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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20230107i</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230107i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>How Do I Diagnose and Classify Endomyocardial Fibrosis in Under-Resourced Settings</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9564-2860</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mocumbi</surname>
						<given-names>Ana</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>acquisition of data</role>
					<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Eduardo Mondlane</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Maputo </named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MZ">Mozambique</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo – Mozambique</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Saúde</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Marracuene </named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MZ">Mozambique</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Marracuene – Mozambique</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Ana Mocumbi</bold> • Universidade Eduardo Mondlane. Av Julius Nyerere Maputo, Campus Universitário 3453 1102, Maputo – Mozambique. E-mail: <email>amocumbi@gmail.com.</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsible for the review: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>28</day>
				<month>02</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>02</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>37</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230107</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>4</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>6</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>6</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Endomyocardial fibrosis (EMF) is a disease of unclear etiology and pathogenesis that is characterized by fibrosis in the ventricular cavities and mainly affects children and adolescents from tropical regions of Africa, South America, and Asia. It is classified as a restrictive cardiomyopathy, with pathophysiology of restriction to diastolic filling associated with valve abnormalities, both caused by endocardial fibrosis. Typical echocardiographic features of this condition are endocardial thickening, severe atrioventricular (AV) valve regurgitation, aneurysmal atria, and heart distortion.</p>
				<p>In endemic areas of Africa, in the absence of advanced imaging techniques, EMF diagnosis and management relies on transthoracic echocardiography for careful assessment of structural and hemodynamic abnormalities, aiming at planning medical or surgical management. This review highlights the key echocardiographic aspects of diagnosis and classification of EMF, as used in under-resourced settings in Africa. This is a standardized approach to screening populations with known occurrence of the disease and for informing medical and surgical management.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Endomyocardial Fibrosis</kwd>
				<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
				<kwd>Diagnosis</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="6"/>
				<table-count count="8"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="17"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Central Illustration</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Echocardiographic Characteristics of EMF</title>
							<p>EMF: Endomyocardial fibrosis; RV: right ventricle; LV: left ventricle.</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230107-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Endomyocardial fibrosis (EMF) is a progressive disease of unclear etiology and pathogenesis that, when established, is characterized by fibrosis in the ventricular cavities, particularly affecting the apex and the subvalvular regions. It is a restrictive cardiomyopathy that affects mainly children and adolescents, predominantly from certain rural settings in Africa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The pathophysiology of EMF associates restricted diastolic filling with major changes in the valve apparatus caused by endocardial fibrosis, resulting in severe atrioventricular (AV) valve regurgitation, aneurysmal atria, and heart distortion. Advanced forms of EMF have high morbidity and mortality, with death occurring due to progression to chronic heart failure or as a result of arrhythmia and thromboembolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>Although there is no specific treatment for EMF, surgery should be considered to correct some structural and functional abnormalities in symptomatic individuals. Surgical techniques have been progressing,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> but outcomes are yet to be fully understood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In endemic areas of Africa, in the absence of advanced imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging, EMF diagnosis and management often relies on detailed transthoracic echocardiography. Transesophageal and three-dimensional echocardiography are rarely used, magnetic resonance imaging is also rarely available, and catheterization is often contraindicated because the risks outweigh the benefit - due to presence of thrombi and because of the difficulty of obtaining endomyocardial tissue in advanced disease. Detailed echocardiographic characterization and classification of EMF has been shown to provide reliable information on the key structural and hemodynamic abnormalities that are confirmed in surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> This review highlights the key echocardiographic aspects of diagnosis and classification of EMF in under-resourced settings in Africa.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Echocardiographic Criteria for Diagnosis of EMF</title>
				<p>The echocardiographic criteria for diagnosis of EMF were described in a highly endemic population from Mozambique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Using these echocardiographic features, cardiac abnormalities in patients with EMF were divided into “major” or “minor”, according to their clinical relevance, uniqueness to the diagnosis, influence on management decision, and prognostic importance. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>)</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Criteria for Diagnosis and Assessment of the Severity of FEM*<bold>6</bold></title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="50%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Criterion</th>
