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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &amp; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20220043</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20220043</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Treatment Strategies for Refractory Congestion</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8601-0901</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Linhares</surname>
						<given-names>Germana Porto</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6767-4785</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Souza</surname>
						<given-names>João Davi</given-names>
						<suffix>Neto</suffix>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes, Messejana</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes, Messejana, Fortaleza, CE – Brazil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Germana Porto Linhares</bold> • Rua Frei Cirilo, 3480. Postal Code <postal-code>60840-285</postal-code>. Messejana, Fortaleza, CE - Brazil E-mail: <email>Germanalinharesbackup@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Author Contributions</bold></p>
					<p>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Linhares GP, Souza-Neto JD.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>29</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Apr-Jun</season>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>2</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<fpage>173</fpage>
			<lpage>181</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>11</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>18</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>03</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Worsening congestion is the main reason for hospitalization of most acute heart failure (AHF) patients. However, most patients are discharged with residual congestion, resulting in early readmissions that portend poor outcomes. Diuretics remain the mainstay of therapy. Nevertheless, these drugs stimulate the renin-angiotensin–aldosterone (RAA) axis and the sympathetic system and elicit adaptive responses in the nephron that may be counterproductive and lead to diuretic resistance. Renal failure and AHF are common and coexist in up to 40% of cases. Diuretic strategies that rely on combinations of diuretics are emphasized as a method to prevent resistance. If diuretic resistance does develop, higher-dose combination regimens, hypertonic saline solution, and mechanical ultrafiltration can be used to overcome diuretic adaptations and restore diuretic efficacy.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Diuretics</kwd>
				<kwd>Ultrafiltration</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="54"/>
				<page-count count="9"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Acute heart failure (AHF) accounts for 22.8% of admissions for cardiovascular causes in Brazil, according to the Ministry of Health hospital information system maintained by the Unified Health System (SUS - <italic>Sistema Único de Saúde</italic>). Despite the high cost of episodes of heart failure decompensation, rates of hospital readmission and death remain high. Intrahospital mortality from AHF in Brazil was 12.6%, according to data from the BREATHE study, which is much higher than rates in developed countries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Hypervolemia is one of the pathophysiologic pillars of AHF, whether because of fluid retention or because of volume redistribution. Congestion was observed in 90 and 93% of patients in the BREATHE and ADHERE (The Acute Decompensated HEart Failure National REgistry)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> registers respectively.</p>
			<p>Despite the near universal use of diuretics in hospitalized patients with AHF, many patients leave hospital without adequate decongestion. In the ADHERE registry, it was found that 33% of patients had lost a maximum of 2.5 kg at hospital discharge, while 20% had gained up to 5 kg while in hospital. This is even a common occurrence in clinical trials, which are situations that are far from representative of the “real world” of clinical practice. For example, 48% of participants in the classic studies DOSE-AHF (Diuretic Optimal Strategy Evaluation in Acute Heart Failure)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> and CARRESS-HF (Cardiorenal Rescue Study in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> which will be covered in detail below, still had residual congestion at hospital discharge.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Concerns with worsening renal function associated with restoration of normovolemia are not justified, since it has been demonstrated that presence of congestion is a better predictor of mortality than creatinine elevation in patients discharged from hospital after AHF decompensation<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). On the other hand, elevated creatinine in conjunction with persistent signs of congestion indicates poor prognosis, because it is often associated with diuretic resistance.</p>
			<fig id="f1">
				<label>Figure 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Survival curve according to presence of congestion and worsening renal function in acute heart failure patients discharged from hospital. Cong: congestion; WRF: worsening renal function. Adapted from Metra et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-02-0173-gf01.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>Diuretic resistance is defined as incapacity to achieve decongestion despite using diuretics at appropriate doses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The lack of a consensus on specific criteria to define diuretic resistance means that its true prevalence is unknown. However, it is known to be an ominous complication of AHF that is predictive of mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The pathophysiology of resistance to diuretics is complex and has not yet been fully understood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> It involves a myriad of factors (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>) that act in synergy to create and perpetuate the insufficient response to diuretics. Reabsortion of sodium in the distal tubules has emerged as one of its main determinants<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> and it is known that hypertrophy of distal tubule cells is present after even a few days of treatment with loop diuretics, which results in increased sodium resorption.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> The “braking phenomenon” is already well known. This is a term used to designate the reduction in response after repeated doses of diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> It is a homeostatic mechanism that strives to prevent excessive volume depletion during continual exposure to diuretics, but which is exacerbated in patients with AHF and contributes to diuretic resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			<fig id="f2">
				<label>Figure 2</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Mechanisms of diuretic resistance and proposed treatments. NSAIDs: non-steroidal anti-inflamatory drugs; ARB: angiotensin receptor blockers; ACEi: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; ARNI: angiotensin receptor and neprilysin inhibitors; GFR: glomerular filtration rate. Adapted from Jentzer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-02-0173-gf02.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>The principal predictor of renal failure in patients with AHF is central venous pressure. The increased venous pressure is transmitted retrogradely to the renal vein, reducing glomerular filtration pressure and natriuresis capacity and setting up a vicious cycle that perpetuates congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> It is essential to identify patients with diuretic resistance early, so they can be given the appropriate treatment.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Treatment of congestion</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Loop diuretics</title>
