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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abchf</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">2764-3107</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20220002</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20220002</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Pharmacokinetics, Mechanism of Action, and Adverse Effects of the Main Drugs Used to Treat Heart Failure: A Practical Overview for the Clinical Cardiologist</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2532-1607</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Figueiredo</surname>
						<given-names>Viviane Melo e Silva de</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5168-9424</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Santos</surname>
						<given-names>João Vitor Soares</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6039-3086</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Bogéa</surname>
						<given-names>Bruna Costa de Albuquerque</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4826-0189</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Oliveira</surname>
						<given-names>Amanda Gomes de</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3739-7702</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Figueiredo</surname>
						<given-names>José Albuquerque de</given-names>
						<suffix>Neto</suffix>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Maranhão</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Luís</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Maranhão, São Luís, MA – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual do Maranhão</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Caxias</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual do Maranhão (UEMA), Caxias, MA – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: José Albuquerque de Figueiredo Neto • Avenida dos Holandeses, 2, Ed. Iate Classic, apt.1202. Ponta D’areia, CEP 65077-357, São Luís, MA – Brazil E-mail: <email>jafneto@terra.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p>Author Contributions</p>
					<p>Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript: Figueiredo VMS, Santos JVS, Bogéa BCA, Oliveira AG, Figueiredo Neto JA; Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual contente: Figueiredo Neto JA.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>12</day>
				<month>04</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Jan-Mar</season>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>2</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<fpage>4</fpage>
			<lpage>11</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>21</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>01</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>16</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Review</kwd>
				<kwd>Pharmacology</kwd>
				<kwd>Practical View</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="0"/>
				<table-count count="14"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="58"/>
				<page-count count="8"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec>
			<title>Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI)</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action</title>
				<p>The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), and particularly angiotensin II, plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology of Heart Failure (HF), perpetuating cardiac remodeling, both on the cardiac structure level (provoking myocyte and fibroblast cell proliferation) and on the preload level (because of sodium retention and increased intravascular volume in the circulation), and in peripheral vascular resistance, by stimulating direct vasoconstriction and increased sympathetic discharge.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As the name of the ACEI class implies, these drugs act to inhibit angiotensin-converting enzymes (ACEs) I and II, blocking the effects described above. This drug class also has an additional effect; ACE acts on a range of different substrates, including inactivation of bradykinin and other vasodilator peptides, and when this inactivation effect is blocked, there is an additional effect, reducing afterload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pharmacokinetics</title>
				<p>The ACEIs achieve bioavailability either in the form of the drug itself or as a pro-drug, depending on which pharmaceutical is chosen. In general, their metabolization is hepatic, but liver dysfunctions do not cause significant changes to their activation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> However, creatinine clearance abnormalities may preclude their use because they are excreted via this pathway and can contribute to maintenance of renal dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Enalapril is the principal member of this group used to treat HF. Its active metabolite is enalaprilat, which achieves maximum concentration 3 to 4 hours after administration and has a plasma half-life of around 11h. The maximum recommended dose of this medication is 40mg per day. It is recommended that enalapril should be introduced gradually and increased in accordance with the patient’s tolerance, both in terms of symptoms of hypotension and in terms of possible decline in renal function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Adverse effects</title>
				<p>The principal effects to be considered are hyperkalemia, allergies, coughing, and angioedema. The last two of these are related to increased bradykinins and other prostaglandins. These drugs are contraindicated in pregnant women because of the possibility of inducing kidney damage in the fetus and should therefore also be avoided in women of fertile age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Angiotensin ii receptor blockers (ARBs)</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action</title>
				<p>Based on what was described above in relation to the role played by angiotensin II in cardiac remodeling, ARBs act to block this effect at the level of the AT1 receptor, in contrast to the ACEIs which act on production of this peptide. In this case, conversion of angiotensin I into angiotensin II follows its normal cycle, i.e., there is an elevated serum angiotensin II level, but its AT1 receptors will be blocked.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> It should be remembered that there is also an AT2 receptor that is not blocked by the ARBs, which is one of the features that lead to a degree of preference for the ACEIs over this group. Bearing in mind that ACE acts normally in patients who are taking these drugs, inactivation of bradykinin and other vasodilator peptides continues as normal, meaning that this group has lower vasodilatory power and fewer related side-effects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pharmacokinetics</title>
				<p>This class also has presentations in the form of drug or pro-drug, which are absorbed and activated in the gastrointestinal tract and cleared renally and can precipitate deterioration of creatinine clearance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Losartan, a member of this group, has an active metabolite with a half-life in the range of 3 to 4h,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> with an initial dose of 50mg per day, targeting a daily maximum dose of 150mg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Adverse effects</title>
				<p>Adverse effects are similar to those of the ACEIs, with the exception of coughing and angioedema since, as described above, they do not affect bradykinin metabolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Practical Aspects (of use of ACEIs and ARBs): <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
			</title>
			<list list-type="bullet">
				<list-item>
					<p>Intolerance of ACEIs is defined as presence of persistent and debilitating coughing (which occurs in approximately 10 to 20% of cases) or occurrence of angioedema (a rare finding: &lt; 1%). Use of ARBs is an alternative option in these cases. Rates of other adverse effects, such as hypotension, hyperkalemia, or renal dysfunction, are similar for ACEIs and ARBs. In cases of persistent and recurrent hyperkalemia and/or loss of renal function with ACEIs/ARBs, an alternative vasodilator therapy should be considered (in general, a combination of nitrate and hydralazine).</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Due to the risk of deterioration of renal function, hyperkalemia, and arterial hypotension, ACEIs/ARBs should be introduced at low doses (especially in patients with borderline blood pressure) and titrated progressively, until the target dose is attained, guaranteeing the benefits documented in large multicenter clinical trials.</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>An increase of up to 50% over baseline creatinine, or an absolute value of up to 3 mg/dL, or an estimated creatinine clearance &gt; 25 mL/min/m<sup>2</sup> is acceptable without requiring that drug dosages be reduced (ACEI or ARB). In these cases, it is recommended to maintain strict surveillance of renal function and potassium levels. If potassium exceeds 5.5 mEq/L, or creatinine exceeds 3.5 mg/dL, or clearance is below &lt; 20 mL/min/m<sup>2</sup>, then withdrawal of the ACEI or ARB should be considered .</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Combinations with ACEI and ARB should not be administered to patients taking aldosterone antagonists because of the risk of side effects, especially hyperkalemia.</p>
				</list-item>
			</list>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI - Sacubitril/Valsartan):</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action</title>
				<p>Still with regard to the pathophysiology of Heart Failure, we need to focus on the effects of the natriuretic peptides – brain, atrial, and type C – which are endogenous hormones capable of stimulating natriuresis, vasodilation, and diuresis. Brain and atrial natriuretic peptides have the greatest effects on the many different factors that determine heart failure and are released when ventricular and atrial muscles, respectively, are distended. In addition to the effects described above, they can also reduce the effects of angiotensin II, contributing to block the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. These peptides have short half-lives and are metabolized at the renal, hepatic, and pulmonary levels by neutral endopeptidase or neprilysin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Use of these drugs alone had no impact on morbidity or mortality rates of patients with HF, but, according to the PARADIGM – HF study, the combination of sacubitril (oral neprilysin inhibitor) with valsartan (angiotensin receptor blocker) achieved greater reductions in hospital admissions and improvements in quality of life and mortality among patients with HF than ACEI, previously considered the first line of treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pharmacokinetics</title>
				<p>Sacubitril is a pro-drug metabolized at the hepatic level and excreted via the kidneys, in common with valsartan, so it should also be avoided in patients with impaired creatinine clearance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Treatment with this drug should be optimized by degrees, observing which drugs the patient had been taking previously (ACEI or ARB) to minimize side effects and interactions with them. The initial dose is 24/26mg<sup>3</sup> or 49/51mg<sup>6</sup> twice a day, depending on the reference followed, progressing to a maximum dose of 97/103mg twice a day.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Adverse effects</title>
				<p>Beyond the adverse effects of valsartan (and of ARBs in general) already known, there is also a possibility of hypersensitivity to sacubitril and patients with borderline blood pressure tend to have more episodes of hypotension when taking sacubitril/valsartan. It should be noted that for patients who have been taking an ACEI, a 36h period without medications should be allowed to elapse before starting them on sacubitril/valsartan, because of a risk of angioedema. Patients on an ARB do not need to undergo this pause in treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Practical aspects</title>
			<list list-type="bullet">
				<list-item>
					<p>Test renal function and electrolytes.9</p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Drug tolerability, side effects, and monitoring with laboratory tests are similar with ARNI to with ACEIs or ARBs, already mentioned above.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>Serum levels of urea, creatinine, and potassium should be monitored 1 to 2 weeks after starting treatment and after titrations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				</list-item>
				<list-item>
					<p>If the patient had been taking ACEI and it is decided to change to ARNI, it is necessary to allow 36h to elapse without taking an ACEI before starting on sacubitril/valsartan. This washout period is to reduce the risk of angioedema and no washout is needed to change from an ARB to an ARNI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				</list-item>
			</list>
			<sec>
				<title>Beta blockers</title>
				<p>Beta-blockers (BB) are first-line drugs for treatment of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), because they yield clinical benefits observed in overall mortality, death from HF, and sudden death, in addition to improving symptoms and reducing rates of hospital readmissions for HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Of the options available, those that have demonstrated consistent results are Bisoprolol,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Metoprolol Succinate,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Carvedilol. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Additionally, Nebivolol was tested in patients with HF over the age of 70 years and reduced the primary clinical outcome (total mortality and cardiovascular hospital admissions), but did not have a statistically significant impact on total mortality in isolation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Chart 1</xref> )</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t5">
						<label>Chart 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Recommendations from the Brazilian Heart Failure Guidelines – 2018.3</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="100%">
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Bisoprolol, carvedilol, and metoprolol succinate for symptomatic LV dysfunction to reduce morbidity and mortality. Class/Evidence Level (EL): I/A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Nebivolol for symptomatic LV dysfunction in patients &gt; 70 years of age. Class/EL: IIB/B</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN4">
