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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20220018</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20220018</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Diuretics in Treatment of Heart Failure</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7857-9863</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Seguro</surname>
						<given-names>Luis Fernando Bernal da Costa</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6890-8344</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Xavier</surname>
						<given-names>José Leudo</given-names>
						<suffix>Júnior</suffix>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Coração</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital das Clínicas de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Leudo Xavier •Rua Basílio da Cunha, 507, Apt 172, bloco 2. Postal Code 01544-001, Vila Deodoro, São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>leudoxavier@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p>Author Contributions</p>
					<p>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual contente: Seguro LFBC e Xavier Júnior JL.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>12</day>
				<month>04</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Jan-Mar</season>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>2</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<fpage>86</fpage>
			<lpage>93</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>30</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>01</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>22</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Heart failure is the leading cause of hospitalization in patients over 65 years of age, and, in most cases, patients present with signs and symptoms of congestion. Thus, diuretics play a prominent role and are among the most used drugs in heart failure. Although they have been used for decades, the lack of large controlled studies in the literature to support their use more adequately and the eventual development of resistance/tolerance are among the factors that make management of diuretics challenging.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Diuretics</kwd>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Heart Diseases</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="4"/>
				<table-count count="6"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="59"/>
				<page-count count="8"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Heart failure (HF) affects 1% to 2% of the world population, afflicting more than 23 million people, and its prevalence increases with age. For example, in individuals over 85 years of age, prevalence can reach more than 17%. It is a serious public health problem, given its increasing financial impact. HF is the main cause of hospitalization among patients over 65 years of age, and, in the vast majority of cases, patients present with signs and symptoms resulting from pulmonary and systemic congestion. In this context, diuretics are extremely useful, as they are one of the primary factors in management of congestive syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> During the past 3 decades, several drugs have emerged as protagonists in the treatment of HF, generating a real impact in terms of survival, as demonstrated by several multicenter, double-blind, controlled studies. Conversely, there is a lack of data in the literature, based on large controlled studies, to better support the use of diuretics, despite the fact that they have been used for more than half a century in patients with HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Furthermore, another challenge is the eventual development of resistance to diuretics. In the context of patients with long-term HF, this occurrence is not uncommon, even though the actual incidence numbers are unknown, with several possible causal factors. These factors can occur alone or together. They range from inadequate dose to dietary issues, nutritional status, electrolyte disturbances, intestinal edema, and even renal dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Diuretic resistance is an independent factor for mortality, due to both pump failure and sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Accordingly, understanding how diuretics work, their interactions with the organism and with other diuretics, in addition to the mechanisms and factors that lead to diuretic resistance is of paramount importance so that we can obtain the maximum possible benefits from this longstanding class of drugs.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Types of diuretics and their use in heart failure</title>
				<p>Nephrons are the basic working structure of the kidneys. There are about one million nephrons in each kidney. Each day, about 180 liters of blood passes through the kidneys, where solutes and water are filtered by the glomeruli and reabsorbed or, eventually, eliminated, through the sequence of tubules that make up the structure of the nephron. One of the main solutes in the body is sodium (Na<sup>+</sup>). Normally, about 99% of the Na<sup>+</sup> that has been filtered in the glomeruli is reabsorbed in the tubules, at different points and in different proportions, which, therefore, attracts water back to the organism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>For the most part, diuretics are drugs that act to increase solute excretion by the nephrons, mainly of Na<sup>+</sup> salts, such as NaCl, in a process known as natriuresis. In response to the osmotic force of these solutes, there is a reduction in the reabsorption of water in the tubules, resulting in increased water excretion, which we call diuresis. Vasopressin inhibitors are an exception to this rule, as they block free water reabsorption channels in the collecting tubule.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The following are the most well known classes of diuretics: carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, osmotic diuretics, loop diuretics, thiazide diuretics, aldosterone receptor antagonists (also known as potassium-sparing diuretics), and vasopressin antagonists. There are also sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors, which were originally developed for treatment of diabetes, but also have a diuretic effect. With the exception of spironolactone, which belongs to aldosterone antagonists, all diuretics need to be secreted into the tubular lumen in order to have an effect<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref> ).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Representation of the nephron and its components (by the authors).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-01-0086-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors</title>
				<p>Carbonic anhydrase is present in the basolateral and apical membranes of proximal convoluted tubular cells of nephrons, but also in the ciliary process of the eye, the choroid plexus, the intestine, and the pancreas. Its function is to catalyze the hydration of bicarbonate anions (HCO<sub>3</sub>). In the proximal convoluted tubule, about two thirds of the Na<sup>+</sup> filtered by the glomeruli and practically all of the HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> are reabsorbed. Carbonic anhydrase inhibition reduces the availability of hydrogen ions (H<sup>+</sup>), which prevents the exchange with luminal Na<sup>+</sup> by the Na<sup>+</sup>/H<sup>+</sup> exchanger. Another effect is reduced HCO<sub>3</sub> reabsorption.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The prototype of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors is acetazolamide. Currently, its main use is in treatment of glaucoma and metabolic alkalosis; however, before the 1950s, acetazolamide came to be widely used in treatment of HF, but its use was reduced with the advent of loop diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> It is imaginable that, since acetazolamide acts in the site where the greatest reabsorption of Na<sup>+</sup> occurs, its diuretic effect would be more intense. However, a good part of this Na<sup>+</sup> that is not absorbed in the proximal tubule is reintegrated into the body in the thick limb of the loop of Henle ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref> ). Therefore, combined use with loop diuretics would seem promising. However, a small study of 34 patients with acutely decompensated HF, DIURESIS-CHF demonstrated that acetazolamide and furosemide were better than furosemide alone in terms of nautriuresis, but there were no differences in mortality or hospital readmission. The study was interrupted before reaching the target N, which was 80, due to difficulties in randomizing patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A 2019 meta-analysis demonstrated that use of acetazolamide in patients with HF was able to reduce pH, increase natriuresis, and improve sleep apnea, which is a condition closely related to HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Two ongoing studies, Acetazolamide in Decompensated Heart Failure with Volume Overload (ADVOR)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> and Acetazolamide in Patients with Acute Heart Failure (ACETA)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> aim to evaluate the use of acetazolamide in combination with furosemide, in terms of efficiency in improving congestion in patients with HF and risk of diuretic resistance.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Loop Diuretics</title>
