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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &amp; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20220039</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20220039</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Research Letter</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>The Heart-Gut Microbiome Intersection in Heart Failure</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5982-8847</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Vieira</surname>
						<given-names>Jefferson L.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4">*</xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Sidrim</surname>
						<given-names>Alessandra F.R.R.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4">*</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Mehra</surname>
						<given-names>Mandeep R.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Messejana Dr. Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Messejana Dr. Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes, Fortaleza, CE – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Harvard Medical School</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Brigham and Women’s Hospital</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Heart and Vascular Center</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Boston</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="US">USA</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Heart and Vascular Center, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA – USA</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Jefferson Luís Vieira</bold> • Hospital de Messejana Dr. Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes, Av. Frei Cirilo, 3480, Postal Code <postal-code>60840-285</postal-code>, Messejana, Fortaleza, CE – Brazil, E-mail: <email>jefvieira@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Author Contributions</bold></p>
					<p>Conception and design of the research: Vieira JL, Mehra MR; Acquisition of data and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Vieira JL, Sidrim AFRR, Mehra MR; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Vieira JL, Sidrim AFRR; Writing of the manuscript: Vieira JL, Sidrim AFRR.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="equal" id="fn4">
					<label>*</label>
					<p>Jefferson L Vieira and Alessandra F.R.R. Sidrim contributed equally to this work and are co-first authors</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>29</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Apr-Jun</season>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>2</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<fpage>222</fpage>
			<lpage>225</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>31</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>13</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>05</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Gastrointestinal Microbiome</kwd>
				<kwd>Dysbiosis</kwd>
				<kwd>Heart failure</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="29"/>
				<page-count count="4"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>The human body is co-inhabited by over a trillion microorganisms, including &gt; 2000 species of bacteria, archaea, viruses, and single-celled eukaryotes that live symbiotically with their hosts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The gut microbiota is a dynamic and complex ecological community in the gastrointestinal tract, an essentially anaerobic environment with abundant nutrients and ideal conditions for colonization; it acts as a virtual endocrine system that communicates with organs through metabolism-dependent pathways, releasing <italic>de novo</italic> products and transforming external nutrients and host metabolites into hormone-like signals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
		<p>In addition to metabolic benefits, the gut microbiota provides essential capacities for regulating the intestinal epithelial barrier, immune homeostasis, optimal immune responses, and protection against pathogen colonization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> One of the most important roles of gut microbiota is to act in digestion and nutrient absorption, producing short-chain fatty acids that serve as energy substrate for intestinal epithelial cells. After short-chain fatty acids bind to their receptor, the enteroendocrine hormone peptide YY is released, which regulates host appetite and contributes to dietary energy availability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Intestinal flora act to convert various dietary nutrients into trimethylamine, which is rapidly absorbed and oxidized in the liver to produce trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Some foods, like red meat, eggs, and fish, are rich in nutritional precursors that can be converted into trimethylamine through specific microbial enzymes; therefore, a change in microbiota composition can alter circulating TMAO levels.</p>