									<th>Score</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Major criteria</bold></td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Endomyocardial plaques &gt; 2 mm in thickness</td>
									<td align="center">2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Thin (≤ 1 mm) endomyocardial patches affecting more than one ventricular wall</td>
									<td align="center">3</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Obliteration of the right ventricular or left ventricular apex</td>
									<td align="center">4</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Thrombi or spontaneous contrast without severe ventricular dysfunction</td>
									<td align="center">4</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Retraction of the right ventricular apex (right ventricular apical notch)</td>
									<td align="center">4</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>AV-valve dysfunction due to adhesion of the valvular apparatus to the ventricular wall</td>
									<td align="center">1-4†</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Minor criteria</bold></td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Thin endomyocardial patches localized to one ventricular wall</td>
									<td align="center">1</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Restrictive flow pattern across mitral or tricuspid valves</td>
									<td align="center">2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Pulmonary-valve diastolic opening</td>
									<td align="center">2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Diffuse thickening of the anterior mitral leaflet</td>
									<td align="center">1</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Enlarged atrium with normal-size ventricle</td>
									<td align="center">2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>M-movement of the interventricular septum and flat posterior wall‡</td>
									<td align="center">1</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Enhanced density of the moderator or other intraventricular bands</td>
									<td align="center">1</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p>*A definite diagnosis of EMF was made in the presence of two major criteria or one major criterion associated with two minor criteria. A total score of less than 8 indicates mild EMF, 8 to 15 moderate disease, and more than 15 severe disease. † The score is assigned according to the severity of AV regurgitation. ‡ M-movement of the interventricular septum refers to a pattern of movement observed on M-mode echocardiography that is thought to be due to obliteration or restriction of the left ventricular apex combined with mitral regurgitation. EMF: Endomyocardial Fibrosis; AV: atrioventricular; LV: left ventricle</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p><italic>Major criteria</italic> are distinctive or pathognomonic features of EMF, which usually have a major impact on management. Each feature is attributed an individual score according to its relevance to determination of structural and hemodynamic changes. The following are considered major criteria for diagnosis of EMF: i) Endocardial plaque of at least 5mm in width or endocardial thickening greater than 1mm; ii) Patchy endocardial thickening in two or more ventricular walls; iii) Obliteration of ventricular apices or valve recesses; iv) Ventricular thrombi or spontaneous contrast in the absence of ventricular dysfunction; v) Reduction of the right ventricle (RV) cavity volume due to exclusion of the trabecular portion vi) Restriction of AV valve leaflet movements due to adherence to the ventricular walls.</p>
				<p>For screening, endocardial plaques or endocardial thickening of more than 5mm in width and thicker than 1mm are considered a major criterion for diagnosis of EMF. The term “large plaque” is used when endocardial thickening exceeds 10 mm in width.</p>
				<p><italic>Minor criteria</italic> are not specific for EMF but may suggest the disease. Although commonly found in patients with EMF, these features are not exclusive to this condition and do not define the condition when found in isolation. They are considered to have less influence on management and prognosis, when compared to the major criteria previously described. The features that are considered minor criteria for the diagnosis of EMF are: i) Patchy endomyocardial thickening localized to one ventricular wall; ii) Restrictive ventricular filling pattern; iii) Diffuse thickening of the AV valve leaflets; iv) Enhanced density of the moderator band or intraventricular trabeculae; v) Abnormal M-movement of the interventricular septum and/or posterior left ventricle (LV) wall; vi) Enlarged atrium with normal-sized homolateral ventricle; and vii) Presence of thickened “false tendon” of the LV.</p>
				<p>In asymptomatic individuals, patchy endocardial thickening corresponds to small areas of endocardium with enhanced density, less than 1mm in depth and evenly distributed in the ventricular walls.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Classification of EMF</title>
				<p>The echocardiographic appearance of EMF varies both in terms of the distribution and of the severity of the structural lesions and hemodynamic abnormalities. The criteria described above are used to assess the presence of lesions in each side of the heart, and the scoring system is applied to each ventricle separately. According to the distribution of lesions (affecting exclusively or predominantly one or both sides of the heart) we classified the disease as Right EMF, Left EMF, or Bilateral EMF (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Progression of EMF from occupation of the apex with thrombi (left), to ventricular cavity reduction and atrial dilatation (centre); and large plaque of fibrosis and ventricular retraction (right).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230107-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Severity of EMF</title>
				<p>The severity of EMF is assessed by quantifying structural and hemodynamic lesions. Four progressive degrees of severity are defined, supporting management decisions and informing on prognosis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>):</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Main features in EMF of different degrees of severity</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="50%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Grade</th>