								<p><italic>LV: left ventricle.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Reverse remodeling, increased left ventricle ejection fraction (LVEF), and the consequent improvement in HF symptoms occur just a few weeks or months after introduction of the BB. It is important to start treatment with low doses, with progressive increases every 2 weeks, depending on tolerability (monitoring bradycardia and worsening of HF symptoms). If symptoms are accentuated, adjustments of diuretics and vasodilators should be attempted before reducing dosage or suspending the BB. BB are also indicated for patients with asymptomatic left ventricle (LV) dysfunction and for control of ventricular frequency in patients with HFrEF and chronic atrial fibrillation (AF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Mechanism of action and pharmacokinetics</title>
			<p>Since the catecholamines exert positive chronotropic and inotropic actions, antagonists of their receptors do the opposite, reducing heart rate and myocardial contractility. When tonic stimulation of the receptors is low, this effect is correspondingly modest. However, when the sympathetic nervous system is activated, such as during exercise or stress, the receptor antagonists attenuate the expected increase in heart rate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<p>All of the clinically available BB are competitive antagonists. Non-selective Beta-blockers block the β1 and β2 receptors, whereas cardioselective types have a predilection for β1. Some selective β1 antagonist drugs with clinical applications in HF are: Metoprolol, Bisoprolol and Nebivolol. They have oral presentations and good bioavailability; Metoprolol and Bisoporolol have half-lives from 3 to 4 hours, while Nebivolol has a half life of 10 to 30 hours.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			<p>These drugs antagonize β1 receptors at doses 50 to 100 times lower than those needed to block β2 receptors. This cardioselectivity is significant at low doses but is lost at elevated doses. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Consequently, patients with HF and some degree of lung disease, including asthmatics, can take BBs, but those with greater β1 selectivity (such as bisoprolol and nebivolol) are preferred.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			<p>With regard to Carvedilol, this is a non-selective BB that antagonizes β1 receptors and also α1 receptors, blockage of which produces peripheral vasodilation, reducing arterial blood pressure. This drug is also well-tolerated via oral route and its plasma half-life is from 7 to 10 hours.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>Adverse effects</title>
				<p>In the cardiovascular system, bradycardia is the normal response to β blockade, but β antagonists may cause bradyarrhythmia in patients with partial or complete atrioventricular conduction defects. Particular caution should be exercised with patients who are being treated with other drugs, such as verapamil or antiarrhythmics, which can impede sinoatrial node function and adequate atrial-ventricular conduction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> In cases of atrioventricular blockade, other drugs that act on the atrioventricular node, such as digoxin and amiodarone, should be withdrawn first.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The most important adverse effect on pulmonary function is caused by β2 receptor blockade, in the bronchial smooth muscle. This can be particularly dangerous in patients with bronchospastic disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Practical Aspects</title>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>The beneficial results of BBs may only become apparent after several months of use and in some patients they occur later still (after 12 months).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Some patients may report discrete functional deterioration at the start of treatment with BBs, but should be encouraged to continue using the medication.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>The majority of patients with HFrEF, particularly those at less advanced functional classes, can be treated with BBs by physicians who are not specialists in HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Patients at more advanced functional classes should be reassessed with more frequent visits when started on BBs and may benefit from assessment by a specialist in HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Patients with lung disease − and even asthmatics – can be treated with BBs, giving preference to those with greater selectivity β1 (such as bisoprolol and nebivolol).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>If atrioventricular blockade occurs, the first response should be to reduce or withdraw other drugs that act on the atrioventricular node, such as digoxin and amiodarone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Transitory fluid retention may occur at initiation of beta blockers or on uptitration, which may require reevaluation of diuretic dosages.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists</title>
				<p>The biological effects of aldosterone have significant repercussions for the pathophysiology of Heart Failure, making it extremely important to reduce this mineralocorticoid as part of treatment for the condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In HF, these medications are indicated for symptomatic LV dysfunction, at New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional classes II to IV, combined with standard treatment with ACEI or ARB and BB,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> with a maximum evidence level (I-A).</p>
				<p>Eplerenone has a more selective action, but is not available on the Brazilian market, although its results can be extrapolated to sprinolactone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action and Pharmacokinetics</title>
				<p>When aldosterone binds to Mineralocorticoid Receptors (MR) located in the final portion of the distal tubule and in the collecting duct, it induces synthesis of Aldosterone Induced Proteins (AIP), which has the biological consequences of inducing retention of sodium and water, in addition to excretion of K<sup>+</sup> and H<sup>+</sup>.<sup>2</sup></p>
				<p>Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs - spironolactone and eplerenone) competitively inhibit binding of aldosterone to MR and are not capable of inducing formation of AIP, thereby blocking the effect of aldosterone in the body, which improves endothelial function and nitric oxide bioavailability, with possible antisclerotic effects, in addition to reduction of myocardial fibrosis having been demonstrated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Adverse effects</title>
				<p>Since these are diuretic and potassium-sparing drugs, they may have side effects such as hypotension, dehydration, and hyponatremia, in addition to hyperkalemia, so it is necessary to monitor potassium levels and regularly test renal function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> MRAs should therefore be avoided in patients with &gt; 2.5 mg/dL or hyperkalemia. Additionally, sprinolactone also has an antiandrogenic effect and inhibits steroidogenesis, which can cause gynecomastia and loss of libido,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> which are not as common with eplerenone, because it is more selective.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Practical aspects</title>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Check renal function and electrolytes (especially K<sup>+</sup>), particularly after initiating treatment/increasing dosage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Consider titration of dosage after 4 to 8 weeks.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>If K<sup>+</sup> &gt; 5.5 mmol/L or Creatinine &gt;2.5 mg/dL and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) &lt; 30 mL/min/1.73 m<sup>2</sup>, halve the dosage and monitor blood tests.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>If K<sup>+</sup> &gt; 6.0 mmol/L or Creatinine &gt;3.5 mg/dL and GFR &lt;20 mL/min/1.73 m<sup>2</sup>, withdraw MRAS immediately and consult a specialist.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>SGLT2 inhibitors</title>
				<p>Recently, major advances have been achieved in relation to antidiabetic medications and cardiovascular risk. This has yielded a new approach to treatment of HFrEF, different from conventional blockage of the system – the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> These drugs initially demonstrated their cardiovascular safety in patients with type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DM2), with beneficial effects, such as reduction of cardiovascular events, cardiovascular mortality, and hospital admissions for HF, using empagliflozin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Later, other studies revealed benefits of this class, extending to Canaglifozin,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Dapaglifozin and Empagliflozin, including in patients without diabetes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> and, finally, to Sotagliflozin (not available in Brazil).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Chart 2</xref> )</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t6">
						<label>Chart 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Recommendations from the Brazilian Heart Failure Guidelines – 2021, for use of SGLT2 inhibitors in treatment of HFrEF.3</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="100%">
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Dapaglifozin or Empagliflozin are indicated in patients with symptomatic HFrEF, diabetic or not, with maximum optimized dose of BB, aldosterone antagonist, ACEI/ARB, or ARNI, to reduce cardiovascular outcomes and progression of renal dysfunction. Class/Evidence level (EL): I/A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Canaglifozin, Dapaglifozin, or Empagliflozin for prevention of hospital admissions for HF in patients with DM2 who have cardiovascular risk factors for atherosclerosis or established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Class/EL: I/A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Dapaglifozin or Empagliflozin as initial antidiabetic medication, combined or not with metformin in patients with HFrEF. Class/EL: I/A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Dapaglifozin or Empagliflozin in patients with HFrEF for prevention of reduction of renal function in patients with and without diabetes, with TGF &gt; 20 Ml/min/1.73 m<sup>2</sup>. Class/EL: IIa/A</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN5">
								<p><italic>ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; ARNI: angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor; BB: beta-blockers; DM2: type 2 diabetes mellitus; GFR: glomerular filtration rate; HF: heart failure; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; SGLT2i: sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action and Pharmacokinetics</title>
				<p>The mechanisms underlying cardiovascular protection and the renal effects of SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with and without DM2 are still not entirely understood, although several mechanisms have been proposed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> These new drugs act to inhibit glucose reabsorption in the renal tubules, by inhibiting the SGLT2 receptors in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT), provoking glycosuria. Reduction of glycemia is also related to natriuresis, osmotic diuresis, modest weight loss, increased hematocrit, and reduction of arterial blood pressure. The hemodynamic effects occur early, since as endothelial function and vasodilation improve, there are also reductions in preload and afterload and also in cardiac fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
				<p>These drugs have shown a high affinity for SGLT2, low affinity for SGLT1 (which guarantees better tolerability), good oral route bioavailability, and prolonged life, permitting administration of an oral dose once a day. Additionally, metabolism does not involve active metabolites, so they also have a limited drug interaction profile. Finally, no clinically relevant changes in the pharmacokinetics of these drugs have been observed in patients with DM2, kidney failure, or mild/moderate liver failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Adverse effects</title>
				<p>In general, SGLT2 inhibitors have a good tolerability profile and are not associated with many adverse effects, beyond a small chance of developing hypoglycemia, despite the glycosuria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The glycosuria increases the risk of infections of the genitourinary tract, especially genital infections (a 4% increase compared to placebo), and infections of the urinary tract (a 1% increase in relation to placebo).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> However, it is valid to point out that, in general, these are not severe infections and can be easily managed with antibiotic therapy alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Finally, some concerning observations that need to be confirmed in clinical trials and must be investigated more intensely involve a potentially worrying trend for an increased incidence of breast and bladder cancer – clearly this must be investigated more intensely in clinical trials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Practical Aspects</title>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Test renal function when starting treatment and monitor it regularly. It is known that GFR reduces slightly after starting treatment, but SGLT2i appear to offer kidney protection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Monitor glycemia regularly, primarily when the patient is diabetic. Consider modifying other diabetic drugs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Nitrates and Hydralazine</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action</title>
				<p>The combination of hydralazine and nitrates has arterial and venous vasodilatory effects. This combination is able to reduce preload and afterload, reduce atrial and left ventricular wall tension, improve LV ejection fraction, and induce reverse remodeling, having demonstrated favorable effects on left ventricular function and HF-associated mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Additionally, the combination maintains a balance between nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is important for maintenance of cardiovascular health.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The V-HeFT I study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> confirmed these beneficial effects, with reduction in mortality compared with placebo, but the combination did not surpass the benefit of ACEIs, as was later demonstrated in the V-HeFT II study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