				<p>This is undoubtedly the most used class of diuretics in HF, and it is part of the prescription for more than 90% of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> The most widely known representatives of this class are furosemide, torsemide, and bumetanide. Loop diuretics act in the thick portion of the ascending loop of Henle, on the Na-K-2Cl pump, where reabsorption of 25% of the filtered Na<sup>+</sup> occurs. Pump inhibition generates less reabsorption of Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>-</sup>, resulting in increased diuresis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> They also act on another very similar cotransporter, Na-K-Cl, which is present in the ears, blood vessels, and macula densa. The inhibition of this other cotransporter in the vessels, associated with the well-known increase in prostaglandin synthesis by loop diuretics, generates venodilation, which may partially explain the reduction in pulmonary capillary pressure observed with the use of this class of diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> However, the action on the macula densa implies an increase in renin and, consequently, in angiotensin II, which is a potent vasoconstrictor. There is no relationship between the type of diuretic, route of administration, or dosage applied and influence on inhibition of either type of cotransporter. The resulting action on the vessels is thus negligible. Eventual ototoxicity related to loop diuretics has been explained by the inhibition of Na-K-Cl in the ears.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Loop diuretics are organic anions, which circulate bound to proteins. Therefore, instead of being filtered by the glomeruli, loop diuretics are secreted in the proximal tubule.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and uremic anions compete for the same structures that facilitate this secretion, which may contribute to resistance to this class of diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> When administered orally, furosemide has a bioavailability that varies between 40% and 80%; it is highly influenced by food, which delays its absorption. Additionally, in patients with splanchnic edema, associated with reduced perfusion in this area, absorption, although it occurs fully, is slower, reducing the drug’s plasma peak, which also contributes to drug resistance. In patients with normal renal function, intravenous administration is about twice as potent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> In contrast, bumetanide and torsemide are not influenced by food; both have high bioavailability (&gt; 90%), which makes oral and intravenous administration similar. It is known that bumetanide is 40 times more potent than furosemide; however, randomized studies comparing both are lacking.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> The TORIC trial, which randomized 1377 patients to torsemide versus furosemide or other diuretics, showed greater symptom relief, in addition to good tolerability. Although it was not designed for this purpose, the study also demonstrated a tendency towards lower mortality with torsemide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> A meta-analysis of comparative studies of torsemide and furosemide also demonstrated a tendency toward reduced hospital readmissions and all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Nonetheless, studies specifically designed to analyze mortality would be convenient to better evaluate torsemide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> The objective of the TRANSFORM-HF trial is to randomize 6000 hospitalized patients with HF and to compare torsemide with furosemide in terms of all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In HF, in order to achieve improvement in congestion, it is necessary to produce a negative water balance. It is known that, to generate this negative water balance with diuretics, the amount of Na<sup>+</sup> that leaves must be greater than the amount that enters. Increasing the dose of the diuretic and restricting dietary salt help to generate this fluid deficit. It is also known that, after the effect of the diuretic dose wears off, a phase of greater Na<sup>+</sup> retention by the nephrons follows, known as post-diuretic sodium retention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Therefore, reducing the time interval between dosages also contributes to a negative balance. In other words, over the course of 24 hours, the longer the body is under the effect of the diuretic, the greater the likelihood of reaching euvolemia. This gave rise to the rationale behind the largest study on diuretics in the literature, the 2011 DOSE Trial. This randomized and multicenter trial aimed to compare intravenous use of furosemide in two scenarios: intermittent versus continuous infusion, and low versus high doses. The study randomized approximately 600 patients, and it showed significance in secondary outcomes (improved dyspnea and fluid loss) for high doses of diuretics (2.5 times the usual dose used at home) when compared to low doses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> There was a greater tendency toward worsened renal function; however, in a later evaluation, this greater elevation in creatinine had no clinical impact.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Regarding the comparison between continuous and intermittent use, there was no difference. Nevertheless, the study received some criticism related to the following: patients did not have criteria for diuretic resistance, when the continuous use of furosemide could possibly have some effect; continuous infusion at doses below what was recommended, and no loading dose was administered before initiating continuous infusion to reach the plasmatic equilibrium of drug concentrations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Accordingly, the current guidelines recommend that, in cases of acutely decompensated HF, there should be an increase of at least 2.5 times the usual home dose of the diuretic, at least twice a day, and, in selected cases, such as diuretic resistance, cardiorenal syndrome, or severe right ventricular dysfunction, continuous infusion may be an alternative.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Loop diuretics30</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
									<th>Duration</th>
									<th>Initial dose</th>
									<th>Maximum dose</th>
									<th>Side effects</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Furosemide</td>
									<td align="center">6 h</td>
									<td align="center">20 to 40 mg, once or twice daily</td>
									<td align="center">600 mg</td>
									<td align="center" rowspan="3">Hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, ototoxicity</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Bumetanide</td>
									<td align="center">4 to 6 h</td>
									<td align="center">0.5 to 1 mg, once or twice daily</td>
									<td align="center">10 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Torsemide</td>
									<td align="center">12 to 16 h</td>
									<td align="center">10 to 20 mg, once daily</td>
									<td align="center">200 mg</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Thiazide Diuretics</title>
				<p>Thiazide diuretics work by blocking the sodium-chloride cotransporter in the distal convoluted tubule. Although they are less potent than loop diuretics, they may have a synergistic effect by leading to sequential nephron blockade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Thiazide diuretics bind to proteins, requiring adequate renal flow to be secreted into the tubules.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Thus, their effect may be reduced in the presence of severe renal dysfunction. By increasing the arrival of sodium from the collecting ducts, the exchange of sodium with potassium is increased, leading to potassium depletion, which is the most significant side effect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>This class includes chlorthalidone, which is a drug with slower gastrointestinal absorption, with a longer time to start effect and a very long half-life (24 to 72 hours). Hydrochlorothiazide, on the other hand, has a shorter half-life (6 to 12 hours) and a shorter onset of action, and it should be administered close to the loop diuretic to potentiate its effect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Although it is not a thiazide diuretic, metolazone acts in a similar manner. It is more potent than hydrochlorothiazide, and it maintains its action even when there is a severe reduction in the glomerular filtration rate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> When administered orally its effect is similar to that of an intravenous thiazide diuretic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Chronic use of loop diuretics leads to increased sodium avidity in the distal portion of the nephrons. This increased ability of the distal nephron to reabsorb sodium chloride eventually leads to a decline in natriuresis, which is known as the braking phenomenon.