									<th align="left">FEATURES</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="center"><bold>I MILD</bold></td>
									<td>Patchy fibrosis of any ventricle, diffuse thickening of the leaflets and restrictive pattern of ventricular filling, without any other structural changes</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center"><bold>II MODERATE</bold></td>
									<td>Hyperdense lesions on the mural and valvular endocardium, obliteration of the ventricular apex, ventricular thrombi, and/or AV valvular dysfunction, in the absence of cavity deformation/reduction or myocardial dysfunction</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center"><bold>III SEVERE</bold></td>
									<td>Extensive fibrosis and/or calcification with functioning myocardium visible underneath it, reduction of ventricular size, severe atrial dilatation, and AV valvular dysfunction</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center"><bold>IV ADVANCED</bold></td>
									<td>Heart distortion and cavity deformation due to extensive fibrosis or calcification that affects the contractility of the myocardium and leads to free AV regurgitation</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p>AV: atrioventricular.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<list list-type="simple">
					<list-item>
						<p><italic>•Grade I (or Mild EMF</italic>): Endocardial plaque or patchy thickening associated with thickening of the AV valve leaflets, with no other structural or hemodynamic abnormalities.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p><italic>•Grade II (or Moderate EMF</italic>): Large endocardial plaques, apical/valve recess, ventricular obliteration, and mild to moderate AV valve regurgitation. There is mild to moderate atrial dilatation, mild ventricular cavity reduction, and preserved myocardial function.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p><italic>•Grade III (or Severe EMF</italic>): Large endocardial plaques, moderate reduction of ventricular cavity dimensions, marked atrial dilatation, and severe AV valve dysfunction. Myocardium is visible underneath the endocardial thickening and ventricular function is nearly normal.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p><italic>•Grade IV (or Advanced EMF)</italic>: Presence of large endocardial plaques associated with severe reduction of ventricular size and compression of the contralateral cavities by the severely dilated atrium. Endocardial calcification, poor ventricular contractility, and large persistent effusions (pericardial, peritoneal, and/or pleural) are other features of advanced EMF.</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
				<p>The different stages of EMF are exemplified in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 2</xref>.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– The classification of EMF captures the diversity in location and severity of structural abnormalities detected on echocardiography.</title>
							<p>A) Grade I predominantly right; B) Grade II bilateral; C) Grade III bilateral with obliteration of the right ventricle; D) Grade IV with severe retraction of the right ventricle, heart distortion and pericardial effusion.</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230107-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Staging and Mode of Progression</title>
				<p>Staging and characterization of the mode of progression of EMF aims to distinguish active from latent disease, particularly in clinical settings, and is used to support management and to indicate prognosis. In a patient with an echocardiographic diagnosis of EMF, activity was defined as a finding of two or more of the following signs: i) unexplained fever, recurrent facial edema, urticaria or asthma-like episodes; ii) severe hypereosinophilia (absolute eosinophil count &gt; 1.5 x 109/L); iii) ventricular thrombi not attributable to severe myocardial dysfunction; iv) evidence of pancarditis with acute heart failure; and, v) increased C-Reactive Protein and/or erythrocyte sedimentation rate. The persistence of these signs and the speed of progression of structural and/or functional abnormalities in the six months following the diagnosis are used to define three distinct stages of the disease: active with remission, active persistent, and rapidly progressive.</p>
				<p><italic>Active EMF with remission</italic> refers to patients who had signs of activity at diagnosis that regressed during the first six months of follow up, while <italic>Active persistent disease</italic> signified persistence of signs of activity for 6 months or more. Finally, we use the expression <italic>Active rapidly progressive</italic> to define patients with persistence of signs of activity after the initial episode of heart failure, who progress to a higher degree of severity or death in less than six months. Depending on the occurrence of disease recrudescence during the first six months of follow up, patients are classified as having quiescent or recurrent disease. Patients who develop recrudescence of active disease in the course of follow up, going back to a quiescent stage thereafter, are considered to have chronic recurrent disease.</p>
				<p>Signs of activity are frequent in patients from the clinical registries, who present laboratory signs of active disease, hypereosinophilia, and facial edema. Rapidly progressive disease and death may be associated with intraventricular thrombi and myocardial dysfunction.</p>
				<p>Patients are also classified according to the duration of symptoms; if these are present for less than 6 months, they are considered to have acute disease. Chronic disease is defined by the presence of signs and symptoms attributable to EMF for more than six months with echocardiographic features of established EMF.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Experience from Community- and Hospital-Based Studies</title>