				<p>However, according to the A-HeFT (African-American Heart Failure Trial) study, hydralazine and nitrate demonstrated considerable additional benefits in self-declared black patients, at NYHA functional class III-IV who were already on standard treatment, with a 33% reduction in hospital admissions and 43% drop in total mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pharmacokinetics</title>
				<p>In the A-HeFT study, the initial dose, available as a fixed dose, was 37.5 mg of hydralazine and 20 mg of isosorbide dinitrate, oral route, 3 times/day, with a maximum dose of 75 mg and 40 mg, 3 times/day, depending on tolerance and side effects. In Brazil, there is no fixed dose available and the initial dose suggested is 25 mg hydralazine and 10 mg of nitrate, 3 times a day, increasing progressively up to 100 mg per day of hydralazine and 40 mg per day of nitrate, also 3 times a day, or up to the maximum dose tolerated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Side effects</title>
				<p>The most common side effects of nitrate are related to vasodilation: orthostatic hypotension, tachycardia, and pulsating headaches. The most frequent side effects of hydralazine are headaches, nausea, anorexia, palpitations, diaphoresis, and rubor, and when given in higher doses there is a small chance of development of a syndrome similar to lupus erythematosus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Practical Aspects</title>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Introduction of vasodilators may be indicated for patients who exhibit deterioration of renal function and/or hyperkalemia when taking ACEI/ARBs, for those who do not improve when put on optimized drug therapy, or in whom there is documented persistence of signs of elevated peripheral resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Nitrates alone may be useful to relieve orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, effort dyspnea, or angina, but continuous use is associated with development of tolerance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ivabradine</title>
				<p>In 1987, the Framingham Study showed that heart rate (HR) was associated with all causes of cardiovascular and coronary mortality over 30 years of follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> A review of the literature indicated that elevated HR is associated with worse prognosis in HF and can be considered a treatment target.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action</title>
				<p>As such, Ivabradine can be considered part of the therapeutic arsenal for HF, since it provokes negative chronotropism by inhibiting sinoatrial node pacemaker activity through selectively blocking If current. However, it does not affect myocardial contractility, ventricular repolarization, or intracardiac conduction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The SHIFT study showed that when ivabradine was added in patients with sinus rhythm, with HR ≥ 70 bpm, and LVEF ≤ 35%, who remained symptomatic despite normal drug treatment, it was associated with a reduction in the composite outcome of cardiovascular death or hospital admission for HF, but not with cardiovascular mortality or all causes mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pharmacokinetics</title>
				<p>The initial dose recommended is 5 mg twice a day. In patients with regard to whom there are concerns that a reduction in HR could cause hemodynamic compromise or who have conduction defects, the initial dose can be 2.5 mg twice a day. The dose should be adjusted every 2 weeks with the objective of achieving an HR of 50-60 bpm up to a maximum dose of 7.5 mg twice a day.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Renal failure has a minimal impact on the pharmacokinetics of ivabradine, because it is primarily metabolized by cytochrome p450 (CYP3A4) in the liver and in the gastrointestinal tract.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Plasma concentration peaks after approximately 1 h in fasting patients and food intake can delay this peak by 1 h. It has been demonstrated that mild liver failure can increase ivabradine levels by up to 20%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> and the drug is contraindicated in severe liver failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Adverse effects</title>
				<p>The side effects of ivabradine most commonly reported in clinical practice are bradycardia, AF, and phosphenes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> In the SHIFT study, 5% of the patients exhibited symptomatic bradycardia and the drug was associated with a small increase in the incidence of AF. Its use should therefore be reconsidered in patients who have paroxysmal AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Although it is not considered that ivabradine prolongs the QT interval, it has been associated with torsade de pointes in experimental models and in combination with other medications<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> and caution should be exercised when it is used in conjunction with medications that prolong the QT interval. Ivabradine should not be taken during pregnancy.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Practical aspects:9</title>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Monitor heart rate, arterial blood pressure, and clinical status.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Start with an initial dose of 5 mg 2x/day.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>The daily dose can be increased, reduced, or withdrawn depending on the patient’s heart rate at rest. If resting heart rate is between 50 and 60 beats per minute, the current dose should be maintained.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Titrate doses every 2 weeks, if possible, aiming for the target dose or the highest dose tolerated, on the basis of heart rate at rest.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Treatment should be reduced or withdrawn if heart rate at rest remains persistently below 50 b.p.m. or if there are symptoms of bradycardia:</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Ivabradine should be withdrawn if a patient develops persistent/continuous AF during treatment with it.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>The visual phenomena are generally transitory and disappear during the first months of treatment with ivabradine and are not associated with severe retina dysfunction. However, withdrawal of ivabradine should be considered if they cause the patient discomfort.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>If symptoms occur in patients with intolerance to lactose or galactose (a component of the ivabradine tablet), it may be necessary to withdraw the medication.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Digoxin</title>
				<p>The DIG study randomized 6800 patients with HFrEF to receive digoxin or placebo and showed that the drug did not reduce mortality, but did reduce hospital admissions for HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Consequently, the guidelines recommend that digoxin be considered an adjunct to optimized therapy in symptomatic patients with HFrEF. If the patient has sinus rhythm, ivabradine should be preferred, but if there is AF, digoxin can be used alone,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> although there is considerable controversy about the safety of using digoxin in patients with AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action</title>
				<p>Digoxin is a cardiac glycoside that belongs to the drug class digitalis glycosides. It has two mechanisms of action. Inhibition of the Na-K ATPase pump induces increased intracellular sodium, followed by a relative reduction in expulsion of calcium from the sarcomere, causing an increase in cardiac contractility. The other mechanism encompasses inhibition of the atrioventricular node (AVN). Elevation of the calcium levels leads to prolongation of phases 4 and 0 of the cardiac action potential, thereby increasing the refractory period of the AVN. The drug also stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system, reducing electrical conduction in the AVN and heart rate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pharmacokinetics</title>
				<p>All of the cardiac glycosides are widely distributed through the tissues, including in the central nervous system (CNS). Almost two thirds of digoxin is excreted unaltered by the kidneys. Its renal clearance is proportional to creatinine clearance, with a half-life of 36 to 40 hours in patients with normal renal function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> It is necessary to adjust the dose in the presence of renal function deficiency ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> ). Corticosteroids and diuretics that cause potassium depletion increase the toxicity of digoxin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Recommended Dosage</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="50%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th colspan="2">Recommended dose of digoxin according to GFR (ml/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>)</th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">GFR ml/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup></th>
									<th>Dose mg/dia</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>&gt;90</td>
									<td align="center">0.25</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>60 - 90</td>
									<td align="center">0.125</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>30 - 60</td>
									<td align="center">0.125 em dias alternados</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>&lt;30</td>
									<td align="center">Do not use</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<attrib><italic>Source: adapted from DiDomenico et al.<sup>51</sup></italic></attrib>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Adverse effects</title>
				<p>Digoxin toxicity is clinically relevant, because it can lead to fatal cardiac arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> One clinical trial has suggested that serum levels exceeding 1.2 ng/mL are associated with increased risk of death in patients with AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> However, toxicity can occur at lower levels in the presence of other risk factors, such as low body weight, advanced age, reduced renal function, and hypokalemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The incidence of side effects is estimated at up to 20%, around 50% of which are cardiac symptoms (such as arrhythmia and 1st degree AV block), 25% are gastrointestinal tract symptoms (anorexia, nausea, vomiting), and the remainder are CNS manifestations (headache, malaise, fatigue, disorientation) and other side effects. Digoxin is contraindicated in the following conditions: acute myocardial infarction, hypersensitivity to the drug, ventricular fibrillation, myocarditis, hypomagnesemia, hypokalemia, and Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Use of digoxin in pregnancy appears to be safe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Practical Aspects:10</title>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>In patients taking Digoxin, serum potassium and creatinine should be measured whenever the digoxin dose is increased or drugs that could cause interactions are introduced, since there is a risk of toxicity with digoxin.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Patients with impaired renal function, the elderly, those with low body weight, and women are at increased risk of digoxin toxicity and need more frequent monitoring.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Routine digoxin level tests are unnecessary to assess toxicity and should not be used to guide long-term treatment.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Diuretics in heart failure</title>
				<p>The majority of patients with Heart Failure with reduced Ejection Fraction (HFrEF) need a diuretic to control symptoms of congestion, particularly if they are acutely decompensated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Chart 3</xref> ) Loop diuretics (especially furosemide) are the preferred agents, although use of thiazide in patients with little response to increasing loop diuretic doses has been recommended in observational studies or small scale trials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> The main adverse effects of diuretics are volume and/or electrolyte depletion and excessive diuresis can also predispose to hypotension and acute kidney damage. Some patients can benefit from a diuretic dosing regimen, by which they weigh themselves daily and dosage is adjusted if weight increases or reduces beyond a specific range.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t7">
						<label>Chart 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Recommendations from the Brazilian Heart Failure Guidelines – 20183</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="100%">
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Loop diuretics to control congestion. Class/Evidence level (EL): I/C</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Thiazide diuretic combined with a loop diuretic to control persistent congestion, despite optimized treatment and increased loop diuretic dosages. Class/EL: I/B <sup>53</sup></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Initiate diuretics while HFrEF asymptomatic. Class/EL: III/C</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN6">
								<p><italic>HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>However, it is important to emphasize that these diuretics are symptomatic drugs, since no randomized clinical trials have demonstrated increased survival associated with their use in ambulatory patients with chronic HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Additionally, observational studies have demonstrated potential harmful effects on the RAAS of chronic and continual use of diuretics,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> suggesting association with worse clinical outcomes. It is therefore recommended to always use the smallest therapeutic dose necessary with continual use of diuretics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> )</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Diuretics most frequently used in decompensated HF. Source: Heart Failure Guidelines Coordinating Committee, 2018</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="20%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Medication</th>
									<th>Route</th>
									<th>Interval</th>
									<th>Minimum dose</th>
									<th>Maximum dose</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Loop diuretic</bold></td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2">Furosemide</td>
									<td align="center" rowspan="2">IV/PO</td>
									<td align="center" rowspan="2">4/4h-6/6h Variable</td>
									<td align="center">20 mg</td>
									<td align="center">240 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">40 mg</td>