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> This phenomenon is associated with nephron remodeling with hypertrophy of the distal convoluted tubule, collecting tubules, and collecting ducts, which has already been demonstrated in animal models.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> One of the pathways that contribute to nephron remodeling is the activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Another mechanism is the fluid increase in the distal segments of the nephron, which leads to increased transepithelial flow and promotes synthesis of new proteins. There is also the effect of disturbances generated by diuretic use, such as metabolic alkalosis and hypokalemia, which strongly activate the sodium-chloride cotransporter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Accordingly, the association of a diuretic with action in the distal nephron can potentially help to reverse this phenomenon. Studies have demonstrated that the association of thiazide diuretics increases diuresis in patients who are already using loop diuretics, contributing to congestion control.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Therefore, even though there are not more robust prospective randomized studies demonstrating improvement in clinical outcomes with the use of thiazide diuretics for treatment of HF, their use, in association with loop diuretics, is recommended in the guidelines for treatment of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Aldosterone receptor antagonists</title>
				<p>Aldosterone receptor antagonists act by modulating the expression and activation of sodium and potassium channels in the collecting ducts (distal nephron), reducing sodium and water absorption, and increasing potassium secretion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Given that only 3% of the sodium filtered is reabsorbed in the collecting duct, the diuretic effect of this class is not very intense.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Nonetheless, they are often used to correct or prevent potassium deficiency generated by use of other classes of diuretics.</p>
				<p>Spironolactone is a non-selective aldosterone receptor antagonist, and endocrine side effects (such as gynecomastia) are therefore common, whereas eplerenone, which is more selective for mineralocorticoid receptor, causes these side effects less.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
				<p>By reducing the deleterious effect of aldosterone on the cardiovascular system, the benefit of this class of diuretic in the treatment of chronic HF has been widely recognized.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> However, its use in the treatment of decompensated HF has not been well established.</p>
				<p>In a randomized study of 360 patients hospitalized with congestion, the use of a higher dose of spironolactone (100 mg per day) was not superior to placebo or a low dose of the drug (12.5 or 25 mg per day), which was maintained in the event that the patient was already using it. There was no improvement in the primary outcome (NT-proBNP variation) or secondary outcomes (clinical congestion score, dyspnea, urine output, or weight change). Likewise, there was no difference in safety outcomes (serum potassium and glomerular filtration rate), showing that the use of a higher dose of spironolactone in this context appears to be safe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) who are hospitalized for decompensation, early initiation of a low dose of aldosterone receptor antagonist (spironolactone 25 mg per day) or its maintenance in patients who are already using it may assist in reducing hypokalemia induced by diuretic treatment, in addition to increasing the chance that the patient will be discharged with optimal disease-modifying therapy, and it should be encouraged.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Thiazide and thiazide-like diuretics30</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
									<th>Duration</th>
									<th>Initial dose</th>
									<th>Maximum dose</th>
									<th>Side effects</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Hydrochlorothiazide</td>
									<td align="center">12 h</td>
									<td align="center">25 to 50 mg, once or twice daily</td>
									<td align="center">50 mg</td>
									<td align="center" rowspan="4">Hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, hyperuricemia</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Chlorthalidone</td>
									<td align="center">24 to 72 h</td>
									<td align="center">12.5 to 25 mg, once daily</td>
									<td align="center">100 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Indapamide</td>
									<td align="center">36 h</td>
									<td align="center">2.5 mg, once daily</td>
									<td align="center">20 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Metolazone</td>
									<td align="center">8 to 14 h</td>
									<td align="center">2.5 mg, once daily</td>
									<td align="center">20 mg</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors</title>
				<p>SGLT-2 inhibitors inhibit sodium and glucose reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule, resulting in glucosuria, natriuresis, and increased urinary volume.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Large multicenter studies that investigated the long-term effect of this class of medication in patients with HFrEF demonstrated a significant benefit in reducing morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The DAPA-HF study, which compared the effect of dapagliflozin versus placebo, associated with optimal therapy, in 4744 patients with HFrEF, demonstrated a significant reduction in the primary endpoint of cardiovascular death or worsening of HF (26% reduction). When the outcomes were evaluated individually, a reduction was observed both in cardiovascular death (18% reduction) and in worsening of HF (30% reduction). Reduced death due to any cause, improved HF symptoms, and improved quality of life were also identified with use of the medication.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Similarly, in the EMPEROR-Reduced study, which evaluated the use of empagliflozin compared to placebo in 3730 patients with HFrEF, a reduction was observed in the primary outcome of cardiovascular death or hospitalization due to HF (25% reduction) with the use of the drug. Moreover, the authors observed reduced decline in glomerular filtration rate in the group that used the drug, as well as a lower risk of serious kidney outcomes (chronic dialysis, kidney transplantation, more than 40% reduction in glomerular filtration rate).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				<p>However, this benefit does not seem to be due exclusively to the increase in diuresis or to better glycemic control. The most accepted mechanisms are improved left ventricular wall tension secondary to decreased preload and afterload, improved cardiomyocyte metabolism and bioenergetics, myocardial sodium-hydrogen pump inhibition (which leads to higher concentration of calcium in the mitochondria), reduced cardiac necrosis and fibrosis, and alterations in the production of cytokines in the epicardial fat tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
				<p>To date, the use of the drug to control congestion in patients with decompensated HF has not been well established.</p>
				<p>In a sub-analysis of the DAPA-HF study, the diuretic dose used did not change significantly during follow-up in patients randomized to dapagliflozin when compared to the placebo group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				<p>On the other hand, the SOLOIST-WHF study, which evaluated the effect of sotagliflozin in patients with type 2 diabetes who had recently been hospitalized for worsening HF, showed a benefit for the drug when it was started close to decompensation. In this study, randomized patients started the medication before discharge (48.8%) or shortly after (median of 2 days after discharge). There was a reduction in the primary outcome of cardiovascular death and hospitalizations or urgent consultations for HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Further studies are needed to define the role of this class of medication (which has some diuretic effect) in decompensated patients with pulmonary congestion and diuretic resistance.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Vasopressin antagonists</title>