				<p>The information used to develop the criteria results from careful evaluation of transthoracic echocardiography and follow-up of 1534 individuals (1063 individuals of all ages randomly selected from the community, 296 school children, and 175 patients with established disease cared for in hospitals). On clinical grounds, the clinical features, biological profile, findings during open heart surgery, and pathological features of tissue obtained in vivo were used to complement the studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Of the 413 individuals with EMF (mean age at diagnosis 15 years, with no gender differences), 52 patients (12,1%) recalled having any complaints before diagnosis, confirming the high occurrence of clinical-echocardiographic dissociation in EMF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The most common features seen on echocardiography are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Table 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Frequency of echocardiographic features on the left side of the heart in 411 EMF patients in clinical and community studies performed in Mozambique</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="33%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Echocardiographic features</th>
									<th>Community Studies</th>
									<th>Clinical Registry</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Thickening of the AML</td>
									<td align="center">121 (51.3%)</td>
									<td align="center">148 (84.5%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Thickening of the PML</td>
									<td align="center">117 (49.6%)</td>
									<td align="center">102 (58.3%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Endocardial thickening of the septal wall</td>
									<td align="center">106 (44.9%)</td>
									<td align="center">140 (80.0%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Restrictive filling pattern</td>
									<td align="center">81 (34.3%)</td>
									<td align="center">57 (24.2%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Enhanced density of the papillary muscles</td>
									<td align="center">78 (33.1%)</td>
									<td align="center">130 (74.3%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Apical endocardial thickening</td>
									<td align="center">55 (23.3%)</td>
									<td align="center">57 (32.6%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Thickening of the false tendon</td>
									<td align="center">47 (19.9%)</td>
									<td align="center">11 (6.29%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Obliteration of the recess behind the PML</td>
									<td align="center">27 (11.4%)</td>
									<td align="center">30 (17.1%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Mitral regurgitation</td>
									<td align="center">26 (11.0%)</td>
									<td align="center">107 (61.1%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Severe dilatation of the left atrium</td>
									<td align="center">13 (5.5%)</td>
									<td align="center">87 (49.7%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Apical thrombus/obliteration</td>
									<td align="center">4 (1.7%)</td>
									<td align="center">13 (7.4%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Non-apical intraventricular thrombus</td>
									<td align="center">1 (0.4%)</td>
									<td align="center">5 (2.9%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Left atrial thrombus</td>
									<td align="center">0 (0%)</td>
									<td align="center">7 (4.0%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td><bold>Total</bold></td>
									<td align="center"><bold>236</bold></td>
									<td align="center"><bold>175</bold></td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN3">
								<p>PML: posterior mitral leaflet; AML: anterior mitral leaflet</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Abnormalities of the Left Side of the Heart</title>
					<p>Early left EMF is often detected in asymptomatic individuals in the community and may be characterized by fibrosis of the <italic>false tendons</italic>, thickening of the mitral leaflets (Figure 2a), apical thrombus, and/or obliteration of the apex or the recess between the posterior leaflet and the posterior wall. Thrombi in the subvalvular apparatus involve the free edges of both papillary muscles. Flow across the mitral valve shows early diastolic filling.</p>
					<p>In established left EMF, thickening of the endocardium is prominent in the apex and posterior wall behind the recess of the posterior leaflet of the mitral valve. The ventricle assumes a spherical shape (Figure 2b), being hypercontractile in its basal portion. At this stage, most cases may have a competent mitral valve, but in some cases the movement of the posterior leaflet is restricted, leading to an eccentric mitral regurgitation and passive pulmonary hypertension. A common finding in left EMF is the so-called M-movement of the interventricular septum on M-mode.</p>
					<p>The most characteristic features of advanced left EMF are septal and apical fibrosis, severe eccentric mitral regurgitation, due to fusion of posterior leaflet to the wall, disproportionally small LV, aneurysmal left atrium, and severe pulmonary hypertension <bold>(</bold><xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref><bold>)</bold>. Even in patients with extensive endocardial thickening, retraction of the LV apex does not occur.(Figure 2c)</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t4">
							<label>Table 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Echocardiographic characteristics of EMF that allow classification as left, right and bilateral</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="50%">
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">RIGHT EMF</th>
										<th align="left">LEFT EMF</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Enhancement of endocardial echo</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Enhancement of endocardial echo</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Tricuspid Valve apparatus adherent to the mural fibrosis</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Plastered down post mitral leaflet</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Obliteration or retraction of RV trabecular portion; apical notch or shrunken RV cavity</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Obliterated LV apex, reduction of the longitudinal diameter, with oval or globular shape</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Features of Tricuspid Regurgitation</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Features of Mitral Regurgitation</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Endocardial calcification on the RV</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Calcificação endocárdica no VE</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Dilated and