									<td align="center">240mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Bumetanide</td>
									<td align="center">IV</td>
									<td align="center">6/6h</td>
									<td align="center">0.5-2mg</td>
									<td align="center">10 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Thiazide</bold></td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Hydrochlorothiazide</td>
									<td align="center">PO</td>
									<td align="center">12/12h-24/24h</td>
									<td align="center">25 mg</td>
									<td align="center">100 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Chlorthalidone</td>
									<td align="center">PO</td>
									<td align="center">12/12h-24/24h</td>
									<td align="center">12.5mg</td>
									<td align="center">50 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Indapamide</td>
									<td align="center">PO</td>
									<td align="center">24/24h</td>
									<td align="center">mg</td>
									<td align="center">5 mg</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p><italic>IV: intravenous; PO: by mouth.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Loop diuretics</title>
				<p>Compared with all of the other classes of diuretics, these drugs exhibit the greatest efficacy for mobilization of Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>-</sup> in the body. They produce abundant quantities of urine, because they act on the thick ascending limb of Henle’s loop, where the greatest resorption rate occurs, in comparison with other parts of the nephron. Furosemide is the most used drug in this group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Ethacrynic acid has a steeper dose-response curve than Furosemide, but is associated with more adverse effects than observed with other loop diuretics and so its use is limited. Bumetanide is much more potent than furosemide.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action</title>
				<p>These drugs inhibit activity of the Na<sup>+</sup>-K<sup>+</sup>-2Cl<sup>-</sup> cotransporter in the thick ascending limb of Henle’s loop, which is why they are called loop diuretics. This is the most effective mechanism for provoking diuresis and is responsible for resorption of 25 to 30% of filtered NaCI. For example, although the DCT reabsorbs around 65% of filtered Na<sup>+</sup>, the diuretics that only act on this tubule have limited efficacy because the thick ascending limb reabsorbs a large proportion of the rejected material. Additionally, those that predominantly act on sites after the thick ascending limb (such as the Convoluted Distal Tubule and the Collector Tubule) have limited efficacy, because only a small percentage of the filtered Na<sup>+</sup> reaches these more distal sites.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pharmacokinetics</title>
				<p>Approximately 65% of Furosemide is excreted unaltered in urine and the remainder is conjugated with glucuronic acid in the kidneys. Thus, the half-life of furosemide clearance is prolonged in patients with kidney disease who are free from liver disease. In contrast, bumetanide and torsemide exhibit significant hepatic metabolism, so that their half-lives can be extended in the presence of liver disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref> )</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Table 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter inhibitors (loop diuretics)</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="20%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Drug</th>
									<th>Relative Potency</th>
									<th>Oral availability</th>
									<th>Half-life (hours)</th>
									<th colspan="2">Excretion pathway</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2">Furosemide</td>
									<td align="center" rowspan="2">1</td>
									<td align="center" rowspan="2">~60%</td>
									<td align="center" rowspan="2">~1.5h</td>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">~65%R</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">~35%M<sup>a</sup></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td colspan="1" rowspan="2">Bumetanide</td>
									<td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="2">40</td>
									<td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="2">~80%</td>
									<td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="2">~0.8h</td>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">~62%R</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">~38%M</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p><italic><sup>a</sup> For furosemide, metabolism is primarily in the kidneys. R: renal excretion of the intact drug; M: metabolism.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The mean oral availability of furosemide is approximately 60% and the natriuretic response is rapid, with peak activity at 20 to 30 minutes and duration of 4 to 6 hours.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Torsemide and Bumetadine have similar half-life and duration relatively, but they are more powerful and have greater bioavailability (from 60 to 80%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As a class, loop diuretics have short clearance half-lives and are not available in slow-release preparations. As a result, intervals between administration must be short to maintain them at adequate concentrations within the tubule lumen.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Adverse effects</title>
				<p>Loop diuretics act rapidly and provoke changes in the composition of urine and increase the volume excreted. In relation to electrolytes, these drugs considerably deplete Na<sup>+</sup>, Ca<sup>2</sup>, and K<sup>+</sup> and can also deplete Mg<sup>2</sup>, especially in the elderly. Particularly in the case of hyponatremia, the consequence of less Na<sup>+</sup> arriving at the DCT and collector tubule can, in the final analysis, trigger hypochloremic and hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Additionally, another classic adverse effect associated with this class of drugs is ototoxicity (in general reversible). This emerges as a buzzing, compromising hearing, with deafness, vertigo/dizziness, and feelings of blocked ears. It is commonly more related to cases of intravenous administration of this drug class or in cases of combinations with other medications capable of provoking this, such as aminoglycosides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>It is worth noting that loop diuretics can also interfere in homeostasis of other metabolites. For example, uric acid (with hyperuricemia, and in some cases it can provoke gout), glucose (with hyperglycemia), and cholesterol (with increased plasma levels, especially of LDL).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
				<p>People with hypersensitivity to sulfonamides have a contraindication to taking loop diuretics derived from them. Additionally, some medications can interfere with their efficacy, such as the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Thiazide</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Mechanism of action</title>
				<p>Thiazide derivatives increase diuresis, primarily acting on the DCT, reducing resorption of Na<sup>+</sup> by inhibition of the Na<sup>+</sup>/Cl<sup>-</sup> cotransporter in the luminal membrane of tubules.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
				<p>This increase in urinary output also causes increased urinary excretion of some other elements, including K<sup>+</sup> and Mg<sup>2</sup>, especially in the elderly. The cause of hypokalemia is the fact that inhibitors of the Na+/Cl- cotransporter provoke a filtrate with higher Na<sup>+</sup> concentration and consequently increase urinary excretion of K<sup>+</sup> because of the exchange mechanism that occurs in the collector tubule (discussed in the section on mineralocorticoid antagonists). In turn, hypomagnesemia is an effect that is particularly seen in the elderly because administration of these drugs can cause magnesiuria, through a little-understood mechanism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In relation to electrolytes that are spared, excretion of Ca<sup>2</sup>is reduced because chronic administration of thiazide provokes volume depletion, which requires more intense proximal resorption, but also because the class has the effect of increasing resorption of this cation in the DCT.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pharmacokinetics</title>
				<p>It is important to emphasize that the pharmacokinetics of thiazide diuretics can be very variable, depending on the drug in question ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref> ), but in general, the maximum excretion of Na<sup>+</sup> load is just 5%, because around 90% of the Na<sup>+</sup> load filtered is reabsorbed before reaching the DCT. Hydrochlorothiazide is one of the main members of this class, with intestinal absorption of 65%, plasmatic protein binding of 40%, and clearance half-life of approximately 10 hours, with 95% of the dose eliminated unaltered via urine. The duration of hydrochlorothiazide activity is 18-24 hours. Intestinal absorption of this drug may be reduced in patients with heart failure. The natriuretic action of thiazide reduces rapidly when glomerular filtration is less than 30 ml/minute and these drugs become ineffective when glomerular filtration is less than 10ml/minute.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t4">
						<label>Table 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Na+/Cl- cotransporter inhibitors (thiazide and similar)</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="20%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Drug</th>
									<th>Relative Potency</th>
									<th>Oral availability</th>
									<th>Half-life (hours)</th>
									<th>Excretion pathway</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Hydrochlorothiazide</td>
									<td align="center">1</td>
									<td align="center">~70%</td>
									<td align="center">~2.5h</td>
									<td align="center">R</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="3">Chlorthalidone</td>
									<td align="center" rowspan="3">1</td>
									<td align="center" rowspan="3">~65%</td>
									<td align="center" rowspan="3">~47h</td>
									<td align="center">~65%R</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">~10%B</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">~25%U</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Indapamide</td>
									<td align="center">20</td>
									<td align="center">~93%</td>
									<td align="center">~14h</td>
									<td align="center">M</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN3">
								<p><italic>R: renal excretion of the intact drug; M: metabolism; B: excretion of the intact drug in the bile; U: excretion pathway unknown.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Adverse effects</title>
				<p>The most severe adverse effects of thiazides are related to abnormalities of fluid and electrolyte balance. These adverse effects include depletion of extracellular volume, hypotension, hypokalemia, hyponatremia, hypochloremia, metabolic alkalosis, and hypomagnesemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> These diuretics have also shown the potential to interfere in metabolism of other compounds, explaining the emergence of hyperuricemia, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Hypokalemia may be related to reduction in insulin secretion, which would explain the changes to glucose metabolism, such as increased tolerance. Control of diabetes may therefore be compromised during treatment. Additionally, thiazides can cause increases of 5 to 15% in serum cholesterol concentration and also increases in serum low density lipoproteins.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Rarely, thiazide diuretics can provoke disorders of the central nervous system (for example: vertigo/dizziness, paresthesias, xanthopsia, and weakness) and the gastrointestinal tract (for example: anorexia, nausea, vomiting, cramps, diarrhea, constipation, cholecystitis, and pancreatitis), hematological disorders (for example: blood dyscrasia) and dermatological disorders (for example: photosensitivity and exanthemas).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Thiazide diuretics are contraindicated for people hypersensitive to sulfonamides. In relation to drug interactions, they can reduce the effects of anticoagulants, uricosuric agents used to treat gout, sulfonylureas, and insulin and can increase the effects of anesthetics, diazoxide, glycosides, digitalis glycosides, lithium, loop diuretics, and vitamin D.</p>
				<p>The effectiveness of thiazide diuretics can be reduced by NSAIDs and non-selective or selective COX-2 inhibitors. Amphotericin B and corticosteroids increase the risk of hypokalemia induced by these diuretics. A potentially lethal drug interaction occurs between thiazide diuretics and quinidine, because the QT interval prolongation caused by quinidine can lead to development of torsade de pointes (a polymorphic ventricular tachycardia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Practical aspects (loop diuretics and thiazide)</title>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>Test renal function and electrolytes, particularly in patients on combined use of loop diuretics and thiazide.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Start with a low dose, but adjust to an effective dose to achieve satisfactory diuresis, with reduction of body weight of 0.75 to 1.0 Kg/day.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Dose adjustment should be according to symptoms and/or signs of congestion, arterial blood pressure, and renal function, always targeting the smallest dose possible to maintain euvolemia – the patient’s “dry weight”. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Remember that excessive diuresis is more dangerous than edema, primarily because of the risk of hypovolemia and hypokalemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Monitor serum levels of Urea, Creatinine and K<sup>+</sup> between 1 and 2 weeks after initiation and after any increase in dosage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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				<mixed-citation>58. Sinha AD, Agarwal R. Clinical Pharmacology of Antihypertensive Therapy for the Treatment of Hypertension in CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2019;14(5):757-64. doi: 10.2215/CJN.04330418.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Sinha</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Agarwal</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Clinical Pharmacology of Antihypertensive Therapy for the Treatment of Hypertension in CKD</article-title>
					<source>Clin J Am Soc Nephrol</source>
					<year>2019</year>
					<volume>14</volume>
					<issue>5</issue>
					<fpage>757</fpage>
					<lpage>764</lpage>