					<p>Loop diuretics (furosemide, torsemide, and bumetanide) are essential medications in the management of hypervolemic patients, because they have greater natriuretic potential. The AHF treatment guidelines emphatically recommend use of diuretics to relieve the signs and symptoms of fluid overload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Adequate management of these medications requires knowledge of their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. In contrast with the other members of this drug class, the bioavailability of furosemide is variable (10 to 90%) and is even more erratic in the presence of AHF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> which generally involves loop edema. Next, furosemide is transported in the convoluted proximal tubule by the organic acids transport system and reaches Henle's loop, where it inhibits NKCC2 cotransporter in the thick ascending limb. It also inhibits the same symport in the apical membrane of macula densa cells, blocking chloride reabsortion and stimulating renin secretion. This neurohumoral activation can contribute to perpetuation of harmful effects in patients with AHF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Loop diuretic dose is chosen empirically and should be guided by urinary output and clinical status. Excessive use of diuretics activates reflex neuro-hormonal mechanisms and was linked with worse outcomes in the ESCAPE study (Evaluation Study of Congestive Heart Failure and Pulmonary Artery Catheterization Effectiveness).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> It should be remembered that patients who are chronic diuretic users will probably need higher doses. Diuretics have an S-shaped dose-response curve (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>), and both AHF and renal failure shift the curve to the right, since higher doses are needed to achieve the maximum natriuretic response. In renal failure, furosemide and organic acids that accumulate in uremia compete for tubular secretion, in a situation analogous to what happens with administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflamatory drugs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Relationship between natriuresis and loop diuretic concentration logarithmic scale. Adapted from Ellison DH<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-02-0173-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>Furosemide doses and administration strategies were compared in the DOSE multicenter study (Diuretic Optimization Strategies Evaluation), which is the largest clinical trial that has been conducted to date addressing this issue. The study enrolled 308 patients with AHF and used a factorial 2x2 design to assign them to intravenous administration of furosemide at a dose 2.5 times greater than their daily dose (high dose groups) or at the same dose as their oral dose (low dose groups) and to either receive intermittent doses (twice a day) or by continuous infusion for 72 hours. The patients were given an average of 260 mg or 120 mg of furosemide (high and low dose groups, respectively). There were no differences between groups in terms of overall symptoms assessment (primary outcome). However, the high dose group had greater relief of dyspnea, greater weight loss, and greater liquid loss (secondary outcomes). Worsening renal function by 72 hours (the other primary outcome) tended to occur more frequently in the high dose group. The authors also failed to detect any difference between the continuous infusion and intermittent dose diuretic administration strategies, which was possibly related to absence of a loading dose at the start of continuous infusion.</p>
					<p>A post hoc analysis of the DOSE study data showed that an increase in creatinine concomitant with diuretic treatment was paradoxically associated with better outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> This association was also observed by other authors<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> and probably reflects changes in glomerular hemodynamics, and not tubular injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> To the extent that withdrawal, or even a decrease of the diuretic dose is not warranted in the event of renal dysfunction, if signs of hypervolemia are still present.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Thiazide diuretics</title>
				<p>Thiazide diuretics (hydrochlorothiazide, chlorothiazide, and others) and “thiazide-like” diuretics (metolazone, chlorthalidone) block the sodium and potassium cotransporter in the distal convoluted tubule and can, at least partially, counterbalance the increased sodium resorption that is associated with chronic use of loop diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> When used as monotherapy, they have a natriuretic effect equivalent to 30 to 40% of the effect of loop diuretics. Different members of the class basically differ in terms of their pharmacokinetic characteristics. In Brazil, only hydrochlorothiazide and chlorthalidone are available.</p>
				<p>Combinations of thiazide and loop diuretics are often used to overcome diuretic resistance, although the evidence for doing so is not robust.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> While there are more than 50 publications on the subject, just 300 patients with AHF were enrolled on small studies, many without control groups, and with primary focus on physiological variables, rather than clinical outcomes. There are two ongoing clinical trials that will provide more information about the magnitude of the effect of this combination (ClinicalTrials NCT0164793229 and ReBEC RBR-5qkn8h30).</p>
				<p>Certain concepts that are used in clinical practice, but which have not been confirmed in clinical trials merit discussion. The first is that metolazone could be more effective for combined treatment with loop diuretics, possibly because of its inhibitory effect on the proximal tubule,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> but there was no evidence of superiority in comparative studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> The second concept is that thiazide should be administered 30 minutes before the loop diuretic, but this has not been assessed in studies of combination use of diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Hydroelectrolytic disorders are more common with thiazide than with loop diuretics. The potential for caliuresis is greater because two to three potassium ions are lost for each sodium ion excreted. The combination of these two drug classes, in particular, greatly increases the predisposition to hypokalemia, which was present in almost two thirds of the patients in one clinical trial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> The North-American AHF guidelines recommend that the combination with thiazide should be reserved for cases that do not respond well to moderate to high doses of loop diuretics.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRA)</title>
				<p>Sprinolactone is the only mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (MRA) available in Brazil. It has been used as part of treatment to modify the disease in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) because of its pleiotropic effects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> When used at high doses, it has diuretic properties.</p>
				<p>Use of sprinolactone may be useful to counterbalance secondary hyperaldosteronism provoked by loop diuretics (30). High aldosterone levels have a harmful effect on the myocardium, contribute directly to diuretic resistance,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> and have been associated with increased rates of mortality and readmission for AHF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>These data were the basis for the ATHENA-HF study (Aldosterone Targeted Neurohormonal Combined with Natriuresis Therapy in Heart Failure),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> a double-blind clinical trial that compared addition of sprinolactone in high doses (100 mg) or usual doses (25 mg) to the standard treatment of 360 patients with AHF. The sample comprised patients with AHF, but without the criteria for diuretic resistance. Although this treatment was well-tolerated, administration of high doses of MRA did not result in any differences in the primary outcomes (plasma levels of N-terminal fragment of B-type natriuretic peptide [NT-proBNP]) or secondary outcomes (relief from congestive symptoms, dyspnea grade, urinary output, or weight loss). The short protocol duration (96 hours) is insufficient for the active metabolite of potassium canrenoate to accumulate and probably contributed to the null results, as did the fact that the study did not include patients with a very high severity profile.</p>