				<p>Although sodium retention is the greatest determinant of congestion in HF, hyponatremia, which indicates water accumulation, is common and confers worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Inappropriate elevation of vasopressin in HF plays a role in water retention, contributing to congestive symptoms and electrolyte disturbances.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Blockade of vasopressin receptors that are present in the collecting ducts inhibits the action of the antidiuretic hormone and increases the excretion of free water (aquaresis).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In the EVEREST study, which evaluated the effect of tolvaptan (oral vasopressin-2 receptor antagonist) in patients with HFrEF who were hospitalized for decompensation, no improvement was observed in overall mortality, cardiovascular mortality, or hospitalization for HF, although improvement of dyspnea, greater weight loss, and reduced edema were identified during the first days, in addition to improved sodium levels in patients with hyponatremia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Subsequently, smaller studies evaluating early use of tolvaptan in acutely decompensated patients with diuretic resistance, renal dysfunction, or hyponatremia showed no improvement in dyspnea, notwithstanding greater weight loss.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Although there is a rationale for using vasopressin antagonists in congested patients with hyponatremia, to date, in view of the results of the studies carried out, there is no recommendation for their use in the treatment of HF.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Approach to diuretic resistance</title>
				<p>Diuretic resistance can be defined as the failure to reverse a congestive condition with an appropriate dose of diuretic and fluid and saline restriction. It is extremely common in patients with HF, but its real prevalence is unknown, largely due to the non-homogeneity of clinical studies (different diagnostic criteria, different populations, different doses of diuretics, etc).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> However, it is known that diuretic resistance is an independent factor for mortality, due to both pump failure and sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Therefore, it must be promptly recognized. It has a multifactorial etiology, but inadequate diuretic doses are among the most frequent. It is known that, in HF, an adaptive phenomenon of “tolerance” to diuretics occurs over time, so that, in order to reach the same level of natriuresis as in healthy individuals, patients with HF require higher doses<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> . <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref> lists some factors that may be involved in diuretic resistance. The search for possible causal factors is the first step in treating it.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Table 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Factors associated with diuretic resistance29</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>
										<list list-type="simple">
											<list-item>
												<p>Inadequate diuretic dose</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Poor adherence to water and saline restriction</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Visceral edema</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Poor splanchnic perfusion</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Poor renal perfusion</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Nephron remodeling</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
									<td>
										<list list-type="simple">
											<list-item>
												<p>Neurohumoral activation</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Renal insufficiency</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Impaired drug secretion in the tubules</p>
											</list-item>
											<list-item>
												<p>Malnutrition and hypoproteinemia</p>
											</list-item>
										</list>
									</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Sequential nephron blockade</title>
					<p>Up to 75% of cases of diuretic resistance in patients with acutely decompensated HF can be attributed to hyperactivation of Na-Cl transporters along the distal nephron, as a result of adaptive nephron remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Although this has not been properly tested in clinical studies, a plausible strategy in this scenario is sequential nephron blockade, with the introduction of a second, or even a third diuretic, which would prevent this adaptive hyperreabsorption of Na<sup>+</sup> in the distal convoluted tubules or collecting tubules, thus generating greater diuresis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Hypertonic saline solution</title>
					<p>Another alternative for managing patients with diuretic resistance is the use of hypertonic saline solution (HSS) associated with high-dose intravenous furosemide. Studies evaluating this therapy in patients with acutely decompensated HF have shown improvement in short- and long-term outcomes. The rationale for using HSS is its osmotic effect, which would lead to mobilization of extravascular fluid, maintaining adequate intravascular content in spite of the increase in diuresis and natriuresis caused by the high diuretic dose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Furthermore, it would act in correction of hyponatremia and hypochloremia, which may be correlated with diuretic resistance and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
					<p>In a study with 1771 patients with HFrEF who were hospitalized for decompensation, Paterna et al demonstrated that the group of patients who received HSS associated with a high dose of furosemide, compared to the group who received only the diuretic, showed increased urine output and serum sodium level, reduced hospitalization time, lower readmission rate, and lower mortality during follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
					<p>In a meta-analysis that included 11 randomized studies (total of 2987 patients), the authors observed that the use of HSS was associated with increased urine output, weight loss, increased urinary sodium excretion, correction of serum sodium, reduced serum creatinine, reduced length of hospital stay, and reduced rates of HF readmission and mortality. The benefits in the clinical outcomes identified, especially in mortality, seem to be disproportionate to the increase in urine output and weight loss. It is hypothesized that sodium loading could reduce adrenergic and renin-angiotensin system activation as well as their deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Given that the studies on this topic have some methodological problems, and the majority of them included a small number of patients, in addition to having used different HSS concentrations and forms of administration, more quality studies are needed to define the indications and the best way to use this intervention. Nevertheless, in patients hospitalized for decompensated HF with signs of hypervolemia and resistance to diuretic therapy, the use of HSS should be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Ultrafiltration</title>
					<p>Ultrafiltration (UF) is similar to hemodialysis, but only fluid is removed from the body.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> The first major study on this modality applied to HF was the UNLOAD Trial, in 2007. It showed greater weight loss and fewer hospitalizations with UF when compared to standard diuretic therapy, although there was no difference in serum creatinine or length of hospital stay.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> It is worth underscoring that the study was strongly criticized due to the low dose of diuretics used and the lack of clarity regarding the calculation of the sample size. On the other hand, the CARRESS-HF study, in 2012, which compared UF with aggressive diuretic therapy in patients with HF and worsened renal function, showed no difference in relation to weight loss or improvement in symptoms, with significant worsening of creatinine in the UF group. Furthermore, UF was associated with a higher rate of adverse events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> This study was also strongly criticized for the following reasons: high crossover rate, UF conducted in patients who still had high urinary output, and exclusion of patients with more severe kidney disease (who might be the patients who would benefit most). Accordingly, the guidelines currently recommend the use of UF only as a rescue therapy, in cases where all of the previously mentioned measures have failed<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref> ).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02">
							<label>Figure 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Flowchart for handling diuretic resistance in heart failure.29-31</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-01-0086-gf02.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>In spite of the great advances in the last years, there are still many “blind spots” to knowledge regarding HF management, especially related to the use of diuretics, where there is still a lot of empiricism. Knowledge about the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of these drugs helps to improve the management of hypervolemia; nevertheless, larger and better clinical studies are needed.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Study Association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of Funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Diuréticos no Tratamento da Insuficiência Cardíaca</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7857-9863</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Seguro</surname>