					<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2215/CJN.04330418.</issue-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study Association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of Funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Farmacocinética, Mecanismo de Ação e Efeitos Adversos dos Principais Fármacos Utilizados no Tratamento da IC: Uma Visão Prática para o Cardiologista Clínico</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2532-1607</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Figueiredo</surname>
						<given-names>Viviane Melo e Silva de</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5168-9424</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Santos</surname>
						<given-names>João Vitor Soares</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6039-3086</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Bogéa</surname>
						<given-names>Bruna Costa de Albuquerque</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4826-0189</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Oliveira</surname>
						<given-names>Amanda Gomes de</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3739-7702</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Figueiredo</surname>
						<given-names>José Albuquerque de</given-names>
						<suffix>Neto</suffix>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Maranhão, São Luís, MA – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual do Maranhão (UEMA), Caxias, MA – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">Correspondência: José Albuquerque <bold>de Figueiredo Neto</bold> • Avenida dos Holandeses, 2, Ed. Iate Classic, apt.1202. Ponta D’areia, CEP 65077-357, São Luís, MA – Brasil E-mail: jafneto@terra.com.br</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p>Contribuição dos autores</p>
					<p>Obtenção de dados e Redação do manuscrito: Figueiredo VMS, Santos JVS, Bogéa BCA, Oliveira AG, Figueiredo Neto JA; Análise e interpretação dos dados e Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante: Figueiredo Neto JA.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
					<p>Não há conflito com o presente artigo</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Insuficiência cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Revisão</kwd>
				<kwd>Farmacologia</kwd>
				<kwd>Visão Prática</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec>
				<title>Inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA)</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação</title>
					<p>Dentro da fisiopatologia da insuficiência cardíaca (IC), o sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA), especialmente a angiotensina II, tem papel crucial como perpetuador do remodelamento cardíaco, tanto em relação à estrutura cardíaca gerando proliferação celular de miócitos e fibroblastos quanto em relação à pré-carga (devido à retenção de sódio e ao aumento do volume intravascular circulante) e à resistência vascular periférica, já que promovem vasoconstricção direta e aumento da descarga simpática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECAs), como o próprio nome da classe já diz, agem inibindo a enzima conversora de angiotensina I em II e bloqueando os efeitos descritos anteriormente. Como efeito adicional dessa classe, a enzima conversora de angiotensina (ECA) atua em diversos substratos, inclusive inativando a bradicinina e outros peptídeos vasodilatadores. Quando bloqueamos tal inativação, temos o efeito adicional na redução de pós-carga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Farmacocinética</title>
					<p>Os IECAs possuem biodisponibilidade na forma de fármaco ou de pró-fármaco, a depender da droga a ser escolhida. No geral, possuem metabolização hepática, porém disfunções neste órgão não geram alterações significativas na ativação dos IECAs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> No entanto, alterações de depuração de creatinina podem ser impeditivos para o uso, já que eles são excretados por essa via e podem contribuir com a perpetuação da disfunção renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O enalapril, principal representante deste grupo usado no tratamento de IC, possui como metabólito ativo o enalaprilato, que atinge sua concentração máxima de 3 a 4 horas após a administração, tendo meia-vida plasmática em torno de 11 horas. A dose máxima preconizada deste medicamento é de 40 mg ao dia, sendo recomendado início gradual e aumento conforme tolerância do paciente tanto em relação a sintomas de hipotensão quanto a possível piora da função renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos adversos</title>
					<p>Os principais efeitos a serem considerados são hipercalemia, alergias, tosse e angioedema. Estes dois últimos estão relacionados ao aumento de bradicininas e outras prostaglandinas. Tais drogas são contraindicadas em gestantes devido à possibilidade de indução de lesão renal no feto e, por isso, devem ser evitadas também em mulheres em idade fértil.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Bloqueadores dos recepetores de angiotensina II (BRA)</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação</title>
					<p>Tendo por base o que foi descrito anteriormente sobre o papel da angiotensina II no remodelamento cardíaco, os bloqueadores dos receptores de angiotensina II (BRAs) agem bloqueando esse efeito no receptor AT1, diferentemente dos IECAs, que agem na produção desse peptídeo. A conversão de angiotensina I em II segue seu ciclo normal, ou seja, há um nível sérico elevado de angiotensina II, porém os receptores AT1 estarão bloqueados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Vale ressaltar que existe ainda o receptor AT2 não bloqueado pelos BRAs, sendo esse um dos pontos que permite um grau de preferência dos IECAs em relação a este grupo. Levando em consideração que a ECA age normalmente nos pacientes que fazem uso desses fármacos, a inativação da bradicinina e de outros peptídeos vasodilatadores permanece ocorrendo, o que traz a este grupo menor poder vasodilatador e também menor efeito colateral relacionado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Farmacocinética</title>
					<p>Esta classe também pode se apresentar na forma de fármaco ou pró-fármaco, absorvido e ativado através do trato gastrointestinal e da depuração renal, podendo precipitar piora da função renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A losartana, representante deste grupo, possui metabólito ativo com meia-vida de 3 a 4 h<sup>2</sup>, com dose inicial de 50 mg ao dia, objetivando a dose máxima diária de 150 mg<sup>3</sup>.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos adversos</title>
					<p>Os BRAs possuem efeitos adversos semelhantes aos dos IECAs, com exceção da tosse e angioedema, já que, como foi descrito anteriormente, os BRAs não têm efeito no metabolismo das bradicininas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos práticos na utilização de IECAs e BRAs: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>A intolerância aos IECAs é definida como a presença de tosse persistente e debilitante (que ocorre em aproximadamente 10 a 20% dos casos) ou a ocorrência de angioedema (achado incomum; &lt; 1%). O uso de BRAs é uma alternativa nesses casos. A taxa de outros efeitos adversos, como hipotensão, hipercalemia ou disfunção renal, é semelhante entre IECAs e BRAs. Nos casos de hipercalemia persistente e recorrente e/ou perda de função renal com IECAs/BRAs, a terapia vasodilatadora alternativa deve ser considerada (em geral, associação de nitrato e hidralazina).</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Devido ao risco de piora da função renal, hipercalemia e hipotensão arterial, os IECAs/BRAs devem ser introduzidos em doses baixas (especialmente nos pacientes com pressão arterial limítrofe) e titulação progressiva, até atingir as doses-alvo, que garantem os benefícios documentados nos grandes estudos clínicos multicêntricos.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Aceita-se aumento de até 50% da creatinina basal, valor absoluto de até 3 mg/dL ou depuração da creatinina estimado &gt; 25 mL/min/m<sup>2</sup>, sem necessitar reduzir a dose dos fármacos (IECA ou BRA). Nesses casos, é recomendável estreita vigilância da função renal e dos níveis de potássio. Se o potássio ultrapassar os valores de 5,5 mEq/L, a creatinina ultrapassar os valores de 3,5 mg/dL ou depuração estiver &lt; 20 mL/mim/m<sup>2</sup>, deve ser considerada a suspensão do IECA ou do BRA.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Não se deve administrar a combinação IECA e BRA em pacientes em uso de antagonistas de aldosterona pelo risco de efeitos colaterais, em especial de hipercalemia.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Inibidores das neprilisinas e dos receptores de angiotensina (sacubitril/valsartana):</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação</title>
					<p>Ainda dentro da fisiopatologia da IC, temos que destacar o efeito dos peptídeos natriuréticos – cerebral, atrial e tipo C –, que são hormônios endógenos capazes de estimular natriurese, vasodilatação e diurese. Os peptídeos natriuréticos cerebral e atrial são os de maior efeito dentro dos vários fatores determinantes da IC, sendo liberados mediante estiramento dos músculos ventriculares e atriais, respectivamente. Além disso, eles podem ainda reduzir os efeitos da angiotensina II, contribuindo com o bloqueio do SRAA. Esses peptídeos possuem meia-vida curta e são metabolizados em níveis renal, hepático e pulmonar pela endopeptidase neutra ou neprilisina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O uso isolado desses fármacos não gerou impacto em relação à morbimortalidade dos pacientes portadores de IC; no entanto, a associação do sacubitril (inibidor da neprilisina via oral) com a valsartana (BRA) promoveu redução de internação, melhora da qualidade de vida e redução da mortalidade dos pacientes com IC maior que o IECA, antes tido como primeira linha de tratamento segundo o estudo PARADIGM-HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Farmacocinética</title>
					<p>O sacubitril é um pró-fármaco metabolizado em nível hepático e excretado por via renal assim como a valsartana, por isso também deve ser evitado em pacientes com alterações de depuração de creatinina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O tratamento com esse fármaco deve ser otimizado de forma paulatina, observando quais medicamentos o paciente fazia uso anteriormente (IECA ou BRA) para minimizar os efeitos colaterais e interação com eles. A dose inicial é de 24/26 mg<sup>3</sup>ou 49/51 mg<sup>6</sup>duas vezes ao dia a depender da referência seguida, progredindo até a dose máxima de 97/103 mg duas vezes ao dia.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos adversos</title>
					<p>Fora os efeitos adversos já conhecidos da valsartana (BRAs em geral), há ainda a hipersensibilidade ao sacubitril. Pacientes com pressão arterial limítrofe tendem a apresentar mais episódios de hipotensão em uso do sacubitril/valsartana. Vale destacar aqui que, se o paciente fazia uso anterior de IECA, deve aguardar 36 h sem medicamentos para introduzir sacubitril/valsartana devido ao risco de angioedema. Quando em uso prévio de algum BRA, não há necessidade de tal pausa no tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos práticos:</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Verifique a função renal e eletrólitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Tolerabilidade da droga, efeitos colaterais e monitoramento laboratorial com uso de inibidores da neprilisina e receptores da angiotensina (INRAs) são semelhantes aos dos IECAs ou BRAs, já citados anteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Acompanhe os valores séricos de ureia, creatinina e potássio após 1 a 2 semanas do início da terapia, bem como das titulações.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Se o paciente estava em uso de IECA e resolve-se trocar por INRA, é preciso aguardar 36 h sem uso de IECA para começar o sacubitril/valsartana. Esse período de <italic>wash out</italic> serve para diminuir o risco de angioedema, e nenhum período é necessário para trocar de um BRA para INRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Betabloqueadores</title>
					<p>Os betabloqueadores (BB) são fármacos de primeira linha no tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFEr), pois determinam benefícios clínicos na mortalidade global, na morte por IC e na morte súbita, além de melhorarem sintomas e reduzirem taxas de re-hospitalizações por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Entre as opções, aqueles que mostraram resultados consistentes foram o bisoprolol,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> o succinato de metoprolol<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> e o carvedilol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Além desses, o nebivolol foi testado em pacientes com IC, acima de 70 anos, e reduziu o desfecho clínico primário (mortalidade total e hospitalização cardiovascular), porém não apresentou impacto estatisticamente significativo em mortalidade total isoladamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5002">Quadro 01</xref> )</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t5002">
							<label>Quadro 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Recomendações da Diretriz Brasileira de Insuficiência Cardíaca – 2018.3</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="100%">
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Bisoprolol, carvedilol e succinato de metoprolol para disfunção de VE sintomática para reduzir morbidade e mortalidade. Classe/Nível de Evidência (NE): I/A</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Nebivolol para disfunção de VE sintomática em pacientes &gt; 70 anos. Classe/NE: IIB/B</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN4002">
									<p><italic>VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</italic></p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>O remodelamento reverso, o aumento da fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) e a consequente melhora dos sintomas de IC ocorrem apenas algumas semanas ou meses após a introdução do BB. É importante iniciar o tratamento com doses baixas, com aumento progressivo a cada 2 semanas, conforme tolerabilidade (monitorando bradicardia e piora dos sintomas de IC). Caso haja acentuação dos sintomas, o ajuste de diuréticos e vasodilatadores deve ser tentado antes de se reduzir ou suspender a dose dos BB. Os BB são indicados também em pacientes com disfunção de ventrículo esquerdo (VE) assintomática e no controle de frequência ventricular em pacientes com ICFEr e fibrilação atrial (FA) crônica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação e farmacocinética</title>