		<p>Evidence indicates that the composition of gut microbiota changes throughout life via potentially modifiable factors, including medication use, diet, lifestyle, and oxidative stress. Such disruption of microbiota homeostasis results in an imbalance in the microbial community and is referred to as dysbiosis. Gut dysbiosis is associated with the pathogenesis and progression of heart failure (HF), has been linked to immune-mediated subtypes of cardiomyopathy, and has been associated with HF-related comorbidities, including atherosclerosis, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, insulin resistance, and cachexia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Reduced cardiac output and elevated abdominal venous pressure can lead to intestinal hypoperfusion, mucosal ischemia, and gut barrier disruption (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Such alterations have led to the gut hypothesis of HF, which posits that these structural changes contribute to increased intestinal permeability and subsequent bacterial translocation, resulting in elevated circulating endotoxins that correlate with HF severity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Endotoxins, which are lipopolysaccharides found in the cell wall of Gram-negative bacilli, can induce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and impair endothelial function and peripheral blood flow, resulting in decreased ventricular contractility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Likewise, endotoxin and inflammatory cytokines can also exacerbate intestinal permeability, promoting a loop of endotoxin translocation, systemic inflammation, and worsening HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Other potential mechanisms of the gut hypothesis have also been described, such as the upregulation of sodium-hydrogen exchanger 3 through hypoxia and acidosis in enterocytes, which promotes sodium and fluid retention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
		<fig id="f1">
			<label>Figure 1</label>
			<caption>
				<title>1) Reduced cardiac output and elevated abdominal venous pressure can lead to intestinal hypoperfusion, mucosal ischemia, and gut barrier disruption, with subsequent bacterial translocation and increased circulating endotoxins (lipopolysaccharides). Lipopolysaccharides induce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, resulting in decreased ventricular contractility. Likewise, endotoxin and inflammatory cytokines can also exacerbate intestinal permeability, promoting a loop of endotoxin translocation, systemic inflammation, and worsening heart failure. 2) Intestinal flora convert various dietary nutrients into trimethylamine, which is converted in the liver to trimethylamine N-oxide. Gut dysbiosis is associated with the pathogenesis and progression of heart failure and heart failure-related comorbidities, including atherosclerosis, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, insulin resistance, and cachexia. 3) Several potential therapeutic approaches have already been proposed, including dietary interventions, prebiotics, probiotics, trimethylamine N-oxide inhibitors, sodium-hydrogen exchanger 3 inhibitors, and fecal microbiota transplantation, as well as intestinal microenvironment modulators (Rifaximin).</title>
			</caption>
			<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-02-0222-gf01.tif"/>
		</fig>
		<p>Several studies have supported the gut hypothesis of HF by showing different patterns in gut microbial composition and function between healthy individuals and patients with HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> In healthy guts, <italic>Firmicutes</italic> (consisting mainly of <italic>Lactobacillus, Bacillus, Clostridium, Enterococcus</italic>, and <italic>Ruminococcus</italic>) and <italic>Bacteroidetes</italic> (consisting of <italic>Bacteroides</italic> and <italic>Prevotella</italic>) contribute to over 90% of the total bacterial species, also called alpha diversity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Conversely, patients with HF have shifts in the alpha diversity, with an increased abundance of <italic>Bacteroidetes</italic> and a lower abundance of <italic>Firmicutes</italic>, resulting in a lower <italic>Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes</italic> ratio than healthy individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Depletion of bacteria with anti-inflammatory properties, particularly <italic>Firmicutes</italic>, are associated with an increase in the number of pathogenic microbes, such as <italic>Shigella</italic>, <italic>Salmonella</italic>, and <italic>Candida</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The incidence of <italic>Clostridium difficile</italic> infection, which typically occurs after the use of antibiotics, is also higher in this population, as are the genera <italic>Ruminococcus, Hungatella</italic>, and <italic>Succiclasticum</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> In advanced HF, an increase in <italic>Pseudomonadota</italic> (formerly <italic>Proteobacteria</italic>), has been demonstrated, a phylum that mainly includes pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria, whose abundance is considered a signature of dysbiosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