						<given-names>Luis Fernando Bernal da Costa</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6890-8344</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Xavier</surname>
						<given-names>José Leudo</given-names>
						<suffix>Júnior</suffix>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração do Hospital das Clínicas de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">Mailing Address: Leudo Xavier • Rua Basílio da Cunha, 507, Apt 172, bloco 2. Postal Code 01544-001, Vila Deodoro, São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: leudoxavier@gmail.com</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p>Contribuição dos autores</p>
					<p>Redação do manuscrito e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante: Seguro LFBC e Xavier Júnior JL.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>Insuficiência cardíaca (IC) é a principal causa de internação em pacientes com mais de 65 anos e, na maioria dos casos, os pacientes se apresentam com sinais e sintomas de congestão. Dessa forma, diuréticos ocupam papel de destaque entre os medicamentos mais utilizados na IC. Apesar de serem utilizados há décadas, a falta de grandes estudos controlados na literatura, para embasar mais adequadamente seu uso, e o eventual desenvolvimento de resistência/tolerância, estão entre os fatores que tornam o manejo dos diuréticos desafiador.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Diuréticos</kwd>
				<kwd>Insuficiência cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiopatias</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) acomete de 1% a 2% da população mundial, afligindo mais de 23 milhões de pessoas, e sua prevalência é crescente conforme a idade. Por exemplo, em indivíduos com mais de 85 anos, ela pode chegar a mais de 17%. É um grave problema de saúde pública, tendo em vista o ascendente impacto financeiro. A IC é a principal causa de internação entre pacientes com mais de 65 anos, e, na imensa maioria dos casos, os pacientes se apresentam com sinais e sintomas resultantes da congestão pulmonar e sistêmica. Nesse contexto, os diuréticos são extremante úteis, sendo um dos fatores primordiais no manejo da síndrome congestiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Nas últimas 3 décadas, vários medicamentos despontaram como protagonistas no tratamento da IC, gerando real impacto em termos de sobrevida, demonstrado por vários estudos multicêntricos, controlados e duplo-cegos. Inversamente, faltam dados na literatura, baseados em grandes estudos controlados, para melhor embasar o uso dos diuréticos, apesar de esses já serem usados há mais de meio século em pacientes com IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Além disso, outro desafio é o eventual desenvolvimento de resistência aos diuréticos. No contexto dos pacientes já portadores de IC de longa data, essa ocorrência não é infrequente, apesar dos reais números de incidência serem desconhecidos, tendo vários possíveis fatores causais. Esses fatores podem ocorrer isoladamente ou em conjunto. Vão desde dose inadequada, até questões com alimentação, estado nutricional, distúrbios eletrolíticos, edema intestinal e a própria disfunção renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Resistência diurética é fator independente para mortalidade, tanto por falha de bomba, como por morte súbita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Dessa forma, entendermos como os diuréticos funcionam, suas interações com o organismo e com os demais diuréticos, além dos mecanismos e fatores que levam a resistência diurética, é de suma importância para que possamos usufruir o máximo possível dos benefícios dessa secular classe de fármacos.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Tipos de diuréticos e seu uso na insuficiência cardíaca</title>
					<p>Os néfrons são a estrutura básica de funcionamento dos rins. Existem cerca de um milhão de néfrons em cada rim. A cada dia, cerca de 180 litros de sangue passam pelos rins, onde solutos e água são filtrados pelos glomérulos e reabsorvidos ou, eventualmente, eliminados, através da sequência de túbulos que compõem a estrutura do néfron. Um dos principais solutos do organismo é o sódio (Na<sup>+</sup>). Normalmente, cerca de 99% do Na<sup>+</sup>que foi filtrado nos glomérulos é reabsorvido nos túbulos, em diferentes pontos e em diferentes proporções, o que, por conseguinte, atrai água de volta ao organismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em sua grande maioria, os diuréticos são drogas que têm como ação o aumento da excreção de solutos pelos néfrons, principalmente sais de Na<sup>+</sup>, como o NaCl, ao que chamamos natriurese. Em resposta à força osmótica desses solutos, há uma redução na reabsorção de água nos túbulos, resultando em aumento da excreção de água, ao que denominamos diurese. Exceção a essa regra são inibidores da vasopressina, que bloqueiam canais de reabsorção de água livre no tubo coletor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> As classes de diuréticos mais conhecidas são: inibidores da anidrase carbônica, diuréticos osmóticos, diuréticos de alça, diuréticos tiazídicos, os antagonistas do receptor da aldosterona (também conhecidos como poupadores de potássio) e os antagonistas da vasopressina. Há ainda os inibidores do cotransportador sódio-glicose 2 (SGLT-2), que originalmente foram desenvolvidos para o tratamento do diabetes, mas também têm efeito diurético. Com exceção da espironolactona, pertencente aos antagonistas da aldosterona, todos os diuréticos precisam ser secretados no lúmen tubular para causarem efeito<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref> ).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f01002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Representação do néfron e seus componentes (autoria própria).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-01-0086-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Inibidores da Anidrase Carbônica</title>
					<p>A anidrase carbônica está presente nas membranas basolateral e apical das células do túbulo contorcido proximal do néfron, mas também no processo ciliar do olho, no plexo coróide, no intestino e no pâncreas. Tem como função catalisar a hidratação dos ânions bicarbonato (HCO<sub>3</sub>). No tubo contorcido proximal, ocorre a reabsorção de cerca de 2/3 do Na<sup>+</sup>filtrado pelos glomérulos, e praticamente todo o HCO<sub>3</sub>-. A inibição da anidrase carbônica reduz a disponibilidade de íons de hidrogênio (H<sup>+</sup>), o que impede que haja a troca com o Na<sup>+</sup>luminal, pelo trocador Na<sup>+</sup>/H<sup>+</sup>. Outro efeito é redução da reabsorção de HCO<sub>3</sub>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> O protótipo dos inibidores da anidrase carbônica é a acetazolamida. Atualmente seu maior uso é no tratamento do glaucoma e da alcalose metabólica, entretanto, antes da década de 50, a acetazolamida chegou a ser bastante utilizada no tratamento da IC, tendo seu uso reduzido com o advento dos diuréticos de alça.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> É de se imaginar que, uma vez que a acetazolamida atua no local onde ocorre a maior reabsorção de Na+, que o seu efeito diurético fosse o mais intenso. Entretanto, boa parte desse Na+ não absorvido no tubo proximal é reintegrado ao organismo no ramo espesso da alça de Henle ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref> ). Logo, o uso combinado com diuréticos de alça pareceria promissor. No entanto, em um pequeno estudo com 34 pacientes com IC agudamente descompensada, DIURESIS-CHF, foi demonstrado que acetazolamida e furosemida foram melhor que furosemida isoladamente em termos de nautriurese, porém não houve nenhuma diferença em mortalidade ou readmissão hospitalar. O estudo foi interrompido antes de ser atingindo o N alvo, que era de 80, devido a dificuldades em randomização dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Em uma metanálise de 2019, foi mostrado que o uso da acetazolamida em pacientes com IC foi capaz de reduzir o pH, aumentar a natriurese e melhorar a apneia do sono, condição intimamente relacionada a IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Dois estudos em andamento, <italic>Acetazolamide in Decompensated Heart Failure with Volume Overload</italic> (ADVOR)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> e <italic>Acetazolamide in Patients with Acute Heart Failure</italic> (ACETA)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> têm como objetivo avaliar o uso da acetazolamida, em combinação com furosemida, em termos de eficiência de melhora da congestão, em pacientes com IC e risco de resistência a diuréticos.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diuréticos de alça</title>
