2 mg/kg de DOXO, com dose cumulativa de 12 mg/kg, apresenta a melhor efic&#xE1;cia para indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de CMD, resultando em remodelamento significativo do VE, comprometimento da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica e les&#xE3;o tecidual associada a taxas aceit&#xE1;veis de mortalidade.</p>
</sec>
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<title>Agradecimentos</title>
<p>Esse estudo foi financiado pela Funda&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Apoio &#xE0; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#xE3;o Paulo (FAPESP &#x2013; Protocolo: 2014/07722-4) e pela Funda&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Apoio ao Ensino, Pesquisa e Assist&#xEA;ncia do Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas (FAEPA).</p>
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<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por Funda&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Apoio &#xE0; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#xE3;o Paulo (FAPESP &#x2013; Protocolo: 2014/07722-4) e Funda&#xE7;&#xE3;o de Apoio ao Ensino Pesquisa e Assist&#xEA;ncia do Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
<p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o acad&#xEA;mica</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo &#xE9; parte de tese de doutorado de Jo&#xE3;o Lucas O&#x2019;Connell pela Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo</p></fn>
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