		<p>Investigations have indicated that not only does alpha diversity decrease with HF progression, but remains low in patients treated with a left ventricular assist device or heart transplantation,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> a pattern in line with persistently elevated TMAO levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Studies of immunosuppression in heart transplantation have demonstrated that gut microbial diversity, inflammation, and oxidative stress are associated with tacrolimus dosing requirements early after engraftment,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> reinforcing the gut hypothesis at all stages of HF, from cardiac injury to end-stage HF and even after advanced therapies. Various HF phenotypes, such as preserved ejection fraction, require further study to understand the relationship between congestion and dysbiosis patterns. Pilot studies have revealed that the microbiota of patients with HF with preserved ejection fraction are imbalanced compared to healthy controls, with more <italic>Enterococcus</italic> and <italic>Lactobacillus</italic> and less <italic>Butyricicoccus, Sutterella, Lachnospira</italic>, and <italic>Ruminiclostridium</italic> at the genus level<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> and a non-significant decrease in the <italic>Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes</italic> ratio. How these alterations influence the observed pathobiology remains uncertain.</p>
		<p>All of these changes in gut microbiota are linked to different physiological effects, such as cell cycle control, cell division, chromosome partitioning, ion transport, ribosomal structure, and amino acid metabolism. Identifying the composition of gut microbes is complex and requires sophisticated stool sample processing with 16S rRNA gene sequencing and whole metagenomic profiling. However, the use of surrogate circulating metabolites is less complicated and is readily available.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> It has been discovered that certain microbial metabolites have recognized roles in HF pathophysiology, such as short-chain fatty acids, TMAO, amino acid metabolites, and bile acids; they may be promising therapeutic targets for gut dysbiosis in HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> In fact, several therapeutic approaches have already been proposed, including dietary interventions, prebiotics, probiotics, TMAO inhibitors, sodium-hydrogen exchanger 3 inhibitors, and fecal microbiota transplantation, as well as intestinal microenvironment modulators (Rifaximin), but additional studies are still needed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Further exploration of the heart-gut axis in the pathophysiology of HF may lead to advances in innovative individualized risk stratification and therapeutic interventions for patients with HF.</p>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
				<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Carta Científica</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Relação entre o Coração e a Microbiota Intestinal na Insuficiência Cardíaca</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5982-8847</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Vieira</surname>
						<given-names>Jefferson L.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8">*</xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Sidrim</surname>
						<given-names>Alessandra F.R.R.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8">*</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Mehra</surname>
						<given-names>Mandeep R.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff3">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Messejana Dr. Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes, Fortaleza, CE – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff4">
					<label>2</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Boston</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="US">EUA</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Heart and Vascular Center, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA – EUA</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Jefferson Luís Vieira</bold> • Hospital de Messejana Dr. Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes, Av. Frei Cirilo, 3480. CEP <postal-code>60840-285</postal-code>, Messejana, Fortaleza, CE – Brasil, E-mail: <email>jefvieira@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Contribuição dos autores</bold></p>
					<p>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa: Vieira JL, Mehra MR; Obtenção de dados e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante: Vieira JL, Sidrim AFRR, Mehra MR; Análise e interpretação dos dados e Redação do manuscrito: Vieira JL, Sidrim AFRR.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="equal" id="fn8">
					<label>*</label>
					<p>Os autores Jefferson L. Vieira e Alessandra F.R.R. Sidrim contribuíram igualmente para este artigo e são primeiros autores conjuntamente</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Microbioma Gastrointestinal</kwd>
				<kwd>Disbiose</kwd>