				<p>Despite the results of ATHENA-HF, use of sprinolactone in high doses is one option for avoiding hypokalemia in patients taking large quantities of potassium wasting diuretics.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor</title>
				<p>From a pathophysiologic point of view, strategies that target the proximal tubule could offer some benefil could offer some benefit for treatment of congestion. This segment is where the greatest quantity of sodium is reabsorbed, particularly in conditions such as AHF.</p>
				<p>Acetazolamide blocks reabsortion of sodium bicarbonate in the proximal convoluted tubule by inhibiting the carbonic anhydrase enzyme. A greater quantity of sodium is therefore available for exchange at the level of Henle's loop, increasing the effect of loop diuretics, particularly in renal malperfusion states. Furthermore, the greater quantity of chloride available in the macula densa can inhibit renin secretion (reducing neurohumoral activation). When administered as monotherapy, acetazolamide has very poor natriuretic activity and so its use is restricted to combined therapy. It can be useful for treatment of metabolic alkalosis induced by loop diuretics.</p>
				<p>Some small observational studies demonstrated that acetazolamide had a positive impact on natriuresis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> One of them showed that acetazolamide increased diuretic efficiency in patients with AHF, with additional excretion of 100 mmol of sodium for each 40 mg of furosemide equivalent administered. The second observed an increased diuretic response to addition of 250 mg of acetazolamide, similar to the response achieved by doubling the furosemide dose.</p>
				<p>The ADVOR study (Acetazolamide in Decompensated Heart Failure With Volume OveRload)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> (NCT03505788) is a double-blind randomized clinical trial that is ongoing in Belgium, with completion predicted for 2022. This study enrolled around 500 patients to test the effect of adding 500 mg of intravenous acetazolamide or placebo to a high dose loop diuretic regimen.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Tolvaptan</title>
				<p>Arginine vasopressin antagonists (or vaptans) were developed to selectively block the V2 receptor (tolvaptan) in the collecting duct. The V2 receptors increase aquaporin-mediated water reabsorption. Blocking it therefore increases excretion of electrolyte-free water, with no effect on excretion of electrolytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> These drugs are therefore considered aquaretics.</p>
				<p>Tolvaptan was tested in the ACTIV in CHF (Acute and Chronic Therapeutic Impact of a Vasopressin Antagonist in Congestive Heart Failure)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> and EVEREST studies (Efficacy of Vasopressin Antagonism in Heart Failure Outcome Study With Tolvaptan).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> In both studies, there were benefits for weight loss, dyspnea, and edema, and improvements in hyponatremia, without impact on mortality or rate of readmission for AHF.</p>
				<p>Despite the neutral results for mortality and hospital admissions, tolvaptan demonstrated some favorable effects in patients with diuretic resistance in the EVEREST trial, such as greater weight loss, less dyspnea, and less edema. Notwithstanding this result, there is scant evidence to recommend tolvaptan for treatment of diuretic resistance. It is not currently approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of AHF, but it is approved for treatment of associated hyponatremia.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ultrafiltration</title>
				<p>Ultrafiltration (UF) is an alternative to diuretics for treatment of hypervolemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> It consists of passing blood through hollow fibers surrounded by semipermeable membranes, subjected to a pressure gradient. The result is mechanical removal of fluid, termed the ultrafiltrate. Ultrafiltration removes sodium more effectively because whereas the ultrafiltrate is isonatremic in relation to plasma,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> diuretics produce hypotonic urine, with around 60 to 80 mmol of sodium per liter. Moreover, it does not trigger neuro-hormonal responses or stimulate the macula densa. In other words, the process of decongestion is physiologically different.</p>
				<p>To date, seven clinical trials have been published comparing UF with pharmacological treatment in patients with AHF, five of which examined clinical outcomes. The largest of these enrolled 224 patients, highlighting the difficulty of recruiting participants for studies evaluating invasive methods of treatment.</p>
				<p>The first clinical trial was the RAPID-CHF (Relief for Acutely Fluid-Overloaded Patients With Decompensated Congestive Heart Failure),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> with just 40 patients randomized to UF or pharmacological therapy. The study observed that UF improved symptoms and provoked greater loss of liquid, but with no differences in weight.</p>
				<p>The first large study was published in 2007, randomizing 188 patients for a single UF session or standard treatment with diuretics within 24 hours of admission for AHF: the UNLOAD study (Ultrafiltration Versus Intravenous Diuretics for Patients Hospitalized for Acute Decompensated Heart Failure).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> The results were positive, since there was a 52% reduction in unplanned visits after hospital discharge, a 44% reduction in hospital admissions for AHF, and a 63% reduction in days in hospital after readmission. Some limitations of UNLOAD should be noted, such as that it was sponsored by industry and did not have an independent events committee.</p>
				<p>The CARRESS-HF study was published next, enrolling 188 patients on a randomized clinical trial, funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. This study compared the effects of UF at a fixed velocity of 200 mL/h with goal-scaled drug treatment (loop diuretics, thiazide, vasodilators, and inotropics). No significant differences were observed in outcomes including weight loss (5.7 ± 3.9 vs. 5.5 ± 5.1 kg, respectively, p = 0.58), degree of dyspnea, and wellbeing rating, rated on a visual analog scale. There were no differences in mortality, emergency visits, or readmissions for heart failure by 60 days. However, the UF group had a higher rate of complications (7.2% vs. 5.7%, p = 0.03), represented by bleeding and dialysis catheter infection. Strangely, while the group on pharmacological treatment had a reduction in creatinine levels, the UF group had creatinine elevation of 0.23 mg/dL.</p>
				<p>Certain details of the CARRESS-HF study merit mention because they could have contributed to the null result. First, the group on pharmacological treatment were given medication at doses titrated to maintain daily urinary output at 3 to 5 liters, whereas the UF group were given a fixed rate of 200 mL/hour of UF, which was not individualized. Second, the mean duration of intervention was much longer in the drug treatment group (92 hours) than in the UF group (40 hours). Another important limitation of this study was the high rate of cross-over, because 30% of the patients in the UF group were given diuretics after the end of the protocol and 10% of the patients allocated to UF did not receive it for a range of reasons. These results should therefore be treated with caution.</p>
				<p>It should also be noted that the CARRESS-HF study cannot be considered a counterpoint to the UNLOAD study, since there were significant differences in the inclusion criteria and study protocols (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Table 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Comparison of the principal clinical trials assessing ultrafiltration in patients with acute heart failure</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