hyperdynamic RV outflow tract; paradoxical movement of the IVS</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• M movement of IVS/PW; dilated and hyperdynamic basal portion of the LV</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Restrictive pattern of RV filling</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Restrictive pattern of LV filling</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Dilated right atrium</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Dilatation of the left atrium</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Variable pericardial effusion</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Features of Pulmonary Hypertension</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Dynamic intracavitary echoes or thrombi</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Dynamic intracavitary echoes or thrombi</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Dilatation of the IVC and IHV</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>   </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>
											<list list-type="simple">
												<list-item>
													<p>• Pulmonary Valve diastolic opening</p>
												</list-item>
											</list>
										</td>
										<td>   </td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN4">
									<p>EMF: Endomyocardial fibrosis; LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; IVC: inferior vena cava; IHV: intra-hepatic veins; IVS: interventricular septum; PW: posterior wall</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Abnormalities of the Right Side of the Heart</title>
					<p>In early right EMF disease, the longitudinal view of the RV (using the short axis view of the LV at the level of the aorta) shows a stretched moderator band separating the inflow and outflow tracts from the trabecular portion. (Figure 2a) There may be turbulent blood flow inside the trabecular portion of the ventricle. Right ventricular obliteration (disappearance of the trabecular portion of the RV) is usually associated with mild to moderate tricuspid regurgitation caused by restriction to the movement of the tricuspid anterior and septal leaflets. (Figure 2b) The leaflets may be attached to the wall leading to an echocardiographic picture similar to the “Ebstein Malformation”, with dilatation of the tricuspid annulus and tricuspid regurgitation jet originating inside the RV.</p>
					<p>Severe right EMF is characterized by retraction of the RV (Figure 2c, 2d), severe tricuspid regurgitation with almost no turbulence, restriction of leaflet motion caused by involvement of the papillary muscles in the fibrotic process, and dilatation of the tricuspid annulus, related to severe right atrial dilatation. Spontaneous contrast images are common inside the right atrium, extending both to the right ventricular inflow tract and to the inferior vena cava and dilated supra-hepatic veins; these do not usually show the normal respiratory changes, indicating increased systemic venous pressure.</p>
					<p>In patients with advanced right EMF , the reduction of the right ventricular cavity size is partially compensated for by dilation of the outflow tract and free tricuspid regurgitation occurs due to an aneurysmal right atrium. There are usually dynamic intracavitary echoes or large thrombi. There may be equalization of pressure between the atrium, the ventricle, and the pulmonary artery, as well as diastolic opening of the pulmonary valve. The aneurysmal right atrium causes heart distortion and compression of the left cavities, hampering evaluation of the mitral valve. Abundant pericardial effusion is common in advanced right EMF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref><bold>)</bold>.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Bilateral EMF</title>
					<p>In established bilateral EMF, the heart has a peculiar aspect of enlarged atria with small ventricles - the “Mickey mouse” heart in the four chambers view - coexistence of mitral and tricuspid regurgitation (Figures 2b &amp; 2c). The reduced right ventricular output and pulmonary perfusion partially reduces the effects of the pulmonary venous hypertension caused by left ventricular disease, favoring a better outcome compared to that of pure left EMF.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="discussion">
			<title>Discussion</title>
			<p>The echocardiographic criteria for diagnosis of EMF can be employed for screening, follow-up, and management of EMF in endemic areas. We hypothesize that serial evaluations of early EMF using these criteria would provide better understanding of its natural history. However, epidemiological studies to validate these criteria in follow up studies are difficult to implement in endemic areas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The classification has been used to assess geographic variation in clinical presentations of EMF in India.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The hallmark of established EMF is endocardial thickening in large plaques or patchy distribution, interfering with diastolic function and reducing cardiac output. Ventricular thrombosis or “spontaneous contrast” are frequently seen: in left EMF, ventricular thrombi are mostly apical and may involve the subvalvular apparatus, while the trabecular portion is more affected in right EMF. In this classification, thrombi are attributed a high score because they pose an enormous risk to life and are a major determinant of management and prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Heart distortion is a characteristic feature of EMF due to the aneurysmal atria and partial or complete exclusion of the right ventricular trabecular portion from the circulation, in cases of ventricular retraction with the characteristic “apical notch” – a distinctive feature of advanced right EMF (Figure 2d).</p>
			<p>The criteria discussed in this paper do not include the conventional measures for assessment of left ventricular systolic function because these are difficult to apply in severe and advanced EMF due to marked heart cavity distortion. Evaluation of myocardial function is hampered by the presence of endocardial fibrosis restricting the underlying myocardial contractility. Visual semi-quantitative scales are used to assess systolic ventricular function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Regarding right ventricular assessment, the ventricular outflow tract shortening fraction (a simple and noninvasive measure of systolic function)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> does not seem adequate, due to the presence of compensatory dilatation and hypercontractility of the outflow tract, as a result of trabecular cavity obliteration or retraction.</p>