					<p>Como as catecolaminas exercem ações cronotrópicas e inotrópicas positivas, os antagonistas dos receptores fazem o oposto, diminuindo a frequência cardíaca e a contratilidade do miocárdio. Quando a estimulação tônica dos receptores é baixa, esse efeito é correspondentemente modesto. Entretanto, quando o sistema nervoso simpático é ativado, como durante o exercício ou o estresse, os antagonistas dos receptores atenuam a elevação esperada na frequência cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Todos os BB disponíveis clinicamente são antagonistas competitivos. Os BB não seletivos bloqueiam os receptores β1 e β2, mas os cardiosseletivos têm predileção pelo β1. Alguns dos fármacos antagonistas β1 seletivos com uso clínico na IC são metoprolol, bisoprolol e nebivolol. Eles possuem apresentação via oral e boa biodisponibilidade; o metoprolol e o bisoprolol têm tempo de meia-vida de 3 a 4 horas; já o nebivolol, de 10 a 30 horas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Esses fármacos antagonizam os receptores β1 em doses de 50 a 100 vezes menores do que as necessárias para bloquear os receptores β2. Essa cardiosseletividade é significativa nas doses baixas e perdida nas doses elevadas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> . Nesse contexto, pacientes com IC e algum grau de pneumopatia, incluindo os asmáticos, podem usar BB, contudo são preferíveis aqueles com maior seletividade β1 (como bisoprolol e nebivolol).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em relação ao carvedilol, este é um BB não seletivo, que antagoniza, além dos receptores β1, os receptores α1, os quais, quando bloqueados, produzem vasodilatação periférica, reduzindo a pressão arterial. Esse fármaco também tem boa aceitação via oral, e seu tempo de meia-vida plasmática é de 7 a 10 horas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos adversos</title>
					<p>No sistema cardiovascular, a bradicardia é a resposta normal ao bloqueio β; contudo, em pacientes com defeito de condução atrioventricular, parcial ou completa, os antagonistas β podem causar bradiarritmias. Cautela particular deve ser dada aos pacientes que estão sob tratamento com outros fármacos, como verapamil ou antiarrítmicos, que podem impedir a função do nó sinoatrial e a adequada condução atrioventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Na presença de bloqueios atrioventriculares, deve-se, primeiramente, reduzir ou suspender outros fármacos que atuem no nodo atrioventricular, como digoxina e amiodarona.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Na função pulmonar, o principal efeito adverso é causado pelo bloqueio dos receptores β2, na musculatura lisa brônquica. Isso pode ser particularmente perigoso em pacientes com doença broncoespástica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos práticos</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Os resultados benéficos dos BB podem se tornar aparentes apenas após vários meses de uso e, em alguns pacientes, ocorrer tardiamente (após 12 meses).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Alguns pacientes podem, no início do tratamento com BB, referir piora funcional discreta, mas devem ser encorajados a manter o uso da medicação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>A maioria dos pacientes com ICFEr, particularmente aqueles em classe funcional menos avançada, podem ser tratados com BB por médicos não especialistas em IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Pacientes em classes funcionais mais avançadas devem ser reavaliados com visitas mais frequentes quando os BB são iniciados, podendo ter benefício de avaliação por especialista em IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Pacientes com pneumopatia − e mesmo os asmáticos − podem ser tratados com BB, dando-se preferência para aqueles com maior seletividade β1 (como bisoprolol e nebivolol).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Na presença de bloqueios atrioventriculares, deve-se, primeiramente, reduzir ou suspender outros fármacos que atuem no nodo atrioventricular, como digoxina e amiodarona.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Pode ocorrer retenção transitória de fluidos com o início ou aumento da titulação de BB, o que pode exigir avaliação da dosagem de diuréticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Antagonistas dos receptores mineralocorticoides</title>
					<p>Os efeitos biológicos da aldosterona repercutem de forma significativa na fisiopatologia da IC, sendo de extrema importância a redução desse mineralocorticoide no tratamento dessa condição.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Esses medicamentos estão indicados, na IC, para disfunção de VE sintomática, nas classes funcionais II a IV da New York Heart Association (NYHA), associados à terapêutica padrão com IECA ou BRA e BB,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> com nível de evidência máximo (I-A).</p>
					<p>A eplerenona, que tem uma ação mais seletiva, não está disponível no mercado brasileiro, mas seus resultados podem ser extrapolados para a espironolactona.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação e farmacocinética</title>
					<p>A aldosterona, quando ligada aos receptores mineralocorticoides (MR), localizados na porção final do túbulo distal e no ducto coletor, induz a síntese de proteínas induzidas pela aldosterona (AIP), cujas consequências biológicas são a retenção de sódio e água, além da excreção de K<sup>+</sup>e H<sup>2</sup>.</p>
					<p>Os antagonistas dos receptores mineralocorticoides (ARM – espironolatona e eplerona) inibem competitivamente a ligação da aldosterona aos MR e não são capazes de induzir a formação das AIP, bloqueando, assim, o efeito da aldosterona no organismo, o que melhora a função endotelial e a biodisponibilidade do óxido nítrico, com possíveis efeitos antiateroscleróticos, além de ter demonstrado uma redução da fibrose miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos adversos</title>
					<p>Por serem diuréticas e poupadoras de potássio, essas drogas podem ter efeitos colaterais como hipotensão, desidratação e hiponatremia, além da hipercalemia, sendo necessário o acompanhamento da calemia bem como o monitoramento regular de função renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Assim, elas devem ser evitadas em pacientes com &gt; 2,5 mg/dL ou hipercalemia. A espironolactona possui, ainda, uma ação antiandrogênica e inibidora da esteroidogênese, podendo levar à ginecomastia e perda da libido,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> o que não é tão comum na eplerenona, por ser mais seletiva.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos práticos</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Cheque a função renal e os eletrólitos (particularmente o K<sup>+</sup>), especialmente após início/aumento da dose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Considere a titulação da dose após 4 a 8 semanas.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Se K<sup>+</sup>&gt; 5,5 mmol/L ou creatinina &gt; 2,5 mg/dL e taxa de filtração glomerular (TFG) &lt; 30 mL/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>, reduza a dose pela metade e monitore os exames de sangue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Se K<sup>+</sup>&gt; 6,0 mmol/L ou creatinina &gt; 3,5 mg/dL e TFG &lt;20 mL/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>, interrompa o ARM imediatamente e procure especialista.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Inibidores do cotransportador 2 de sódio-glicose</title>
				<p>Recentemente, grandes avanços ocorreram em relação aos medicamentos antidiabéticos e para risco cardiovascular. Com isso, surgiu uma nova via de tratamento da ICFEr, diferente do bloqueio convencional do sistema: os inibidores do cotransportador 2 de sódio-glicose (iSGLT2).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Esses fármacos, inicialmente, demonstraram segurança cardiovascular em pacientes com diabetes melito tipo 2 (DM2) com efeitos benéficos, como redução de eventos cardiovasculares, de mortalidade cardiovascular e hospitalização por IC, utilizando a empagliflozina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Posteriormente, em outros estudos, verificou-se benefício da classe se estendendo a canagliflozina,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> dapagliflozina, empagliflozina, inclusive em pacientes não diabéticos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> e, por último, sotagliflozina (não disponível no Brasil).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6002">Quadro 2</xref> )</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t6002">
						<label>Quadro 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Recomendações da Diretriz Brasileira de Insuficiência Cardíaca – 2021 para uso de iSGLT2 no tratamento da ICFEr.3</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="100%">
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Dapagliflozina ou empagliflozina estão indicadas em pacientes com ICFEr sintomáticos diabéticos ou não, já com fosse máxima otimizada de BB, antagonista da aldosterona, IECA/BRA ou INRA para reduzir desfechos cardiovasculares e progressão da disfunção renal. Classe/Nível de Evidência (NE): I/A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Canagliflozina, dapagliflozina ou empagliflozina estão indicadas para prevenção de hospitalização por IC em pacientes com DM2 e que apresentam fatores de risco cardiovasculares para aterosclerose ou doença cardiovascular aterosclerótica estabelecida. Classe/NE: I/A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Dapagliflozina ou empagliflozina estão indicadas como medicação antidiabética inicial, associadas ou não à metformina em pacientes com ICFEr. Classe/NE: I/A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Dapagliflozina ou empagliflozina estão indicadas em pacientes com ICFEr para prevenção da redução da função renal em pacientes com e sem diabetes, com TGF &gt; 20 mL/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>. Classe/NE: IIa/A</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN5002">
								<p><italic>BB: betabloqueadores; BRA: bloqueador dos receptores de angiotensina; DM2: diabetes melito 2; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; ICFEr: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina; INRA: inibidor da neprilisina e receptores de angiotensina; iSGLT2: inibidores do cotransportador 2 de sódio-glicose; TGF: taxa de filtração glomerular.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação e farmacocinética</title>
					<p>Os mecanismos subjacentes à proteção cardiovascular e os efeitos renais dos iSGLT2 em pacientes com e sem DM2 ainda não são totalmente compreendidos, sendo que vários mecanismos foram propostos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Esses novos fármacos agem inibindo a reabsorção tubular renal de glicose, por meio da inibição dos receptores de SGLT2, presentes no túbulo contorcido proximal (TCP), promovendo glicosúria. A redução da glicemia também está relacionada com natriurese, diurese osmótica, perda modesta de peso, aumento do hematócrito e redução da pressão arterial. Os efeitos hemodinâmicos logo sobrevêm, pois, com melhora da função endotelial e vasodilatação, ocorre redução também a melhora de pré-carga e pós-carga, bem como da fibrose cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Essas drogas mostraram ter alta afinidade para SGLT2, baixa afinidade para SGLT1 (o que garante melhor tolerabilidade), boa biodisponibilidade via oral e tempo de meia-vida prolongado, permitindo a administração de dose oral uma vez ao dia. Além disso, a sua metabolização não apresenta metabólitos ativos; logo, também apresenta um perfil limitado de interações medicamentosas. Por último, não foram observadas alterações clinicamente relevantes na farmacocinética dessas drogas em pacientes com DM2, insuficiência renal ou insuficiência hepática leve/moderada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos adversos</title>
					<p>Os iSGLT2, no geral, apresentam bom perfil de tolerabilidade e não estão associados com muitos efeitos adversos, além de haver pouca chance de desenvolver hipoglicemia, apesar da glicosúria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A glicosúria aumenta o risco de infecções do trato geniturinário, especialmente de infecções genitais (aumento de 4% em relação ao placebo), e de infecções do trato urinário (aumento de 1% em relação ao placebo).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Contudo, é válido destacar que, em geral, são infecções sem gravidade e que podem ser manejadas facilmente apenas com antibioticoterapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Por último, uma preocupação observada que ainda carece de comprovação em ensaios clínicos e precisa ser investigada mais intensamente é de uma tendência potencialmente perturbadora para um aumento da incidência de câncer de mama e bexiga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos práticos</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Verifique a função renal ao iniciar a terapia e a monitore regularmente. Sabe-se que a TFG diminui ligeiramente após o início da terapia, mas os iSGLT2 parecem conferir renoproteção.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Monitore a glicemia regularmente, principalmente quando o paciente é diabético. Considere a modificação de outras drogas diabéticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Nitrato e Hidralazina</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação</title>
					<p>A associação hidralazina e nitrato possui efeitos vasodilatadores arteriais e venosos. Essa combinação tem a capacidade de diminuir a pré e a pós-carga, reduzir a tensão das paredes atrial e ventricular esquerda e melhorar a FEVE, além de induzir remodelamento reverso, já tendo demonstrado efeitos favoráveis na função ventricular esquerda e mortalidade associada à IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Além disso, a associação mantém um equilíbrio entre óxido nítrico e espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS), importante para a manutenção da saúde cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> O estudo V-HeFT I ( <italic>Veterans Administration Cooperative Study</italic> )<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> comprovou esses efeitos benéficos, com redução da mortalidade em comparação ao placebo, mas a associação não superou o benefício dos IECA, como foi posteriormente demonstrado no estudo V-HeFT II.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Contudo, conforme o estudo A-HeFT ( <italic>African-American Heart Failure Trial</italic> ), a hidralazina e o nitrato demonstraram benefícios adicionais consideráveis em pacientes autodeclarados negros, em classe funcional III-IV da NYHA, já em tratamento clínico padrão, com redução de 33% da taxa de hospitalização e 43% da mortalidade total.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Farmacocinética</title>