						<colgroup width="33%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">UNLOAD</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">CARRESS-HF</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Study design and protocol</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Early UF, within 24 h of admission of patients with AHF</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">UF as salvage therapy in patients with AHF with worsening renal function</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Prescription of UF</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">Flexible duration and rate of UF, to a maximum of 500 mL/h</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">UF duration and rate set at 200 mL/h</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Drug treatment</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">No predefined algorithm</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">According to an algorithm for scaled diuretic doses</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>CARRESS-HF: Cardiorenal Rescue Study in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure; AHF: acute heart failure; UF: ultrafiltration; UNLOAD: Ultrafiltration Versus. Intravenous Diuretics for Patients Hospitalized for Acute Decompensated Heart Failure.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
				<p>The CUORE study (Continuous Ultrafiltration for Congestive Heart Failure)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> was a smaller study that assessed UF and pharmacological treatment in 56 patients at two centers. As in the UNLOAD study, patients were also randomized within 24 h of admission to flexible UF strategies (rate and duration) or conventional unguided pharmacological therapy. In contrast with other trials, the UF group was also given pharmacological treatment. There was no difference in weight at hospital discharge between the two groups, but the UF group had a lower rate of readmission and mortality (combined) at 1 year.</p>
				<p>The AVOID-HF study (Aquapheresis Versus. Intravenous Diuretics and Hospitalization for Heart Failure)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> was designed to compare guided UF strategies and pharmacological treatment. It was designed to enroll 810 patients with AHF, but was unfortunately terminated early by the study sponsor, because of budget problems and slow recruitment. Although it did not achieve sufficient statistical power, analysis of the outcomes of the 224 patients recruited was favorable to UF, with a lower rate of occurrence of a first AHF-related event by 90 days (25% in the UF group vs. 35% in the pharmacological treatment group). The primary study outcome, time to first event, was longer in the UF group (62 days) than in the pharmacological treatment group (34 days), although without statistical significance (p = 0.106). At 30 days after hospital discharge, fewer patients in the UF group had been readmitted for AHF (p = 0.034).</p>
				<p>Due to the inconsistent results, the majority of centers reserve UF as a salvage strategy for patients whose hypervolemia cannot be resolved with pharmacological treatment. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref> depicts a proposed algorithm for refractory congestion. Use of both methods (UF and pharmacological treatment) in synergy can also be considered..</p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figure 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Therapeutic flow diagram illustrating treatment of congestion in acute heart failure. UO: urinary output; SGLT2i: sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors. Adapted from Mullens et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-02-0173-gf04.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>The AHF treatment guidelines recommend UF in cases of refractory hypervolemia, but diverge on the degree of recommendation and level of evidence. According to the Brazilian guidelines, this indication is class I with level of evidence B, whereas the European guidelines give it a class IIb recommendation and level of evidence C. The recently-published American guidelines do not contain any specific recommendations on UF in patients with AHF.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Hypertonic saline solution</title>
				<p>In the elegant work by Issa et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> the infusion of 7,5% HSS twice daily for three days prevented renal dysfunction in patients with decompensated heart failure. During the study protocol, the increase in serum creatinine (0,3mg/dl or above) occurred in 2 (10%) of the HSS arm and 6 (50%) of the placebo arm. (relative risk 0,3; confidence interval 0,09 a 0,98; p=0,01). Relative to baseline, serum creatinine and cystatin C levels were lower in HSS as compared to placebo.</p>
				<p>Administration of hypertonic saline solution (HSS) has been used as a treatment option in cases of resistance to diuretics and refractory hypervolemia for more than two decades. Much of what is known about use of HSS comes from experimental models of hemorrhagic and septic shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Infusion of hypertonic NaCl solution results in a sudden increase in plasma osmolarity, immediately displacing fluid from the interstitium to the vascular space as a consequence of the increased tonicity, expanding plasma volume, and increasing renal flow. After infusion of HSS, a loop diuretic is administered in bolus. Over 20 years of experience, infusion of HSS has proven to be a safe and well-tolerated treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
				<p>One of the first studies with HSS was observational, in a sample of 30 patients who were given 150 mL of NaCl solution (at 1.4 to 4.6%) administered twice a day, followed by furosemide (250-2,000 mg) over 6 to 12 days.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> There were improvements in dyspnea, edema, and disease severity, according to functional class.</p>
				<p>Later, the same authors conducted a single-blind randomized study that recruited 60 patients to compare furosemide (500-1,000 mg) combined with HSS (1.4 to 4.6% NaCl, depending on natremia) or placebo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> This study observed that the HSS group had greater urinary output and greater natriuresis and improvements in creatinine and New York Heart Association functional class.</p>
				<p>Finally, a larger clinical trial with 107 patients tested the effect of HSS on rates of hospital readmission and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> The same protocol as above was applied and resulted in a lower rate of hospital readmission in the HSS group (25 patients out of a total of 53) than in the placebo group (43 patients out of a total of 54) over the 31 ± 14 months of follow-up. Additionally, mortality was significantly lower in the HSS group (24 patients vs. 47, p &lt; 0.001) than in the placebo group. Another large clinical trial (NCT05298098), with a double-blind and randomized design, is ongoing and will recruit 600 patients to test the effect of an even more concentrated solution (NaCl 10%), with results predicted for 2023.</p>
				<p>The Brazilian guidelines recommend HSS in patients with refractory congestion (class IIa, level of evidence B). While the European guidelines do mention HSS, they do not make any specific recommendations.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Albumin</title>
				<p>Loop diuretics are organic acids that circulate firmly bonded to albumin. Albumin increases secretion of furosemide in the proximal tubule and therefore hypoalbuminemia may reduce bioavailability of furosemide in Henle's loop. However, there are no studies of use of albumin in AHF and its role in the genesis of diuretic resistance may be irrelevant. There is a little evidence suggesting that infusion of albumin increases the natriuretic response, as long as serum albumin is above 2 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> There is scant evidence on the role of albumin in AHF, limited to case reports and the experience of centers specialized in AHF.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusions</title>
			<p>Adequate management of congestion in patients with advanced AHF remains a challenge. Over the last two decades, several clinical trials in AHF patients have been published, but unfortunately without yielding significant advances in treatment for these patients. Better understanding of the mechanisms of diuretic resistance can contribute to appropriate treatment and better outcomes.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