			<p>Due to the geometric changes associated with EMF, the sphericity index has been suggested as a good tool to describe abnormalities in ventricular shape and volume. This index is used to assess changes occurring in non-ischemic cardiomyopathy and seems to be a good tool to quantify the abnormal geometric changes that accompany heart failure in dilated failing LVs,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> but it needs to be validated.</p>
			<p>Importantly, the standardized criteria for diagnosis and classification of EMF identify patients who can benefit from surgery and allow for risk stratification, defining patients with mild EMF who do not benefit from surgery and those who are unsuitable for surgery. Extensive endocardial thickening with disappearance of the AV valve apparatus, thick endocardium without visible myocardium underneath it, extensive calcification, and/or severe myocardial dysfunction are signs used to define contraindication to surgery. This classification also allows stratification of operative risk, planning of tailored surgical techniques, and post-operative follow up.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Limitations</title>
				<p>We acknowledge the limitations of transthoracic echocardiography to accurately assess structural and hemodynamic abnormalities in adult patients with advanced EMF, particularly when calcification or major distortion of the heart cavities are present. Three-dimensional echocardiography allows better characterization of EMF, but is not widely used in endemic settings. Magnetic resonance imaging and myocardial contrast echocardiography provide more detailed anatomical and functional information, including the location and size of endocardial fibrosis and thrombi and are the techniques of choice for pre- and post-surgery evaluation, particularly for detecting recurrence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In areas endemic for both EMF and rheumatic heart disease, differentiation between left EMF and rheumatic heart valve disease may be challenging; while diffuse irregular AV valve leaflet thickening with thin chordae is suggestive of EMF, prominent thickening of the free borders of the leaflets extending to the chordae is typical of rheumatic valve disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusions</title>
			<p>The use of echocardiography allows a confident non-invasive diagnosis of EMF, is essential for indication of surgery and choice of operative techniques, and has the potential to be used to define prognosis. EMF presents great phenotypic variability with lesions varying from patchy endocardial thickening without any hemodynamic changes, to extensive mural and AV valve endocardial fibrosis with resulting structural and hemodynamic changes.</p>
			<p>Because the assumptions made to calculate parameters for assessment of systolic and diastolic function of both ventricles are not present in a considerable number of individuals with moderate, severe, and advanced EMF, non-conventional measurements and indices have been used to evaluate ventricular function. The standardized criteria for diagnosis and classification of EMF may support better understanding of its pathogenesis and natural history, and allow comparison of affected individuals in different endemic areas.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Study Association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<label/>
				<p>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
				<p>Sources of Funding</p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230107</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Como Diagnosticar e Classificar a Fibrose Endomiocárdica em Cenários Sem Muitos Recursos?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9564-2860</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mocumbi</surname>
						<given-names>Ana</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>obtenção de dados</role>
					<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="MZ">Moçambique</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Eduardo Mondlane,Maputo – Moçambique</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="MZ">Moçambique</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Marracuene – Moçambique</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"><bold>Correspondência: Ana Mocumbi</bold> • Universidade Eduardo Mondlane. Av Julius Nyerere Maputo, Campus Universitário 3453 1102, Maputo – Moçambique. E-mail: amocumbi@gmail.com </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</p>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A fibrose endomiocárdica (FEM) é uma doença de etiologia e patogênese pouco claras, caracterizada por fibrose nas cavidades ventriculares, que afeta principalmente crianças e adolescentes de regiões tropicais da África, América do Sul e Ásia. É classificada como uma cardiomiopatia restritiva, com fisiopatologia de restrição ao enchimento diastólico associada a anormalidades valvares, ambas causadas por fibrose endocárdica. As características ecocardiográficas típicas dessa condição são espessamento endocárdico, regurgitação grave da válvula atrioventricular (AV), átrios aneurismáticos e distorção cardíaca.</p>
				<p>Em áreas endêmicas da África, na ausência de técnicas avançadas de imagem, o diagnóstico e o tratamento da FEM dependem da ecocardiografia transtorácica para uma avaliação cuidadosa das anormalidades estruturais e hemodinâmicas, com o objetivo de planejar o tratamento médico ou cirúrgico. Esta revisão destaca os principais aspectos ecocardiográficos do diagnóstico e da classificação da FEM que são usados em ambientes com poucos recursos na África. Essa padronização é uma abordagem para triagem de populações com ocorrência conhecida da doença e para informar o tratamento médico e cirúrgico.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Fibrose Endomiocárdica</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
				<kwd>Diagnóstico</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			
				<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura Central</label>
						<caption>
							<title>: Características ecocardiográficas da FEM</title>