				<kwd>Insuficiência cardíaca</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>O corpo humano é coabitado por mais de 1 trilhão de microrganismos, incluindo bactérias, arqueas, vírus e seres unicelulares eucariontes, pertencentes a mais de 2.000 espécies que vivem em simbiose com seus hospedeiros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A microbiota intestinal é uma comunidade ecológica dinâmica e complexa localizada no trato gastrointestinal, um ambiente essencialmente anaeróbio, com abundância de nutrientes e condições ideais para colonização. Essa comunidade age como um potencial sistema endócrino, que se comunica com os órgãos através de vias dependentes do metabolismo, liberando produtos e transformando nutrientes externos e metabólitos do hospedeiro em sinais semelhantes a hormônios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Além dos benefícios metabólicos, a microbiota intestinal é responsável pelo desenvolvimento de habilidades essenciais para a regulação da barreira epitelial intestinal, homeostase imunológica, respostas imunes ideais e proteção contra a colonização de patógenos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Um dos papéis mais importantes da microbiota intestinal é sua atuação na digestão e absorção de nutrientes, produzindo ácidos graxos de cadeia curta (AGCCs), que servem como substrato energético para as células epiteliais intestinais. Depois que os AGCCs se ligam ao seu receptor, o hormônio enteroendócrino peptídeo YY é liberado, regulando o apetite do hospedeiro e contribuindo para a disponibilidade energética da dieta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A flora intestinal age na conversão de vários nutrientes dietéticos em trimetilamina (TMA), que é rapidamente absorvida e oxidada no fígado em N-óxido de trimetilamina (TMAO).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Alguns alimentos, como carne vermelha, ovos e peixes, são ricos em precursores nutricionais que podem ser convertidos em TMA por meio de enzimas microbianas específicas; portanto, uma alteração na composição da microbiota pode alterar os níveis circulantes de TMAO.</p>
			<p>Evidências indicam que a composição da microbiota intestinal muda ao longo da vida através de fatores potencialmente modificáveis, tais como uso de medicamentos, dieta, estilo de vida e estresse oxidativo. Esse distúrbio da homeostase da microbiota resulta em um desequilíbrio na comunidade microbiana, que é chamado de disbiose. A disbiose intestinal está associada à patogênese e progressão da insuficiência cardíaca (IC), assim como a alguns subtipos de cardiomiopatia imunomediada e comorbidades relacionadas à IC, como aterosclerose, hipertensão, doença renal crônica, resistência à insulina e caquexia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Baixo débito cardíaco e pressões venosas intestinais elevadas podem levar a hipoperfusão intestinal, isquemia da mucosa e ruptura da barreira intestinal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>). Tais alterações levaram à hipótese intestinal da IC, que postula que essas mudanças estruturais contribuem para o aumento da permeabilidade intestinal e subsequente translocação bacteriana, resultando em níveis elevados de endotoxinas circulantes, que estão correlacionadas com a gravidade da IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> As endotoxinas, que são lipopolissacarídeos encontrados na parede celular de bacilos gram-negativos, podem induzir a produção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias e prejudicar a função endotelial e o fluxo sanguíneo periférico, resultando em contratilidade ventricular reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Da mesma forma, endotoxinas e citocinas inflamatórias podem exacerbar a permeabilidade intestinal, promovendo um ciclo vicioso de translocação de endotoxinas, inflamação sistêmica e piora da IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Outros potenciais mecanismos implicados na hipótese intestinal foram descritos, como a suprarregulação do trocador 3 de sódio-hidrogênio (NHE3) influenciada por meio de hipóxia e acidose nos enterócitos, promovendo a retenção de sódio e líquidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
			<fig id="f2">
				<label>Figura 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>1) Baixo débito cardíaco e pressões venosas intestinais elevadas podem levar a hipoperfusão intestinal, isquemia da mucosa e ruptura da barreira intestinal, com subsequente translocação bacteriana e aumento das endotoxinas circulantes (lipopolissacarídeos [LPS]). Os LPS induzem a produção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias, resultando em diminuição da contratilidade ventricular. Da mesma forma, endotoxinas e citocinas inflamatórias também podem exacerbar a permeabilidade intestinal, promovendo um ciclo de translocação de endotoxinas, inflamação sistêmica e piora da insuficiência cardíaca (IC). 2) A flora intestinal age através da conversão de diversos nutrientes alimentares em trimetilamina (TMA), que é convertida no fígado em N-óxido de trimetilamina (TMAO). A disbiose intestinal está associada à patogênese e progressão da IC e a comorbidades relacionadas à IC, como aterosclerose, hipertensão, doença renal crônica, resistência à insulina e caquexia. 3) Já foram propostas diversas abordagens terapêuticas, incluindo intervenções dietéticas, prebióticos, probióticos, inibidores de TMAO, inibidores do trocador 3 de sódio-hidrogênio e transplante de microbiota fecal, além de moduladores do microambiente intestinal (rifaximina).</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-02-0222-gf01-pt.