					<p>Indubitavelmente, essa é a classe de diuréticos mais utilizada na IC, fazendo parte da prescrição de mais de 90% dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Seus representantes mais conhecidos são furosemida, torsemida e bumetanida. Os diuréticos de alça atuam na porção espessa da alça ascendente de Henle, sobre a bomba Na-K-2Cl, onde ocorre a reabsorção de 25% do Na<sup>+</sup>filtrado. A inibição da bomba gera menor reabsorção do Na<sup>+</sup>e Cl<sup>-</sup>, resultando em aumento da diurese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Eles também têm ação sobre outro cotransportador muito semelhante, Na-K-Cl, presente nos ouvidos, vasos sanguíneos e mácula densa. A inibição desse outro cotransportador nos vasos, associado ao bem conhecido aumento da síntese de prostaglandinas pelos diuréticos de alça, gera venodilatação, o que pode explicar em parte a redução da pressão capilar pulmonar observada com o uso dessa classe de diuréticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Entretanto, a ação sobre a mácula densa implica em aumento de renina e, por conseguinte, de angiotensina II, um potente vasoconstrictor. Não há uma relação entre o tipo de diurético, via de administração ou dosagem aplicada influenciando a inibição de um ou outro tipo de cotransportador. Dessa forma, torna-se imponderável a ação resultante sobre os vasos. A eventual ototoxicidade relacionada aos diuréticos de alça é explicada pela inibição da Na-K-Cl nos ouvidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os diuréticos de alça são ânions orgânicos, que circulam ligados a proteínas. Logo, ao invés de serem filtrados pelos glomérulos, os diuréticos de alça são secretados no túbulo proximal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Anti-inflamatórios não esteroidais e ânions urêmicos competem pelas mesmas estruturas facilitadoras dessa secreção, o que pode contribuir para a resistência a essa classe de diuréticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Quando administrado por via oral, a furosemida tem uma biodisponibilidade que varia entre 40% e 80%, sendo altamente influenciada pela alimentação, a qual atrasa sua absorção. Além disso, em pacientes com edema esplâcnico, associado à perfusão reduzida nesse território, a absorção, apesar de ocorrer plenamente, é mais lentificada, reduzindo o pico plasmático da droga, o que também contribui para resistência à droga. Em pacientes com função renal normal, a administração pela via endovenosa é cerca de duas vezes mais potente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Já a bumetanida e a torsemida não são influenciados pela alimentação, tendo ambos alta biodisponibilidade (&gt; 90%), o que torna a administração oral e endovenosa similares. Sabe-se que a bumetanida é 40 vezes mais potente que a furosemida, entretanto faltam estudos randomizados comparando os dois.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> O TORIC trial, que randomizou 1.377 pacientes para uso da torsemida versus furosemida ou outros diuréticos, mostrou um maior alívio de sintomas, além de boa tolerabilidade. Apesar de não desenhado para esse objetivo, o estudo também demonstrou tendência a menor mortalidade com a torsemida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Metanálise de estudos comparativos de torsemida e furosemida demonstrou também tendência à redução de readmissões hospitalares, além da redução de mortalidade por todas as causas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Entretanto, estudos desenhados para analisar especificamente a mortalidade seriam convenientes para melhor avaliar a torsemida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> O TRANSFORM-HF trial tem como meta randomizar 6.000 pacientes com IC internados e comparar torsemida com furosemida em termos de mortalidade por todas as causas ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Diuréticos de alça30</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
										<th>Duração</th>
										<th>Dose inicial</th>
										<th>Dose máxima</th>
										<th>Efeitos colaterais</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Furosemida</td>
										<td align="center">6 h</td>
										<td align="center">20 a 40 mg, 1x ou 2x/dia</td>
										<td align="center">600 mg</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="3">Hiponatremia, hipocalemia, hipocalcemia, hipomagnesemia, ototoxicidade</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Bumetanida</td>
										<td align="center">4 a 6 h</td>
										<td align="center">0,5 a 1 mg, 1x ou 2x/dia</td>
										<td align="center">10 mg</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Torsemida</td>
										<td align="center">12 a 16 h</td>
										<td align="center">10 a 20 mg, 1x/dia</td>
										<td align="center">200 mg</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>Na IC, para alcançarmos a melhora da congestão, há a necessidade de produzirmos um balanço hídrico negativo. Sabe-se que, para gerar esse balanço hídrico negativo com diuréticos, a quantidade de Na+ que sai tem que ser maior que a que entra. Aumento da dose do diurético e restrição salina na dieta, ajudam a gerar o déficit líquido. Também é sabido que, após passar o efeito da dose do diurético, segue-se uma fase de maior retenção de Na<sup>+</sup>pelos néfrons, chamada retenção salina pós diurético.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Logo, reduzir o intervalo de tempo entre as dosagens também contribui para um balanço negativo. Em outras palavras, ao longo das 24 horas, quanto mais tempo o organismo estiver sob o efeito do diurético, maior a probabilidade de se alcançar a euvolemia. Assim, surgiu o racional para o maior estudo sobre diuréticos na literatura: o DOSE Trial, 2011. Ramdomizado e multicêntrico, tinha como objetivo comparar o uso endovenoso da furosemida em dois cenários: infusão intermitente versus contínua, e baixas versus altas doses. O estudo randomizou cerca de 600 pacientes e mostrou significância nos desfechos secundários (melhora da dispneia, perda de líquido) para altas doses de diuréticos (2,5 vezes a dose habitual usada em domicílio), quando comparado com baixas doses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Houve maior tendência de piora da função renal, porém, em avaliação posterior, essa maior elevação de creatinina não teve impacto clínico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Quanto à comparação entre uso contínuo e intermitente, não houve diferença alguma. Entretanto, o estudo recebeu algumas críticas relacionadas ao fato de os pacientes não terem critérios para resistência diurética, quando possivelmente o uso contínuo da furosemida poderia surtir algum efeito, infusão contínua em doses abaixo do recomendado, além de não ter sido feita dose de ataque antes do início da infusão contínua, para se alcançar o estado de equilíbrio plasmático das concentrações do fármaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Dessa forma, as diretrizes atuais recomendam que no caso de IC agudamente descompensada, deve haver um aumento de pelo menos 2,5 vezes a dose habitual domiciliar do diurético, pelo menos duas vezes ao dia, e, em casos selecionados, como resistência diurética, síndrome cardiorrenal ou disfunção de ventrículo direito grave, infusão contínua pode ser uma alternativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diuréticos Tiazídicos</title>
					<p>Os diuréticos tiazídicos atuam bloqueando o cotransportador de sódio e cloro no túbulo contorcido distal. Apesar de serem menos potentes que os diuréticos de alça, podem ter efeito sinérgico por levar a um bloqueio sequencial do néfron.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os tiazídicos se ligam a proteínas necessitando de um fluxo renal adequado para que sejam secretados nos túbulos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Dessa forma, podem ter seu efeito reduzido na presença de disfunção renal severa. Por aumentar a chegada de sódio dos ductos coletores, a troca de sódio com potássio é aumentada, levando a depleção de potássio, que é o efeito colateral mais significativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Dentro desta classe, temos a clortalidona que é uma droga de absorção gastrointestinal mais lenta, com maior tempo para iniciar efeito e meia-vida bem longa (24 a 72 horas). Já a hidroclortiazida, tem meia-vida mais curta (6 a 12 horas) e início de ação menor, devendo ser administrada próximo ao diurético de alça para potencializar seu efeito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Apesar de não ser um tiazídico, a metolazona atua de maneira similar. É mais potente que a hidroclortiazida e mantém sua ação mesmo quando há redução severa na taxa de filtração glomerular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Seu efeito quando administrado por via oral é semelhante ao efeito do tiazídico endovenoso ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">Tabela 2</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t2002">
							<label>Tabela 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Diuréticos tiazídicos e “tiazídicos-like”30</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
										<th>Duração</th>
										<th>Dose inicial</th>
										<th>Dose máxima</th>
										<th>Efeitos colaterais</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Hidroclorotiazida</td>
										<td align="center">12 h</td>