					<p>No estudo A-HeFT, a dose inicial, disponível como uma dose fixa, foi de 37,5 mg da hidralazina e 20 mg do dinitrato de isossorbida, via oral, três vezes ao dia, com a dose máxima de 75 mg e 40 mg, três vezes ao dia, de acordo com tolerância e efeitos colaterais. No Brasil, não há dose fixa disponível, sendo sugerida a dose inicial de hidralazina de 25 mg associada a 10 mg de nitrato, três vezes ao dia, sendo aumentada progressivamente até 100 mg por dia de hidralazina e 40 mg por dia de nitrato, também três vezes ao dia, ou até a dose máxima tolerada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos colaterais</title>
					<p>Quantos aos efeitos colaterais, os mais comuns do nitrato estão relacionados à vasodilatação: hipotensão ortostática, taquicardia e cefaleia pulsátil. Os efeitos colaterais mais frequentes da hidralazina são cefaleia, náuseas, anorexia, palpitações, sudorese e rubor. Quando em doses mais altas, há uma pequena chance de desenvolvimento de síndrome semelhante ao lúpus eritematoso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos práticos</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>A introdução dos vasodilatadores pode ser indicada para pacientes que apresentam piora da função renal e/ou hipercalemia com uso de IECA/BRAs, que não evoluem bem na vigência do tratamento medicamentoso otimizado ou que se documenta persitência de sinais de resistência periférica elevada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Os nitratos sozinhos podem ser úteis para aliviar ortopneia, dispneia paroxística noturna, dispneia aos esforços ou angina em pacientes, mas seu uso contínuo está associado ao desenvolvimento de tolerância.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Ivabradina</title>
					<p>Em 1987, o Framingham Study mostrou que a frequência cardíaca (FC) ao longo de 30 anos de acompanhamento foi associada a todas as causas de mortalidade cardiovascular e coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Uma revisão de literatura apontou que a FC elevada está associada a um pior prognóstico em IC e pode ser considerada um alvo do tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação</title>
					<p>A ivabradina pode entrar como arsenal terapêutico da IC, uma vez que gera cronotropismo negativo ao inibir a atividade do marca-passo no nó sinoatrial pelo bloqueio seletivo da corrente If. Porém, não afeta a contratilidade do miocárdio, a repolarização ventricular ou a condução intracardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O estudo SHIFT mostrou que a ivabradina, quando adicionada em pacientes com ritmo sinusal, com FC ≥ 70 bpm e FEVE ≤ 35% e ainda sintomáticos, apesar do tratamento medicamentoso usual, foi associada a redução do desfecho combinado de morte cardiovascular ou hospitalização por IC, mas não a mortalidade cardiovascular ou por todas as causas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Farmacocinética</title>
					<p>A dose inicial recomendada é de 5 mg duas vezes ao dia. Em pacientes nos quais existe a preocupação de que a redução da FC possa resultar em comprometimento hemodinâmico ou que tenham defeitos de condução, a dose inicial pode ser de 2,5 mg duas vezes ao dia. A dose deve ser ajustada a cada 2 semanas com o objetivo de atingir uma FC de 50-60 bpm com uma dose máxima de 7,5 mg duas vezes ao dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O impacto da insuficiência renal na farmacocinética da ivabradina é mínimo, pois ela é metabolizada principalmente pelo citocromo p450 (CYP3A4) no fígado e no trato gastrointestinal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> A concentração plasmática atinge o pico em aproximadamente 1 h em jejum, e a ingestão de alimentos pode atrasar esse pico em 1 h. Foi demonstrado que a insuficiência hepática leve pode aumentar os níveis de ivabradina em até 20%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> sendo contraindicada em insuficiência hepática grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos adversos</title>
					<p>Os efeitos colaterais mais comuns relatados com ivabradina na prática clínica são bradicardia, FA e fosfenos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> No estudo SHIFT, 5% dos pacientes apresentaram bradicardia sintomática, e o fármaco foi associado a pequeno aumento na incidência de FA. Por isso, deve-se repensar o uso em pacientes que apresentam FA paroxística.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Embora não se considere que prolonga o intervalo QT, a ivabradina foi associada a <italic>torsades de pointes</italic> em modelos experimentais e em associação com outros medicamentos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> devendo-se ter cautela quando usado em conjunto com medicamentos que prolongam o intervalo QT. A ivabradina não deve ser usada durante gravidez.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos práticos: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref>
					</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Monitore a FC, a pressão arterial e o estado clínico.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Comece com uma dose inicial de 5 mg duas vezes ao dia.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>A dose diária pode ser aumentada, diminuída ou interrompida, dependendo da FC em repouso do paciente. Se a FC em repouso estiver entre 50 e 60 batimentos por minuto, a dose atual deve ser mantida.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Titular as doses a cada 2 semanas, se possível, objetivando a dose-alvo ou então a dose mais alta tolerada, com base na FC em repouso.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>O tratamento deve ser reduzido ou interrompido se a FC em repouso diminuir persistentemente abaixo de 50 bpm ou se ocorrerem sintomas de bradicardia.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Se um paciente desenvolver FA persistente/contínua durante a terapia com ivabradina, a droga deve ser interrompida.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Os fenômenos visuais são geralmente transitórios e desaparecem durante os primeiros meses de tratamento com ivabradina e não estão associados a disfunção retiniana grave. No entanto, se resultarem em desconforto ao paciente, a descontinuação da ivabradina deve ser considerada.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Em caso de intolerância à lactose ou galactose (componente do comprimido de ivabradina), se ocorrerem sintomas, pode ser necessário interromper o medicamento.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Digoxina</title>
					<p>O estudo DIG randomizou 6.800 pacientes com ICFEr para receberem digoxina ou placebo e mostrou que a droga não reduz a mortalidade, mas diminui as hospitalizações por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Consequentemente, as diretrizes recomendam que a digoxina seja considerada um adjuvante na terapia otimizada em pacientes sintomáticos com ICFEr. Se o paciente estiver em ritmo sinusal, utiliza-se preferencialmente a ivabradina, porém, se estiver em FA, somente a digoxina pode ser utilizada,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> embora exista controvérsia considerável sobre a segurança do uso da digoxina em pacientes com FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação</title>
					<p>A digoxina é um glicosídeo cardíaco que pertence à classe dos digitálicos. Ela tem dois mecanismos de ação. A inibição da bomba Na-K ATPase induz um aumento no sódio intracelular, seguido de uma relativa redução da expulsão de cálcio do sarcômero, causando um aumento na contratilidade cardíaca. O outro mecanismo engloba a inibição do nó atrioventricular (NAV). A elevação dos níveis de cálcio leva ao prolongamento da fase 4 e fase 0 do potencial de ação cardíaco, aumentando, assim, o período refratário do NAV. Além disso, a droga estimula o sistema nervoso parassimpático, diminuindo a condução elétrica no NAV e a FC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Farmacocinética</title>
					<p>Todos os glicosídeos cardíacos são amplamente distribuídos para os tecidos, inclusive para o sistema nervoso central (SNC). Quase dois terços da digoxina são excretados inalterados pelos rins. Sua depuração renal é proporcional à depuração da creatinina, com meia-vida de 36 a 40 horas nos pacientes com função renal normal ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> É necessário ajuste de dose na deficiência da função renal. Corticosteroides e diuréticos causam depleção de potássio e aumentam a toxicidade da digoxina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Dosagem Recomendada</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th colspan="2">Dose recomendada da digoxina de acordo com a TFG (ml/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup>)</th>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">TFG ml/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup></th>
										<th>Dose mg/dia</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>&gt;90</td>
										<td align="center">0,25</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>60 a 90</td>
										<td align="center">0,125</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>30 a 60</td>
										<td align="center">0,125 em dias alternados</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>&lt;30</td>
										<td align="center">Não usar</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<attrib><italic>Fonte: adaptado de DiDomenico et al.<sup>51</sup></italic></attrib>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos adversos</title>
					<p>A toxicidade da digoxina é clinicamente relevante, pois pode levar a arritmias cardíacas fatais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Análise <italic>post-hoc</italic> de um ensaio clínico sugere que níveis séricos acima de 1,2 ng/mL estão associados com risco aumentado de morte em pacientes com FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> No entanto, a toxicidade pode ocorrer em níveis mais baixos no contexto de outros fatores de risco, como baixo peso corporal, idade avançada, diminuição da função renal e hipocalemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A incidência de efeitos colaterais é estimada em até 20%, dos quais cerca de 50% relacionam-se com sintomas cardíacos (como arritmias e bloqueio atrioventricular de 1º grau), 25% consistem de sintomas do trato gastrointestinal (anorexia, náusea, vômito) e o restante são manifestações do SNC (dor de cabeça, mal-estar, fadiga, desorientação) e outros efeitos colaterais. A digoxina é contraindicada nas seguintes condições: infarto agudo do miocárdio, hipersensibilidade ao medicamento, fibrilação ventricular, miocardite, hipomagnesemia, hipocalemia e síndrome de Wolf-Parkinson-White.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> O uso de digoxina parece ser seguro na gestação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos práticos: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref>
					</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Em pacientes recebendo digoxina, o potássio sérico e a creatinina devem ser medidos quando houver aumento de dose da digoxina ou introdução de medicamentos que possam causar interações, haja vista o risco de toxicidade com a digoxina.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Pacientes com alteração da função renal, idosos, com baixo peso corporal e mulheres estão em risco aumentado de toxicidade pela digoxina e requerem monitoramento mais frequente.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Níveis de digoxina de rotina não são necessários para avaliar a toxicidade da digoxina e não devem ser usados para orientar a terapia crônica.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diuréticos na insuficiência cardíaca</title>
					<p>A maioria dos pacientes com ICFEr necessita de um diurético para controlar os sintomas de congestão, principalmente se estiver agudamente descompensada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Os diuréticos de alça (especialmente a furosemida) são os agentes preferidos, embora o uso de tiazídicos em pacientes com pouca resposta a doses crescentes de diurético de alça tem sido recomendado em estudos observacionais e ensaios de pequeno porte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7002">Quadro 3</xref> ) Os principais efeitos adversos dos diuréticos são depleção de volume e/ou de eletrólitos, além de que a diurese excessiva pode predispor à hipotensão e à lesão renal aguda. Alguns pacientes podem se beneficiar de um regime de ajuste diurético, no qual eles registram seu peso corporal diariamente, e a dosagem é ajustada se o peso aumentar ou diminuir além de um intervalo específico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t7002">
							<label>Quadro 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Recomendações da Diretriz Brasileira de Insuficiência Cardíaca – 2018.3</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="100%">
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Diuréticos de alça para controle de congestão. Classe/Nível de Evidência (NE): I/C</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Diurético tiazídico associado ao diurético de alça para controle de congestão persistente, apesar de terapêutica otimizada e incrementos na dose de diurético de alça. Classe/NE: I/B<sup>53</sup></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Início de diuréticos na ICFEr assintomática. Classe/NE: III/C</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN6002">
									<p><italic>ICFEr: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida.</italic></p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>No entanto, é importante destacar que esses diuréticos são drogas sintomáticas, considerando que nenhum ensaio clínico randomizado demonstrou aumento de sobrevida com seu uso em pacientes com IC crônica ambulatorial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Além disso, estudos observacionais têm demonstrado potenciais efeitos deletérios do uso crônico e continuado dos diuréticos sobre o SRAA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> sugerindo associação com piores desfechos clínicos. Por isso, recomenda-se sempre o uso da menor dose terapêutica necessária com o uso continuado de diuréticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">Tabela 2</xref> )</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t2002">
							<label>Tabela 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Diuréticos mais frequentemente utilizados na insuficiência cardíaca descompensada. Fonte: Comitê Coordenador da Diretriz de Insuficiência Cardíaca, 2018</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Medicamento</th>
										<th>Via</th>
										<th>Intervalo</th>
										<th>Dose mínima</th>
										<th>Dose máxima</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Diuréticos de alça</bold></td>
										<td> </td>
										<td> </td>
										<td> </td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2">Furosemida</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="2">EV/VO</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="2">4/4 h-6/6 h Variável</td>
										<td align="center">20 mg</td>
										<td align="center">240 mg</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">40 mg</td>