				<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Estratégias de Tratamento da Congestão Refratária</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8601-0901</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Linhares</surname>
						<given-names>Germana Porto</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6767-4785</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Souza</surname>
						<given-names>João Davi</given-names>
						<suffix>Neto</suffix>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes, Messejana, Fortaleza, CE – Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Germana Porto Linhares</bold> • Rua Frei Cirilo, 3480. CEP <postal-code>60840-285</postal-code>. Messejana, Fortaleza, CE - Brasil E-mail: <email>Germanalinharesbackup@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Contribuição dos autores</bold></p>
					<p>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante: Linhares GP, Souza-Neto JD.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A piora da congestão é o principal motivo para hospitalização na maioria dos pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca aguda (ICA). No entanto, a maioria dos pacientes apresentam congestão residual por ocasião da alta hospitalar, resultando em readmissões precoces que prenunciam desfechos desfavoráveis. Diuréticos são a base do tratamento. Entretanto, estes medicamentos estimulam o eixo renina angiotensina aldosterona (RAA) e o sistema nervoso simpático e deflagram respostas adaptativas no néfron que podem ser contraproducentes e levar a resistência diurética. Insuficiência renal e insuficiência cardíaca aguda são comuns e coexistem em até 40% dos casos. Estratégias usando combinação de diuréticos de diferentes classes são enfatizadas como método para prevenir o desenvolvimento de resistência. Caso a resistência ao diurético se instale, doses mais altas destas medicações, solução salina hipertônica, ultrafiltração mecânica podem ser usadas para sobrepujar as adaptações do néfron e restaurar a eficiência diurética.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Diuréticos</kwd>
				<kwd>Ultrafiltração</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca aguda (ICA) representa 22,8% das internações por causas cardiovasculares no Brasil (Ministério da Saúde – sistema de informações hospitalares do Sistema Único de Saúde). Não obstante o alto custo dos episódios de descompensação, as taxas de reospitalização e óbito permanecem altas. A mortalidade intra-hospitalar por ICA no Brasil foi de 12,6%, conforme dados do estudo BREATHE, sendo, portanto, muito superior à de países desenvolvidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A hipervolemia é um dos pilares fisiopatológicos da ICA, seja por retenção hídrica ou por redistribuição de volume. A congestão foi evidenciada em 90 e 93% dos pacientes nos registros BREATHE e ADHERE (<italic>The Acute Decompensated HEart Failure National REgistry</italic>),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> respectivamente.</p>
				<p>Não obstante o uso quase universal dos diuréticos em pacientes hospitalizados com ICA, muitos pacientes deixam o hospital sem descongestão adequada. No registro ADHERE, por ocasião da alta hospitalar, foi verificado que 33% dos pacientes tinham perdido no máximo 2,5 kg, enquanto 20% tiveram aumento de até 5 kg durante a internação. Até mesmo em ensaios clínicos, que são situações bem pouco representativas do “mundo real” da prática clínica, isso é uma ocorrência frequente. Por exemplo, 48% dos participantes dos estudos clássicos DOSE-AHF (<italic>Diuretic Optimal Strategy Evaluation in Acute Heart Failure</italic>)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> e CARRESS-HF (<italic>Cardiorenal Rescue Study in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure</italic>),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> detalhados adiante, apresentavam congestão residual na alta hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O receio de piora da função renal concomitante à restauração da normovolemia não é justificável, pois foi demonstrado que a presença de congestão é melhor preditora de mortalidade que a elevação da creatinina em pacientes que receberam alta hospitalar após descompensação da ICA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>). Por outro lado, o aumento de creatinina em vigência de sinais persistentes de congestão denota mau prognóstico, por ser frequentemente associado à resistência diurética.</p>
				<fig id="f5">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Curva de sobrevida de acordo com a presença de congestão e piora da função renal em pacientes de alta hospitalar por insuficiência cardíaca aguda. Cong: congestão; PFR: piora de função renal. Modificada de Metra et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-02-0173-gf01-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>A resistência diurética é definida como a incapacidade de atingir a descongestão apesar do uso de diuréticos em doses apropriadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A falta de critérios específicos e consensuais para caracterizar a resistência diurética faz com que sua real prevalência seja desconhecida. Sabe-se, no entanto, que é uma complicação ominosa da ICA e preditora de mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A fisiopatologia da resistência ao diurético é complexa e ainda não totalmente compreendida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Envolve uma miríade de fatores (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>) que agem de forma sinérgica para criar e perpetuar a resposta insuficiente ao diurético. A reabsorção do sódio no túbulo distal tem emergido como um dos seus principais determinantes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> e sabe-se que existe hipertrofia das células tubulares distais mesmo após poucos dias de tratamento com diurético de alça, que resulta em maior reabsorção de sódio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Já é bem conhecido o <italic>braking phenomenon</italic>, termo que designa a redução da resposta após doses repetidas de diurético.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> É um mecanismo homeostático que visa evitar a depleção excessiva de volume durante a exposição continuada ao diurético, mas que é exacerbado em pacientes com ICA, contribuindo para a resistência diurética.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f6">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Mecanismos de resistência diurética e propostas de tratamento. AINEs: anti-inflamatórios não esteroides; BRA: bloqueadores de receptores da angiotensina; iECA: inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina; INRA: antagonista do receptor de angiotensina e inibidor da neprilisina; TFG: taxa de filtração glomerular. Adaptado de Jentzer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-02-0173-gf02-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>O principal preditor de desenvolvimento de insuficiência renal em pacientes com ICA é a pressão venosa central. O aumento das pressões venosas se transmite retrogradamente até a veia renal, diminuindo a pressão de filtração glomerular e a capacidade de natriurese e formando um ciclo vicioso que perpetua a congestão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> É fundamental identificar precocemente os pacientes com resistência diurética, de forma que recebam tratamento adequado.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Tratamento da congestão</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Diuréticos de alça</title>
						<p>Os diuréticos de alça (furosemida, torsemida e bumetanida) são medicamentos essenciais para o manejo de pacientes hipervolêmicos, por terem maior potência natriurética. As diretrizes de tratamento da ICA recomendam enfaticamente o uso de diuréticos para aliviar os sinais e sintomas de sobrecarga hídrica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