										<td align="center">25 a 50 mg, 1x ou 2x/dia</td>
										<td align="center">50 mg</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="4">Hiponatremia, hipocalemia, hipercalcemia, hipomagnesemia, hiperuricemia</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Clortalidona</td>
										<td align="center">24 a 72 h</td>
										<td align="center">12,5 a 25 mg, 1x/dia</td>
										<td align="center">100 mg</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Indapamida</td>
										<td align="center">36 h</td>
										<td align="center">2,5 mg, 1x/dia</td>
										<td align="center">20 mg</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Metolazona</td>
										<td align="center">8 a 14 h</td>
										<td align="center">2,5 mg, 1x/dia</td>
										<td align="center">20 mg</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>O uso crônico de diurético de alça leva a um aumento da avidez por sódio no trecho distal dos néfrons. Este aumento na capacidade do néfron distal de reabsorver cloreto de sódio acaba levando a um declínio da natriurese, sendo denominado de <italic>braking phenomenon</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Este fenômeno está associado a um remodelamento do néfron com hipertrofia do túbulo contorcido distal, túbulos coletores e ductos coletores, o que já foi demonstrado em modelos animais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Uma das vias que contribuem para o remodelamento do néfron é a ativação do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona. Outro mecanismo é o aumento de fluido nos segmentos distais do néfron que leva a aumento de fluxo transepitelial e promove a síntese de novas proteínas. Há ainda o efeito dos distúrbios gerados pelo uso do diurético, como alcalose metabólica e hipocalemia, que ativam fortemente o cotransportador de sódio-cloreto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Neste sentido, a associação de um diurético com ação no néfron distal pode potencialmente auxiliar a reverter este fenômeno. Estudos demonstram que a associação de tiazídicos aumenta a diurese nos pacientes já em uso de diurético de alça, contribuindo para o controle da congestão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Dessa forma, apesar de não haverem estudos prospectivos e randomizados que demonstrem melhora em desfechos clínicos mais robustos com o uso de diuréticos tiazídicos no tratamento da IC, seu uso, em associação ao diurético de alça, é recomendado nas diretrizes de tratamento de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Antagonistas de receptor de aldosterona</title>
					<p>Os antagonistas de receptor de aldosterona atuam modulando a expressão e ativação de canais de sódio e potássio nos ductos coletores (néfron distal), reduzindo a absorção de sódio e água e aumentando a secreção de potássio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Como apenas 3% do sódio filtrado é reabsorvido no ducto coletor, o efeito diurético desta classe não é muito intenso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> No entanto, são frequentemente utilizados para corrigir ou prevenir a deficiência de potássio gerada pelo uso das demais classes de diurético.</p>
					<p>A espironolactona é um antagonista de receptor de aldosterona não-seletivo e, portanto, os efeitos colaterais endócrinos são comuns (como ginecomastia), já o eplerenone, que é mais seletivo para receptor mineralocorticoide, provoca menos estes efeitos colaterais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Por reduzir o efeito deletério da aldosterona no sistema cardiovascular, o benefício desta classe de diurético no tratamento da IC crônica é amplamente reconhecido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> No entanto, seu uso no tratamento da IC descompensada não é bem estabelecido.</p>
					<p>Em um estudo randomizado com 360 pacientes hospitalizados com congestão, o uso de dose maior de espironolactona (100 mg por dia) não foi superior a placebo ou dose baixa da droga (12,5 ou 25 mg por dia), que era mantida caso paciente já fizesse uso. Não houve melhora do desfecho primário (variação de NT-proBNP), nem dos desfechos secundários (escore clínico de congestão, dispneia, volume de diurese ou variação de peso). Da mesma forma, não houve diferença nos desfechos de segurança (potássio sérico e taxa de filtração glomerular), mostrando que uso de dose mais elevada de espironolactona neste contexto parece ser segura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em pacientes com IC com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFEr) hospitalizados por descompensação, o início precoce de dose baixa de antagonista de receptor de aldosterona (espironolactona 25 mg por dia), ou a sua manutenção em pacientes que já fazem uso, pode auxiliar na redução da hipocalemia induzida pelo tratamento diurético, além de aumentar a chance de o paciente receber alta com a terapia modificadora da doença otimizada, devendo ser estimulado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Inibidores do cotransportador de sódio-glicose-2</title>
					<p>Os inibidores do SGLT2 inibem a reabsorção de sódio e glicose no túbulo contorcido proximal, resultando em glicosúria, natriurese e aumento do volume urinário.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Grandes estudos multicêntricos que investigaram o efeito de longo prazo desta classe de medicação em pacientes com ICFEr demonstraram benefício significativo em redução de morbi-mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O estudo DAPA-HF que comparou o efeito da dapaglifozina versus placebo, associado à terapia otimizada, em 4.744 pacientes com ICFEr, demonstrou redução significativa no desfecho primário de morte cardiovascular ou agravamento da IC (26% de redução). Quando os desfechos foram avaliados individualmente, foi observada redução tanto na morte cardiovascular (18% de redução), quanto na piora de IC (30% de redução). Também foi identificado redução de morte por qualquer causa, melhora de sintomas de IC e melhora de qualidade de vida com o uso da medicação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Da mesma forma, no estudo EMPEROR-Reduced, que avaliou o uso de empaglifozina comparado a placebo em 3.730 pacientes com ICFEr, foi observada uma redução no desfecho primário de morte cardiovascular ou hospitalização por IC (25% de redução) com o uso da droga. Além disso, também foi observada uma redução no declínio da taxa de filtração glomerular no grupo que utilizou a droga, além de um menor risco de desfechos renais sérios (diálise crônica, transplante renal, redução de mais de 40% na taxa de filtração glomerular).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No entanto, este benefício não parece ser decorrente exclusivamente do aumento da diurese e tampouco do melhor controle glicêmico. Os mecanismos mais aceitos são a melhora da tensão parietal do ventrículo esquerdo secundário à diminuição da pré e pós-carga, melhora de metabolismo e bioenergética do cardiomiócito, inibição da bomba sódio-hidrogênio miocárdica (o que leva a maior concentração de cálcio na mitocôndria), redução de necrose e fibrose cardíacas e alterações na produção de citocinas no tecido gorduroso epicárdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Até o momento, o uso da droga para controle da congestão nos pacientes com IC descompensada não está bem estabelecido.</p>
					<p>Em uma sub-análise do estudo DAPA-HF, a dose utilizada de diurético não se alterou de forma significativa durante o seguimento nos pacientes randomizados para uso de dapaglifozina, quando comparados aos do grupo placebo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Por outro lado, o estudo SOLOIST-WHF que avaliou o efeito da sotaglifozina em pacientes com diabetes tipo 2 que foram recentemente hospitalizados por piora de IC mostrou benefício da droga quando iniciada próximo à descompensação. Neste estudo, os pacientes randomizados iniciaram a medicação antes da alta (48,8%) ou logo após (mediana de 2 dias após a alta). Houve redução no desfecho primário de morte cardiovascular e hospitalizações ou consultas urgentes por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Mais estudos são necessários para definir o papel desta classe de medicação (que tem algum efeito diurético) no paciente descompensado com congestão pulmonar e resistência a diurético.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Antagonistas de vasopressina</title>
					<p>Apesar da retenção de sódio ser o maior determinante da congestão na IC, a hiponatremia, que indica acúmulo de água, é comum e confere um pior prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> A elevação inapropriada de vasopressina na IC tem um papel na retenção de água, contribuindo para sintomas congestivos e distúrbios eletrolíticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> O bloqueio de receptores de vasopressina presentes nos ductos coletores inibem a ação do hormônio antidiurético e aumentam a excreção de água livre (aquarese).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