							<p>FEM: fibrose endomiocárdica; VD: ventrículo direito; AV: atrioventricular; VE: ventrículo esquerdo</p>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230107-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
		
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A fibrose endomiocárdica (FEM) é uma doença progressiva de etiologia e patogênese pouco claras que, em seu estágio estabelecido, é caracterizada por fibrose nas cavidades ventriculares, afetando particularmente o ápice e as regiões subvalvares. Trata-se de uma cardiomiopatia restritiva que afeta principalmente crianças e adolescentes, predominantemente de determinadas áreas rurais da África.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A fisiopatologia da FEM associa a restrição ao enchimento diastólico com alterações importantes no aparelho valvar causadas pela fibrose endocárdica, resultando em regurgitação grave da válvula atrioventricular (AV), átrios aneurismáticos e distorção cardíaca. As formas avançadas da FEM acarretam alta morbidade e mortalidade, e a morte ocorre devido à progressão para insuficiência cardíaca crônica ou como resultado de arritmia e tromboembolismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Embora não haja tratamento específico para a FEM, a cirurgia deve ser considerada para corrigir algumas anormalidades estruturais e funcionais em indivíduos sintomáticos. As técnicas cirúrgicas têm progredido,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> mas os resultados ainda não foram totalmente compreendidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Em áreas endêmicas da África, na ausência de técnicas avançadas de imagem, como a ressonância magnética, o diagnóstico e o tratamento da FEM geralmente dependem de ecocardiografia transtorácica detalhada. A ecocardiografia transesofágica e tridimensional raramente é usada, a ressonância magnética também raramente está disponível e o cateterismo é frequentemente contraindicado porque os riscos superam os benefícios – devido à presença de trombos e à dificuldade de obter tecido endomiocárdico na doença avançada. A caracterização ecocardiográfica detalhada e a classificação da FEM demonstraram fornecer informações confiáveis sobre as principais anormalidades estruturais e hemodinâmicas que são confirmadas na cirurgia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Esta revisão destaca os principais aspectos ecocardiográficos do diagnóstico e da classificação da FEM em locais com recursos escassos na África.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Critérios ecocardiográficos para o diagnóstico da FEM</title>
					<p>Os critérios ecocardiográficos para o diagnóstico da FEM foram descritos em uma população altamente endêmica de Moçambique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A partir dessas características ecocardiográficas, as anormalidades cardíacas em pacientes com FEM foram divididas em “principais” ou “secundárias”, de acordo com sua relevância clínica, singularidade para o diagnóstico, decisão sobre o tratamento e importância prognóstica. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>)</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Critérios de diagnóstico e avaliação da gravidade da FEM*<bold>6</bold></title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="50%">
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Critério</th>
										<th>Pontuação</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Critérios principais</bold></td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Placas endomiocárdicas &gt; 2 mm de espessura</td>
										<td align="center">2</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Manchas endomiocárdicas finas (≤ 1 mm) envolvendo mais de uma parede ventricular</td>
										<td align="center">3</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Obliteração do ápice do VD ou do VE</td>
										<td align="center">4</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Trombos ou contraste espontâneo sem disfunção ventricular grave</td>
										<td align="center">4</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Retração do ápice do VD (entalhe apical do VD)</td>
										<td align="center">4</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Disfunção da válvula AV devido à adesão do aparelho valvular à parede ventricular</td>
										<td align="center">1-4†</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Critérios secundários</bold></td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Manchas finas de endomiocárdio localizadas em uma parede ventricular</td>
										<td align="center">1</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Padrão de fluxo restritivo nas válvulas mitral ou tricúspide</td>
										<td align="center">2</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Abertura diastólica da válvula pulmonar</td>
										<td align="center">2</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Espessamento difuso da cúspide mitral anterior</td>
										<td align="center">1</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Átrio aumentado com ventrículo de tamanho normal</td>
										<td align="center">2</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Movimento em M do septo interventricular e parede posterior plana‡</td>
										<td align="center">1</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Densidade aumentada do moderador ou de outras bandas intraventriculares</td>
										<td align="center">1</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1002">
									<p>*O diagnóstico definitivo de FEM ocorreu na presença de dois critérios principais ou de um critério principal associado a dois critérios secundários. Uma pontuação total inferior a 8 indica FEM leve, de 8 a 15 doença moderada e maior que 15 doença grave. † A pontuação é atribuída segundo a gravidade da regurgitação AV. ‡ O movimento em M do septo interventricular refere-se a um padrão de movimento observado na ecocardiografia em modo M que se acredita ser devido à obliteração ou restrição do ápice do VE combinada com a regurgitação mitral. FEM: fibrose endomiocárdica; AV: atrioventricular; VE: ventrículo esquerdo</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>Os <italic>critérios principais</italic> são características distintivas ou patognomônicas da FEM, que geralmente influenciam significativamente o tratamento. A cada característica é atribuída uma pontuação individual segundo sua relevância para determinar as alterações estruturais e hemodinâmicas. Os critérios a seguir são considerados fundamentais para o diagnóstico da FEM: i) placa endocárdica de pelo menos 5 mm de largura ou espessamento endocárdico maior que 1 mm; ii) espessamento endocárdico irregular em duas ou mais paredes ventriculares; iii) obliteração dos ápices ventriculares ou recessos valvares; iv) trombos ventriculares ou contraste espontâneo na ausência de disfunção ventricular; v) redução do volume da cavidade do ventrículo direito (VD) devido à exclusão da porção trabecular; vi) restrição dos movimentos das cúspides da válvula AV devido à aderência às paredes ventriculares.</p>