						<p>O manejo adequado desses medicamentos requer o conhecimento de suas propriedades farmacocinéticas e farmacodinâmicas. Ao contrário dos outros representantes dessa classe, a biodisponibilidade da furosemida é variável (10 a 90%) e ainda mais errática no cenário da ICA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> que geralmente cursa com edema de alças. Em seguida, a furosemida é translocada no túbulo convoluto proximal mediante o sistema transportador de ácidos orgânicos e atinge a alça de Henle, onde inibe o cotransportador NKCC2 no segmento ascendente espesso. Além disso, inibe o mesmo simporte na membrana apical das células da mácula densa, bloqueando a reabsorção de cloro e estimulando a secreção de renina. Essa ativação neuro-humoral pode contribuir para a perpetuação de efeitos deletérios em pacientes com ICA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A dose do diurético de alça é empírica e deve ser guiada pelo débito urinário e quadro clínico. O uso excessivo de diuréticos ativa mecanismos neuro-hormonais reflexos e foi relacionado a piores desfechos no estudo ESCAPE (<italic>Evaluation Study of Congestive Heart Failure and Pulmonary Artery Catheterization Effectiveness</italic>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Deve ser lembrado que pacientes que fazem uso crônico de diurético provavelmente precisarão de doses mais altas. A curva dose-resposta dos diuréticos tem a forma de S (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>), e tanto a ICA quanto a insuficiência renal deslocam a curva para a direita, pois doses mais altas são requeridas para atingir resposta natriurética máxima. Na insuficiência renal, a furosemida compete pela secreção tubular com os ácidos orgânicos que se acumulam na uremia, situação análoga à que ocorre quando há administração concomitante de drogas anti-inflamatórias não esteroidais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
						<fig id="f7">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Relação entre natriurese e escala logarítmica da concentração de diurético de alça. Adapatado de Ellison DH<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-02-0173-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
						<p>Doses de furosemida e estratégias de administração foram comparadas no estudo multicêntrico DOSE (<italic>Diuretic Optimization Strategies Evaluation</italic>), o maior ensaio clínico conduzido até o momento com esse objetivo. O estudo incluiu 308 pacientes com ICA e usou um desenho fatorial 2x2, para a administração endovenosa de furosemida em dose 2,5 superior à do uso diário (grupo alta dose) ou na mesma dose ambulatorial (grupo baixa dose), bem como para receber doses intermitentes (duas vezes ao dia) ou em infusão contínua ao longo de 72 horas. Em média, os pacientes receberam 260 mg e 120 mg de furosemida (grupo alta e baixa dose, respectivamente). Não houve diferenças entre os grupos quanto à avaliação global de sintomas (desfecho primário). Entretanto, no grupo alta dose, houve maior alívio da dispneia, maior diminuição de peso e maior perda de líquido (desfechos secundários). A piora de função renal em 72 horas, outro desfecho primário, tendeu a ocorrer mais frequentemente no grupo alta dose. Os autores também não verificaram diferença entre as estratégias de infusão contínua ou dose intermitente do diurético, um achado possivelmente relacionado à falta de uma dose de ataque no início da infusão contínua.</p>
						<p>Uma análise <italic>post hoc</italic> do estudo DOSE verificou que o aumento da creatinina concomitante à terapia diurética foi paradoxalmente associado a melhores desfechos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Essa associação também foi observada por outros autores<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> e provavelmente reflete alterações hemodinâmicas glomerulares, e não injúria tubular,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> de modo que não está indicada a suspensão ou descalonamento da dose de diurético face à piora da função renal se ainda há sinais de hipervolemia.</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diuréticos tiazídicos</title>
					<p>Os diuréticos tiazídicos (hidroclorotiazida, clorotiazida, entre outros) e similares aos tiazídicos (metolazona, clortalidona) bloqueiam o cotransportador de sódio e potássio no túbulo convoluto distal e podem, pelo menos parcialmente, contrabalançar a reabsorção de sódio aumentada associada ao uso crônico de diuréticos de alça.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Quando usados em monoterapia, têm efeito natriurético equivalente a 30 a 40% dos diuréticos de alça. Os representantes diferem entre si essencialmente por suas características farmacocinéticas. No Brasil, dispomos apenas da hidroclorotiazida e clortalidona.</p>
					<p>A combinação de diuréticos tiazídicos e de alça para sobrepujar a resistência diurética é comumente utilizada, embora não haja evidências robustas para tal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Apesar das mais de 50 publicações sobre esse tópico, apenas 300 pacientes com ICA foram envolvidos em estudos pequenos, muitos deles sem grupo controle e com foco predominante em variáveis fisiológicas, em vez de desfechos clínicos. Estão em andamento dois ensaios clínicos que trarão mais informações sobre a magnitude do efeito dessa combinação (ClinicalTrials NCT0164793229 e ReBEC RBR-5qkn8h30).</p>
					<p>Alguns conceitos difundidos na prática clínica, mas que não foram confirmados em estudos clínicos, merecem destaque. O primeiro seria que a metolazona seria mais eficaz para o tratamento combinado com diuréticos de alça, possivelmente por seu efeito inibitório no túbulo proximal,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> porém não houve evidência de superioridade em estudos comparativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> O segundo é de que o tiazídico deva ser administrado 30 minutos antes do diurético de alça, porém isso não foi avaliado em estudos de combinação de diuréticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os distúrbios hidroeletrolíticos são mais comuns com tiazídicos do que com diuréticos de alça. O potencial de caliurese é maior, pois são perdidos de dois a três íons de potássio a cada íon de sódio excretado. A combinação das duas classes, em especial, aumenta muito a predisposição à hipocalemia, presente em quase dois terços dos pacientes em um ensaio clínico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> A diretriz norte-americana de ICA recomenda que a associação de tiazídicos seja reservada para casos que não respondem bem a doses moderadas a altas de diuréticos de alça.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Antagonistas de receptor mineralocorticoide (ARM)</title>
					<p>A espironolactona é o único antagonista de receptor mineralocorticoide (ARM) disponível no Brasil. Ela tem sido usada como parte da terapia modificadora da doença na insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFEr) por seus efeitos pleiotrópicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Quando utilizada em altas doses, tem propriedades diuréticas.</p>
					<p>O uso da espironolactona pode ser útil para contrabalançar o hiperaldosteronismo secundário provocado pelos diuréticos de alça.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Os níveis altos de aldosterona têm efeito deletério sobre o miocárdio, contribuem diretamente para a resistência diurética<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> e têm sido associados a aumento da mortalidade e das taxas de readmissão por ICA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Esses dados foram o fundamento para o ATHENA-HF (<italic>Aldosterone Targeted Neurohormonal Combined with Natriuresis Therapy in Heart Failure</italic>),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> ensaio clínico duplo-cego que comparou a adição de espironolactona em altas doses (100 mg) ou doses usuais (25 mg) ao tratamento padrão de 360 pacientes com ICA. A amostra era composta por pacientes com ICA, sem caracterizar resistência diurética. Embora o tratamento tenha sido bem tolerado, a administração de altas doses do MRA não resultou em diferenças nos desfechos primários (níveis plasmáticos de fragmento N-terminal do peptídeo natriurético tipo B [NT-proBNP]) ou secundários (alívio dos sintomas congestivos, grau de dispneia, débito urinário e perda de peso). O curto período do protocolo (96 horas), insuficiente para o acúmulo do metabólito ativo canrenoato de potássio, provavelmente contribuiu para os resultados nulos, bem como o fato de o estudo não ter incluído pacientes com perfil muito alto de gravidade.</p>
					<p>Apesar dos resultados do ATHENA-HF, o uso de espironolactona em altas doses é uma opção para evitar hipocalemia em pacientes usando grandes quantidades de diuréticos espoliadores de potássio.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Inibidor da anidrase carbônica</title>