					<p>No estudo EVEREST, que avaliou o efeito do tolvaptan (antagonista do receptor de vasopressina-2 oral) em pacientes com ICFEr hospitalizados por descompensação, não foi observada melhora em mortalidade geral, mortalidade cardiovascular ou hospitalização por IC, embora tenha sido identificada melhora de dispneia, maior perda de peso e redução de edema nos primeiros dias, além de melhora dos níveis de sódio em pacientes com hiponatremia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Posteriormente, estudos menores que avaliaram o uso precoce de tolvaptan em pacientes agudamente descompensados com resistência a diurético, disfunção renal ou hiponatremia não mostraram melhora de dispneia, a despeito de maior perda de peso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Apesar de haver um racional para o uso de antagonistas de vasopressina em pacientes congestos e com hiponatremia, até o momento, frente aos resultados dos estudos realizados, não há recomendação de seu uso no tratamento da IC.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Abordagem da resistência a diuréticos</title>
					<p>A resistência a diuréticos pode ser definida como a falha em reverter um quadro congestivo mediante dose apropriada de diurético e restrição hídrica e salina. É extremamente comum em pacientes com IC, porém sua real prevalência é desconhecida, principalmente devido a não homogeneidade dos estudos clínicos (critérios diagnósticos diversos, populações diferentes, doses de diuréticos variadas, entre outros).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Entretanto, é sabido que a resistência diurética é fator independente para mortalidade, tanto por falha de bomba, como morte súbita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Logo, deve ser prontamente reconhecida. É de etiologia multifatorial, porém dose de diurético inadequada está entre as mais frequentes. Sabe-se que na IC, ocorre ao longo do tempo um fenômeno adaptativo de “tolerância” aos diuréticos, de modo que para atingir o mesmo nível de natriurese que em outras pessoas normais, pacientes com IC precisam de doses maiores<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> . A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3002">Tabela 3</xref> elenca alguns fatores que podem estar envolvidos com a resistência diurética. Buscar por possíveis fatores causais é o primeiro passo no seu tratamento.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t3002">
							<label>Tabela 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Fatores associados com resistência diurética29</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>Dose inadequada de diurético</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Má adesão à restrição hídrica e salina</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Edema visceral</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Má perfusão esplâncnica</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Má perfusão renal</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Remodelamento do néfron</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>Ativação neuro-humoral</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Insuficiência renal</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Uso de anti-inflamatórios não esteroidais</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Impedimento à secreção da droga nos túbulos</p>
												</list-item>
												<list-item>
													<p>Desnutrição e hipoproteinemia</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<sec>
						<title>Bloqueio sequencial do néfron</title>
						<p>Até 75% dos casos de resistência diurética em pacientes com IC agudamente descompensada podem ser atribuídos à hiperativação dos cotransportadores Na-Cl ao longo do néfron distal, em consequência do remodelamento adaptativo do néfron.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Apesar de não testada apropriadamente em estudos clínicos, uma estratégia plausível nesse cenário é o bloqueio sequencial do néfron, com a introdução de um segundo, ou até um terceiro diurético, que impediriam essa hiper reabsorção adaptativa de Na<sup>+</sup>nos túbulos contorcidos distais ou tubos coletores, gerando maior diurese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Solução salina hipertônica</title>
						<p>Outra alternativa para o manejo de pacientes com resistência a diurético é o uso de solução salina hipertônica (SSH) associada a furosemida endovenosa em altas doses. Estudos que avaliaram esta terapia em paciente com IC agudamente descompensada têm demonstrado melhora em desfechos de curto e longo prazo. O racional para o uso da SSH é o seu efeito osmótico que levaria à mobilização do líquido extravascular, mantendo o conteúdo intravascular adequado a despeito do aumento da diurese e natriurese provocados pela dose alta de diurético.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Além disso, atuaria na correção da hiponatremia e hipocloremia, que podem estar correlacionadas à resistência a diurético e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Em um estudo com 1.771 pacientes com ICFEr, hospitalizados por descompensação, Paterna e cols. demonstraram que o grupo de pacientes que recebeu SSH associada à dose alta de furosemida, comparado ao grupo que recebeu apenas o diurético, apresentaram aumento de diurese e de nível sérico de sódio, redução em tempo de hospitalização, menor taxa de readmissão e menor mortalidade durante o seguimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Em uma metanálise que incluiu 11 estudos randomizados (total de 2.987 pacientes), os autores observaram que o uso da SSH estava associado ao aumento de diurese, perda de peso, aumento da excreção urinária de sódio e correção do sódio sérico, redução de creatinina sérica, redução de tempo de internação, das taxas de readmissão por IC e mortalidade. Os benefícios nos desfechos clínicos identificados, sobretudo na mortalidade, parecem ser desproporcionais ao aumento da diurese e redução de peso. É levantada a hipótese que a carga de sódio poderia reduzir a ativação adrenérgica e do sistema renina-angiotensina e seus efeitos deletérios no sistema cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Como os estudos no tema têm alguns problemas metodológicos e a maior parte destes inclui pequeno número de pacientes, além de terem sido usadas concentrações e formas de administração distintas de SSH, mais estudos de qualidade são necessários para definirmos as indicações e a melhor maneira de utilizar esta intervenção. No entanto, em pacientes hospitalizados por IC descompensada, com sinais de hipervolemia e resistência a terapia com diurético, o uso de SSH deve ser considerado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Ultrafiltração</title>
						<p>A ultrafiltração (UF) é semelhante à hemodiálise, entretanto, apenas fluido é removido do organismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> O primeiro grande estudo sobre essa modalidade aplicada na IC foi o UNLOAD Trial, 2007. Demonstrou maior perda de peso e menos hospitalizações com a UF, quando comparado com terapia diurética padrão, muito embora não tenha havido diferença na creatinina sérica ou no tempo de permanência hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Vale ressaltar que o estudo foi fortemente criticado pela dose baixa de diuréticos utilizada e pela falta de clareza quanto ao cálculo do tamanho amostral. Já o estudo CARRESS-HF, 2012, que comparou UF com terapia diurética agressiva em pacientes com IC e piora da função renal, não demonstrou diferença na perda ponderal ou em melhora dos sintomas, com uma piora de creatinina significativa no grupo UF. Além disso, a UF foi associada a maior taxa de eventos adversos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Esse estudo também recebeu duras críticas: alta taxa de crossover, UF feita em pacientes com débito urinário ainda alto e exclusão de pacientes com doença renal mais grave (que talvez fossem os pacientes que mais se beneficiariam). Dessa forma, atualmente as diretrizes recomendam o uso da UF apenas como terapia de resgate, caso todas as medidas anteriormente citadas falhem<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref> ).</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f02002">
								<label>Figura 2</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Fluxograma de abordagem da resistência a diuréticos na IC.29-31</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2764-3107-abchf-002-01-0086-gf02-pt.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>Apesar dos grandes avanços nos últimos anos, ainda há muitos “pontos cegos” no conhecimento sobre o manejo da IC, principalmente no que diz respeito ao uso de diuréticos, onde há ainda muito empirismo. O conhecimento das propriedades farmacocinéticas e farmacodinâmicas dessas drogas ajudam a aprimorar o manejo da hipervolemia, entretanto maiores e melhores estudos clínicos são necessários.</p>
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					<p>Vinculação acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label/>
					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
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				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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	</sub-article>
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