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>Diversos estudos têm apoiado a hipótese intestinal da IC ao demonstrar diferentes padrões de composição e função microbiana intestinal entre indivíduos saudáveis e pacientes com IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> No intestino saudável, <italic>Firmicutes</italic> (composto principalmente por <italic>Lactobacillus</italic>, <italic>Bacillus</italic>, <italic>Clostridium</italic>, <italic>Enterococcus</italic> e <italic>Ruminococcus</italic>) e <italic>Bacteroidetes</italic> (composto por <italic>Bacteroides</italic> e <italic>Prevotella</italic>) contribuem em mais de 90% do total de espécies bacterianas, também chamado de diversidade alfa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Por outro lado, pacientes com IC apresentam alterações na diversidade alfa, com maior abundância de <italic>Bacteroidetes</italic> e menor abundância de <italic>Firmicutes</italic>, resultando em uma relação de <italic>Firmicutes</italic>/<italic>Bacteroidetes</italic> menor do que em pessoas saudáveis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> A depleção de bactérias com propriedades anti-inflamatórias, principalmente <italic>Firmicutes</italic>, está associada a um aumento no número de micróbios patogênicos, como <italic>Shigella</italic>, <italic>Salmonella</italic> e <italic>Candida.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A incidência de infecção por <italic>Clostridium difficile</italic>, que ocorre tipicamente após o uso de antibióticos, também é maior nessa população, assim como os gêneros <italic>Ruminococcus</italic>, <italic>Hungatella</italic> e <italic>Succiclasticum</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Na IC avançada, foi demonstrado um aumento de <italic>Pseudomonadota</italic> (antiga <italic>Proteobacteria</italic>), um filo que contém principalmente bactérias gram-negativas patogênicas, cuja abundância é considerada uma assinatura da disbiose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Estudos indicaram que a diversidade alfa não apenas diminui com a progressão da IC, mas permanece baixa em pacientes tratados com dispositivo de assistência ventricular esquerda (DAVE) ou transplante cardíaco,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> um padrão que está de acordo com o achado de níveis persistentemente elevados de TMAO.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Estudos de imunossupressão em transplante cardíaco demonstraram que a diversidade microbiana intestinal, inflamação e estresse oxidativo estão associados à necessidade de ajustes na dose de tacrolimus logo após o enxerto,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> reforçando a hipótese intestinal em todos os estágios da IC, desde lesão cardíaca até a IC terminal, mesmo após o uso de terapias avançadas. Vários fenótipos de IC, como IC com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEP), requerem mais estudos para entender a relação entre congestão e padrões de disbiose. Estudos piloto revelaram um desequilíbrio na microbiota de pacientes com ICFEP em comparação com controles saudáveis, com mais <italic>Enterococcus</italic> e <italic>Lactobacillus</italic> e menos <italic>Butyricicoccus</italic>, <italic>Sutterella</italic>, <italic>Lachnospira</italic> e <italic>Ruminiclostridium</italic> em nível de gênero<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> e uma redução não significativa na relação <italic>Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes</italic>o. A maneira como essas alterações influenciam a patobiologia observada permanece incerta.</p>
			<p>Todas essas mudanças na microbiota intestinal estão ligadas a diferentes efeitos fisiológicos, como controle do ciclo celular, divisão celular, segregação cromossômica, transporte de íons, estrutura ribossômica e metabolismo de aminoácidos. Identificar a composição dos micróbios intestinais é complexo e requer processamento sofisticado de amostras de fezes, com sequenciamento do gene RNA ribossômico 16s e perfil metagenômico completo; no entanto, o uso de metabólitos circulantes substitutos é menos complicado e mais facilmente disponível.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Metabólitos microbianos com papel reconhecido na fisiopatologia da IC, como AGCCs, TMAO, metabólitos de aminoácidos e ácidos biliares, são alvos terapêuticos promissores para a disbiose intestinal na IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> De fato, várias abordagens terapêuticas têm sido propostas, incluindo intervenções dietéticas, prebióticos, probióticos, inibidores de TMAO, inibidores de NHE3, transplante de microbiota fecal e até moduladores do microambiente intestinal (como a rifaximina), porém estudos adicionais ainda são necessários.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Dado o exposto, uma investigação mais profunda da relação entre o coração e o intestino na fisiopatologia da IC poderia levar a avanços no desenvolvimento de uma estratificação de risco individualizada e inovadora e novas possibilidades de intervenções terapêuticas para pacientes com IC.</p>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn5">
					<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<p><bold>Vinculação acadêmica</bold></p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
					<p><bold>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</bold></p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>