										<td align="center">240 mg</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Bumetanida</td>
										<td align="center">EV</td>
										<td align="center">6/6 h</td>
										<td align="center">0,5-2 mg</td>
										<td align="center">10 mg</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Tiazídicos</bold></td>
										<td> </td>
										<td> </td>
										<td> </td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Hidroclorotiazida</td>
										<td align="center">VO</td>
										<td align="center">12/12 h - 24/24 h</td>
										<td align="center">25 mg</td>
										<td align="center">100 mg</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Clortalidona</td>
										<td align="center">VO</td>
										<td align="center">12/12 h - 24/24 h</td>
										<td align="center">12,5 mg</td>
										<td align="center">50 mg</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Indapamida</td>
										<td align="center">VO</td>
										<td align="center">24/24 h</td>
										<td align="center">2,5 mg</td>
										<td align="center">5 mg</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1002">
									<p><italic>EV: endovenosa; VO: via oral.</italic></p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diuréticos de alça</title>
					<p>Comparados com todas as outras classes de diuréticos, esses fármacos apresentam a maior eficácia na mobilização de Na<sup>+</sup>e Cl<sup>-</sup>do organismo. Eles produzem abundante quantidade de urina, porque agem no ramo ascendente espesso da alça de Henle, local no qual, comparativamente aos outros sítios do néfron, ocorre a maior taxa de reabsorção. A furosemida é a mais usada do grupo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> O ácido etacrínico apresenta uma curva dose-resposta mais íngreme do que a furosemida, mas apresenta mais efeitos adversos do que os observados com os outros diuréticos de alça, e, por isso, seu uso é limitado. A bumetanida é muito mais potente que a furosemida.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação</title>
					<p>Esses fármacos inibem a atividade do cotransportador Na<sup>+</sup>-K<sup>+</sup>-2Cl<sup>-</sup>no ramo ascendente espesso da alça de Henle – por isso, são chamados de diuréticos de alça. Esse é o mecanismo mais eficaz em promover diurese, sendo responsável pela reabsorção de 25 a 30% do NaCI filtrado. Por exemplo, embora o TCP reabsorva cerca de 65% do Na<sup>+</sup>filtrado, os diuréticos que atuam apenas nesse túbulo possuem eficácia limitada porque o ramo ascendente espesso reabsorve grande parte do material rejeitado. Além disso, aqueles que atuam predominantemente em locais após o ramo ascendente espesso (como no túbulo contorcido distal [TCD] e túbulo coletor) apresentam eficácia limitada, haja vista que apenas uma menor porcentagem da carga de Na<sup>+</sup>filtrado alcança esses locais mais distantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Farmacocinética</title>
					<p>Aproximadamente 65% da furosemida é excretada inalterada na urina, e o restante é conjugado com ácido glicurônico nos rins. Dessa forma, em pacientes com doença renal e sem doença hepática, a meia-vida de eliminação da furosemida é prolongada. Em contraste, a bumetanida e a torasemida apresentam significativo metabolismo hepático, de modo que as suas meias-vidas podem ser prolongadas na presença de doença hepática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3002">Tabela 3</xref> )</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t3002">
							<label>Tabela 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Inibidores do cotransportador Na+-K+-2Cl- (diuréticos de alça)</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Fármaco</th>
										<th>Potência relativa</th>
										<th>Disponibilidade oral</th>
										<th>Meia-vida (horas)</th>
										<th>Via de eliminação</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2">Furosemida</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="2">1</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="2">~60%</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="2">~1,5 h</td>
										<td align="center">~65% R</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">~35% M<sup>a</sup></td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2">Bumetanida</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="2">40</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="2">~80%</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="2">~0,8 h</td>
										<td align="center">~62% R</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">~38% M</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN2002">
									<p><italic><sup>a</sup>Para furosemida, o metabolismo acontece principalmente nos rins. R: excreção renal do fármaco intacto; M: metabolismo.</italic></p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>A disponibilidade oral média da furosemida é de aproximadamente 60%, e a resposta natriurética é rápida, com pico de ação em 20 a 30 minutos e com duração de 4 a 6 horas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> A torasemida e a bumetanida apresentam tempo de meia-vida e duração relativamente semelhantes; no entanto, elas são mais potentes e têm uma maior biodisponibilidade (entre 60 a 80%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Como uma classe, os diuréticos de alça possuem meia-vida de eliminação curta e não estão disponíveis preparações para liberação prolongada. Por conta disso, para que sejam mantidos em concentrações adequadas no lúmen tubular, é necessário que os intervalos entre as administrações do medicamento sejam curtos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos adversos</title>
					<p>Os diuréticos de alça atuam rapidamente e produzem mudanças na composição da urina, aumentando o volume que é excretado. Em relação aos eletrólitos, esses fármacos espoliam bastante Na<sup>+</sup>, Ca<sup>2</sup>e K<sup>+</sup>, podendo espoliar também Mg<sup>2</sup>, especialmente em idosos. Principalmente no caso da hiponatremia, a consequência de ter menos Na<sup>+</sup>chegando ao TCD e ao túbulo coletor, em última análise, pode desencadear uma alcalose metabólica hipoclorêmica e hipocalêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Além disso, outro clássico efeito adverso associado a essa classe é a ototoxicidade (em geral reversível). Ela surge como zumbido, comprometimento da audição, surdez, vertigem e sensação de ouvido entupido. Comumente, está mais relacionada no caso de administração intravenosa dessa classe de fármacos ou então no caso de associação com outros medicamentos capazes de fazer isso, como aminoglicosídeos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Vale destacar que os diuréticos de alça também podem interferir na homeostase de outros metabólitos, por exemplo, o ácido úrico (com hiperuricemia, podendo provocar gota em alguns casos), a glicose (com hiperglicemia) e o colesterol (com aumento dos níveis plasmáticos, especialmente de LDL).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Pessoas com hipersensibilidade às sulfonamidas têm contraindicação ao uso dos diuréticos de alça derivados destas. Além disso, algumas medicações podem interferir na sua eficácia, como o caso de anti-inflamatórios não esteroides (AINEs).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Tiazídicos</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Mecanismo de ação</title>
					<p>Os derivados tiazídicos aumentam a diurese atuando principalmente no TCD, diminuindo a reabsorção de Na<sup>+</sup>através da inibição de um cotransportador Na<sup>+</sup>/Cl<sup>-</sup>na membrana luminal dos túbulos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Esse aumento do débito urinário tem como consequência também o aumento da excreção urinária de alguns outros elementos, entre eles o K<sup>+</sup>e o Mg<sup>2</sup>, especialmente nos idosos. O motivo para a hipocalemia é o fato de que os inibidores do cotransportador Na<sup>+</sup>/Cl<sup>-</sup>promovem um filtrado mais concentrado em Na<sup>+</sup>e consequentemente aumentam a excreção urinária de K<sup>+</sup>, graças ao mecanismo de troca que ocorre no túbulo coletor (discutido na seção sobre os antagonistas do mineralocorticoides). Já a hipomagnesemia é um efeito que particularmente acompanha a população idosa, pois a administração desses fármacos causa magnesiúria através de um mecanismo pouco compreendido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em relação aos eletrólitos que são poupados, o Ca<sup>2</sup>tem sua excreção diminuída, porque a administração crônica dos tiazídicos promove uma depleção de volume que exige uma reabsorção proximal mais intensa, mas também pelo próprio efeito da classe em aumentar a reabsorção deste cátion no TCD.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Farmacocinética</title>
					<p>Em relação à farmacocinética dos diuréticos tiazídicos, é importante destacar que pode ser muito variável, a depender do fármaco em questão ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4002">Tabela 4</xref> ), mas, de forma geral, a excreção máxima da carga de Na<sup>+</sup>é apenas 5%, porque cerca de 90% da carga de Na<sup>+</sup>filtrada é reabsorvida antes de alcançar o TCD. A hidroclorotiazida, uma das principais representante da classe, apresenta absorção intestinal de 65%, ligação proteica plasmática de 40% e meia-vida de eliminação de aproximadamente 10 horas, sendo 95% da dose eliminados inalterados por via urinária. A duração da ação da hidroclorotiazida é de 18-24 horas. A absorção intestinal dessa droga pode estar diminuída em pacientes com IC. A ação natriurética dos tiazídicos diminui rapidamente quando a TFG for menor que 30 mL/minuto, e essas drogas se tornam inefetivas quando a TFG estiver abaixo de 10 mL/minuto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t4002">
							<label>Tabela 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Inibidores do cotransportador Na+/Cl- (tiazídicos e semelhantes)</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Fármaco</th>
										<th align="left">Potência relativa</th>
										<th align="left">Disponibilidade oral</th>
										<th align="left">Meia-vida (horas)</th>
										<th align="left">Via de eliminação</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Hidroclorotiazida</td>
										<td align="center">1</td>
										<td align="center">~70%</td>
										<td align="center">~2,5 h</td>
										<td align="center">R</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="3">Clortalidona</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="3">1</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="3">~65%</td>
										<td align="center" rowspan="3">~47h</td>
										<td align="center">~65% R</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">~10% B</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">~25% U</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Indapamida</td>
										<td align="center">20</td>
										<td align="center">~93%</td>
										<td align="center">~14h</td>
										<td align="center">M</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN3002">
									<p><italic>R: excreção renal do fármaco intacto; M: metabolismo; B: excreção do fármaco intacto na bile; U: via de eliminação desconhecida.</italic></p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Efeitos adversos</title>
					<p>Os efeitos adversos mais graves dos tiazídicos estão relacionados com anormalidades do equilíbrio de fluido e eletrólitos. Esses efeitos adversos incluem depleção do volume extracelular, hipotensão, hipopotassemia, hiponatremia, hipocloremia, alcalose metabólica e hipomagnesemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Esses diuréticos também mostram que podem interferir no metabolismo de outros compostos, explicando o surgimento de hiperuricemia, hiperglicemia e hiperlipemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A hipopotassemia pode estar relacionada à redução da secreção de insulina, e isso explica as alterações no metabolismo da glicose, como o aumento da sua tolerância. Portanto, o controle do diabetes pode ser prejudicado durante a terapia. Além disso, os tiazídicos podem causar aumento de 5 a 15% na concentração sérica de colesterol, bem como aumento de lipoproteínas séricas de baixa densidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Raramente os diuréticos tiazídicos provocam desordens do SNC (por exemplo, vertigem, parestesias, xantopsia e fraqueza), do trato gastrointestinal (por exemplo, anorexia, náuseas, vômitos, cãibras, diarreia, constipação, colecistite e pancreatite), hematológicas (por exemplo, discrasias sanguíneas) e dermatológicas (por exemplo, fotossensibilidade e exantemas).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Os diuréticos tiazídicos são contraindicados a pessoas hipersensíveis às sulfonamidas. Em relação às interações medicamentosas, eles podem reduzir os efeitos dos anticoagulantes, agentes uricosúricos usados para tratar gota, sulfonilureias e insulina e podem aumentar os efeitos dos anestésicos, diazóxido, glicosídeos, digitálicos, lítio, diuréticos de alça e vitamina D.</p>
					<p>A efetividade dos diuréticos tiazídicos pode ser reduzida por AINEs, inibidores não seletivos ou seletivos da COX-2. A anfotericina B e os corticosteroides aumentam o risco de hipopotassemia induzida por esses diuréticos. Uma interação medicamentosa potencialmente letal ocorre entre os diuréticos tiazídicos e a quinidina, pois o prolongamento do intervalo QT causado pela quinidina pode levar ao desenvolvimento de <italic>torsades de pointes</italic> (uma taquicardia ventricular polimórfica).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Aspectos práticos (diuréticos de alça e tiazídicos)</title>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>Verifique a função renal e os eletrólitos, particularmente naqueles pacientes em uso combinado de diuréticos de alça e tiazídicos.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Inicie com uma dose baixa, mas ajuste uma dose eficaz para alcançar uma diurese satisfatória, com redução de peso corporal entre 0,75 a 1,0 kg/dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>O ajuste de dose deve ser de acordo com sintomas e/ou sinais de congestão, pressão arterial e função renal, objetivando sempre a menor dose possível para manter a euvolemia – o “peso seco” do paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Lembre-se de que a diurese excessiva é mais perigosa do que o edema em si, pelo risco de hipovolemia e hipocalemia principalmente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Acompanhe os valores séricos de ureia, creatinina e K<sup>+</sup>entre 1 a 2 semanas após o início e após qualquer aumento na dose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
			</sec>
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		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Vinculação acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Aprovação ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>