					<p>De um ponto de vista fisiopatológico, atuar sobre os mecanismos do túbulo proximal pode trazer alguns benefícios no tratamento da congestão. É nesse segmento que a maior quantidade de sódio é reabsorvida, principalmente em situações como a ICA.</p>
					<p>A acetazolamida bloqueia a reabsorção de bicarbonato de sódio no túbulo convoluto proximal ao inibir a enzima anidrase carbônica. Desse modo, uma quantidade maior de sódio estará disponível para a troca no nível da alça de Henle, o que aumenta o efeito dos diuréticos de alça, principalmente em estados de má perfusão renal. Além disso, a maior quantidade de cloro disponível na mácula densa pode inibir a secreção de renina (diminuindo a ativação neuro-humoral). Quando administrada em monoterapia, a acetazolamida tem ação natriurética muito discreta; portanto, seu uso está restrito à terapia combinada. Pode ser útil para o tratamento da alcalose metabólica induzida por diuréticos de alça.</p>
					<p>Alguns estudos observacionais pequenos demonstraram impacto positivo da acetazolamida na natriurese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Um deles verificou que a acetazolamida aumentou a eficiência diurética em pacientes com ICA, com uma excreção adicional de 100 mmol de sódio por cada equivalente de 40 mg de furosemida administrado. O segundo verificou aumento da resposta diurética à adição de 250 mg de acetazolamida, similar à resposta obtida ao dobrar a dose de furosemida.</p>
					<p>O estudo ADVOR (<italic>Acetazolamide in Decompensated Heart Failure With Volume OveRload</italic>)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> (NCT03505788) é um ensaio clínico duplo-cego randomizado que está em andamento na Bélgica, com estimativa de término em 2022. O estudo incluiu cerca de 500 pacientes para testar o efeito do acréscimo de 500 mg de acetazolamida endovenosa ou placebo ao esquema de diurético de alça em altas doses.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tolvaptan</title>
					<p>Os antagonistas da arginina vasopressina, ou vaptanos, foram desenvolvidos para bloquear seletivamente o receptor V2 (tolvaptan) no ducto coletor. Os receptores V2 aumentam a reabsorção de água mediada pela aquaporina. Portanto, o seu bloqueio leva à excreção de água livre, sem efeito sobre a eliminação de eletrólitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Dessa forma, são considerados aquaréticos.</p>
					<p>O tolvaptan foi testado nos estudos ACTIV in CHF (<italic>Acute and Chronic Therapeutic Impact of a Vasopressin Antagonist in Congestive Heart Failure</italic>)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> e EVEREST (<italic>Efficacy of Vasopressin Antagonism in Heart Failure Outcome Study With Tolvaptan</italic>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Nesses dois estudos, houve benefício na perda de peso, dispneia e edema, além de melhora da hiponatremia, sem impacto sobre mortalidade ou taxa de readmissão por ICA.</p>
					<p>Apesar dos resultados neutros sobre a mortalidade ou hospitalização, naqueles pacientes com resistência diurética do estudo EVEREST, o tolvaptan demonstrou alguns efeitos favoráveis, como maior perda de peso, menos dispneia e menos edema. Apesar desse resultado, as evidências para recomendação do tolvaptan para o tratamento da resistência diurética são escassas. Atualmente, ele não é aprovado pela Food and Drug Administration (FDA) para o tratamento da ICA, mas, sim, para o tratamento da hiponatremia associada.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Ultrafiltração</title>
					<p>A ultrafiltração (UF) é uma alternativa aos diuréticos para tratamento da hipervolemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Ela consiste na passagem de sangue através de fibras ocas envoltas por membranas semipermeáveis, submetidas a um gradiente de pressão. O resultado é a remoção mecânica de fluido, chamado de ultrafiltrado. A UF remove o sódio de forma mais eficiente, pois, enquanto o ultrafiltrado é isonatrêmico em relação ao plasma,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> o diurético produz urina hipotônica, com cerca de 60 a 80 mmol de sódio por litro. Além disso, não deflagra respostas neuro-hormonais nem estimula a mácula densa, ou seja, o processo de descongestão é fisiologicamente diferente.</p>
					<p>Até o momento, foram publicados sete ensaios clínicos comparando a UF ao tratamento farmacológico em pacientes com ICA, sendo que cinco examinaram desfechos clínicos. O maior deles incluiu 224 pacientes, ressaltando a dificuldade de inclusão de participantes em estudos avaliando métodos invasivos de tratamento.</p>
					<p>O primeiro ensaio clínico foi o RAPID-CHF (<italic>Relief for Acutely Fluid-Overloaded Patients With Decompensated Congestive Heart Failure</italic>),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> com apenas 40 pacientes randomizados para UF ou terapia farmacológica. Esse estudo verificou que a UF melhorou sintomas e propiciou maior perda de líquido, mas sem diferenças no peso.</p>
					<p>Em 2007, foi publicado o primeiro grande estudo que randomizou 188 pacientes para sessão única de UF ou para terapia-padrão com diuréticos em até 24 horas após a admissão por ICA: o UNLOAD (<italic>Ultrafiltration Versus Intravenous Diuretics for Patients Hospitalized for Acute Decompensated Heart Failure</italic>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Os resultados foram positivos, pois houve redução de 52% de visitas não planejadas após a alta hospitalar, redução de 44% de hospitalização por ICA e redução de 63% de dias de reospitalização. Algumas limitações do UNLOAD devem ser citadas, como ter sido patrocinado pela indústria sem um comitê independente de eventos.</p>
					<p>Em seguida, foi publicado o CARRESS-HF, que incluiu 188 pacientes em um ensaio clínico randomizado, financiado pelo National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Esse estudo comparou os efeitos de UF a uma velocidade fixa de 200 mL/h com uma terapia farmacológica escalonada baseada em metas (diuréticos de alça, tiazídicos, vasodilatadores e inotrópicos). Não foi verificada diferença significativa nos desfechos entre os grupos, que incluíram perda de peso (5,7 ± 3,9 vs. 5,5 ± 5,1 kg, respectivamente, p = 0,58), grau de dispneia e escala de bem-estar, acessados por uma escala analógica visual. Não houve diferença de mortalidade, idas ao setor de emergência ou reospitalizações por insuficiência cardíaca após 60 dias. Além disso, o grupo UF teve maior taxa de complicações (7,2% vs. 5,7%, p = 0,03), representadas por sangramento e infecção do cateter de diálise. Curiosamente, enquanto o grupo terapia farmacológica teve diminuição dos níveis de creatinina, o grupo UF teve aumento de creatinina de 0,23 mg/dL.</p>
					<p>Alguns detalhes do CARRESS-HF merecem ênfase, pois podem ter contribuído para o resultado nulo. Primeiro, o grupo terapia farmacológica recebeu medicações em doses tituladas a fim de manter o débito urinário diário de 3 a 5 litros, enquanto o outro grupo recebeu taxa fixa de 200 mL/hora de UF, de forma não individualizada. Segundo a duração média da intervenção foi bem maior no grupo terapia farmacológica (92 horas) que no grupo UF (40 horas). Outra importante limitação do estudo foi a alta taxa de <italic>cross-over</italic>, pois 30% dos pacientes do grupo UF receberam diuréticos após cessado o protocolo e 10% dos pacientes alocados para UF não receberam o tratamento por motivos diversos. Portanto, esses resultados devem ser encarados com cautela.</p>
					<p>Deve ser destacado ainda que o CARRESS-HF não pode ser considerado um contraponto ao UNLOAD, pois há diferenças significativas nos critérios de inclusão e no protocolo de estudo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Comparação dos principais ensaios clínicos avaliando ultrafiltração em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca aguda</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
							<colgroup width="33%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<th align="left" valign="middle"/>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">UNLOAD</th>
									<th align="center" valign="middle">CARRESS-HF</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Desenho do estudo e protocolo</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">UF precoce, em até 24 h da admissão em pacientes com ICA</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">UF como terapia de resgate em pacientes com ICA cursando com piora da função renal</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Prescrição da UF</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Duração e taxa de UF flexíveis, máxima de 500 mL/h</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">UF com duração e taxa fixas de 200 mL/h</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" valign="middle">Terapia farmacológica</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">Sem algoritmo pré-definido</td>
									<td align="center" valign="middle">De acordo com algoritmo de doses escalonadas de diurético</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p>CARRESS-HF: Cardiorenal Rescue Study in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure; ICA: insuficiência cardíaca aguda; UF: ultrafiltração; UNLOAD: Ultrafiltration Versus Intravenous Diuretics for Patients Hospitalized for Acute Decompensated Heart Failure.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
					<p>O estudo CUORE (<italic>Continuous Ultrafiltration for Congestive Heart Failure</italic>)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> foi um estudo menor, que avaliou UF e terapia farmacológica em 56 pacientes de dois centros. Como no UNLOAD, os pacientes também foram randomizados em até 24 h após a admissão para estratégias flexíveis de UF (taxa e duração) ou terapia farmacológica convencional, não guiada. Diferente dos demais, o grupo UF recebeu também terapia farmacológica. Não houve diferença no peso na alta hospitalar nos dois grupos, mas o grupo UF teve menores taxas de readmissão e mortalidade (combinados) em 1 ano.</p>
					<p>O AVOID-HF (<italic>Aquapheresis versus Intravenous Diuretics and Hospitalization for Heart Failure</italic>)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> foi idealizado para comparar estratégias guiadas de UF e de terapia farmacológica. Ele foi desenhado para incluir 810 pacientes com ICA, mas infelizmente foi interrompido pelo patrocinador do estudo de forma precoce, alegando questões orçamentárias e lentidão no recrutamento. Embora não tenha poder estatístico suficiente, a análise dos desfechos dos 224 pacientes incluídos foi favorável à UF, com menor taxa de ocorrência do primeiro evento relacionado à ICA em 90 dias (25% no grupo UF vs. 35% no grupo terapia farmacológica). O desfecho primário do estudo, tempo até o primeiro evento, foi maior no grupo UF (62 dias) que no grupo terapia farmacológica (34 dias), embora sem significância estatística (p = 0,106). Após 30 dias da alta hospitalar, menos pacientes do grupo UF foram readmitidos por ICA (p = 0,034).</p>
					<p>Devido aos resultados não consistentes, a maioria dos centros reserva a UF como estratégia de resgate para pacientes que não conseguem resolução da hipervolemia com a terapia farmacológica. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">figura 4</xref> propõe um algoritmo para o tratamento escalonado e guiado por meta de débito urinário. Pode ser considerado o uso das duas modalidades, de forma sinérgica.</p>
					<fig id="f8">
						<label>Figura 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Fluxograma terapêutico do tratamento da congestão na insuficiência cardíaca aguda. DU: débito urinário; iSGLT-2: inibidores do cotransportador sódio-glicose 2. Modificado de Mullens et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-02-0173-gf04-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
					<p>As diretrizes para o tratamento da ICA recomendam a UF em casos de hipervolemia refratária, mas divergem quanto ao grau de recomendação e nível de evidência. Para a diretriz brasileira, a indicação é classe I com nível de evidência B, enquanto a diretriz europeia recomenda como classe IIb com nível de evidência C. A recém-publicada diretriz americana não faz recomendação específica para UF em pacientes com ICA.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Solução salina hipertônica</title>
					<p>Em um elegante estudo de Issa et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> foi demonstrada que a infusão de SSH (7,5%), duas vezes ao dia por três dias, atenuou a ocorrência de disfunção renal em 22 pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca aguda, contra 12 pacientes do grupo placebo. Durante a intervenção a elevação da creatinina igual ou superior a 0,3mg/dl ocorreu em 2 pacientes (10%) do grupo SSH e em 6 (50%) do grupo placebo (risco relativo 0,3; intervalo de confiança 0,09 a 0,98; p=0,01).</p>
					<p>A administração de solução salina hipertônica (SSH) tem sido uma opção terapêutica em casos de resistência ao diurético e hipervolemia refratária há mais de duas décadas. Grande parte do conhecimento a respeito da SSH vem de modelos experimentais de choque hemorrágico e séptico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> A infusão de NaCl hipertônica resulta em aumento súbito da osmolaridade plasmática, mobilização imediata de fluido do interstício para o espaço vascular consequente ao aumento da tonicidade, expansão do volume plasmático e aumento do fluxo renal. Em seguida à infusão da SSH, é administrado diurético de alça em bólus. Em cerca de 20 anos de experiência, a infusão de SSH tem demonstrado ser uma terapia segura e bem tolerada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Um dos primeiros estudos com a SSH foi observacional, em uma amostra de 30 pacientes que recebeu solução de 150 mL de NaCl (1,4 a 4,6%) administrada duas vezes ao dia, seguida de furosemida (250-2.000 mg) ao longo de 6 a 12 dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Houve melhora da dispneia, edema e gravidade da doença, de acordo com a classe funcional.</p>
					<p>Os mesmos autores conduziram posteriormente um estudo randomizado unicego que incluiu 60 pacientes, para comparar furosemida (500-1.000 mg) combinada com SSH (1,4 a 4,6% NaCl, de acordo com a natremia) ou placebo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Nesse estudo, foi verificado que o grupo SSH obteve maior débito urinário, maior natriurese e melhora da creatinina e da classe funcional da New York Heart Association.</p>
					<p>Finalmente, um ensaio clínico maior, envolvendo 107 pacientes, testou o efeito da SSH sobre a taxa de readmissão hospitalar e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> O mesmo protocolo acima foi aplicado e resultou em menor taxa de readmissão hospitalar no grupo SSH (25 pacientes de um total de 53) que no grupo placebo (43 pacientes de um total de 54) durante os 31 ± 14 meses de seguimento. Além disso, a mortalidade foi significativamente menor no grupo SSH (24 pacientes vs. 47, p &lt; 0,001) em relação ao placebo. Um outro grande ensaio clínico (NCT05298098), duplo-cego e randomizado, está em andamento e irá incluir 600 pacientes para testar o efeito de uma solução ainda mais concentrada (NaCl 10%), com previsão de resultados para 2023.</p>
					<p>A diretriz brasileira recomenda a SSH em pacientes com congestão refratária (classe IIa, nível de evidência B). Embora a diretriz europeia mencione a SSH, ela não faz recomendação específica.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Albumina</title>
					<p>Os diuréticos de alça são ácidos orgânicos que circulam firmemente ligados à albumina. A albumina aumenta a secreção de furosemida no túbulo proximal, e, portanto, a hipoalbuminemia poderia diminuir a biodisponibilidade da furosemida na alça de Henle. No entanto, não há estudos sobre o uso da albumina na ICA, e o seu papel na gênese da resistência diurética pode ser irrelevante. Há pouca evidência sugerindo que a infusão de albumina aumente a resposta natriurética, desde que a albumina sérica esteja acima de 2 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> A evidência do papel da albumina na ICA é muito escassa, restrita a relatos de casos e experiência de centros especializados em ICA.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>O manejo adequado da congestão ainda permanece um desafio em pacientes com ICA avançada. Nas últimas duas décadas, diversos ensaios clínicos em ICA foram publicados, infelizmente sem novidades expressivas na terapêutica desses pacientes. O maior entendimento sobre os mecanismos de resistência diurética pode contribuir para o tratamento adequado e melhorar desfechos.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
					<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
					<p><bold>Vinculação acadêmica</bold></p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<p><bold>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</bold></p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>