					<p>Para a triagem, considera-se que as placas endocárdicas de espessamento endocárdico com mais de 5 mm de largura e mais espessas do que 1 mm são um critério importante para o diagnóstico da FEM. O termo “placa grande” é adotado quando o espessamento endocárdico excede 10 mm de largura.</p>
					<p>Os <italic>critérios secundários</italic> não são específicos da FEM, mas podem sugerir a doença. Embora comumente encontradas em pacientes com FEM, essas características não são exclusivas dessa condição e não definem a doença quando encontradas isoladamente. Considera-se que elas têm menos influência sobre o manejo e o prognóstico, quando comparadas aos critérios principais descritos anteriormente. As características consideradas como critérios secundários de diagnóstico da FEM são: i) espessamento endomiocárdico localizado em uma parede ventricular; ii) padrão de enchimento ventricular restritivo; iii) espessamento difuso das cúspides da válvula AV; iv) densidade aumentada da banda moderadora ou das trabéculas intraventriculares; v) movimento em M anormal do septo interventricular e/ou da parede posterior do ventrículo esquerdo (VE); vi) átrio aumentado com ventrículo homolateral de tamanho normal; vii) presença de “falso tendão” espessado do VE.</p>
					<p>Em indivíduos assintomáticos, o espessamento endocárdico irregular corresponde a pequenas áreas de densidade aumentada do endocárdio com menos de 1 mm de profundidade e distribuídas uniformemente nas paredes ventriculares.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Classificação da FEM</title>
					<p>A aparência ecocardiográfica da FEM varia em termos de distribuição e gravidade das lesões estruturais e das anormalidades hemodinâmicas. Os critérios descritos acima são usados para avaliar a presença de lesões em cada lado do coração, e o sistema de pontuação é aplicado a cada ventrículo separadamente. De acordo com a distribuição das lesões (afetando exclusiva ou predominantemente um ou ambos os lados do coração), classificamos a doença em FEM direita, FEM esquerda e FEM bilateral. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 1</xref>)</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Progressão da FEM da fase de ocupação do apex por trombo (esquerda), para redução da cavidade ventricular e dilatação auricular (centro) e largas placas de fibrose com retração ventricular (direita).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230107-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Gravidade da FEM</title>
					<p>A gravidade da FEM é avaliada pela quantificação das lesões estruturais e hemodinâmicas. São definidos quatro graus progressivos de gravidade, que apoiam as decisões sobre o manejo e orientam quanto ao prognóstico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2002">Tabela 2</xref>):</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t2002">
							<label>Tabela 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Principais características em diferentes graus de gravidade da FEM</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="50%">
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Grau</th>
										<th align="left">Características</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><bold>I LEVE</bold></td>
										<td>Fibrose irregular de qualquer ventrículo, espessamento difuso das cúspides e padrão restritivo de enchimento ventricular, sem qualquer outra alteração estrutural</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><bold>II MODERADA</bold></td>
										<td>Lesões hiperdensas no endocárdio mural e valvular, obliteração do ápice ventricular, trombos ventriculares e/ou disfunção valvular atrioventricular, na ausência de deformação/redução da cavidade ou disfunção miocárdica</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><bold>III GRAVE</bold></td>
										<td>Fibrose e/ou calcificação extensa com miocárdio funcional visível na parte inferior, redução do tamanho do ventrículo, dilatação atrial grave e disfunção valvular AV</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><bold>IV AVANÇADA</bold></td>
										<td>Distorção do coração e deformação da cavidade devido à fibrose ou calcificação extensa que afeta a contratilidade do miocárdio e leva à regurgitação AV livre</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN2002">
									<p>AV: atrioventricular.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<list list-type="simple">
						<list-item>
							<p><italic>• Grau I</italic> (<italic>ou FEM leve</italic>): Placa endocárdica ou espessamento irregular associado ao espessamento das cúspides da válvula AV sem qualquer outra anormalidade estrutural ou hemodinâmica.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><italic>• Grau II</italic> (<italic>ou FEM moderada</italic>): Grandes placas endocárdicas, obliteração ventricular apical/recesso da válvula e regurgitação leve a moderada da válvula AV. Há dilatação atrial leve a moderada, redução leve da cavidade ventricular e função miocárdica preservada.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><italic>• Grau III</italic> (<italic>ou FEM grave</italic>): Grandes placas endocárdicas, redução moderada das dimensões da cavidade ventricular, dilatação atrial acentuada e disfunção grave da válvula AV. O miocárdio é visível sob o espessamento endocárdico e a função ventricular é quase normal.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p><italic>• Grau IV</italic> (<italic>ou FEM avançada</italic>): Presença de grandes placas endocárdicas associadas à redução grave do tamanho do ventrículo e à compressão das cavidades contralaterais pelo átrio gravemente dilatado. Calcificação endocárdica, baixa contratilidade ventricular e grandes efusões persistentes (pericárdicas, peritoneais e/ou pleurais) são outras características da FEM avançada.</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
					<p>Os diferentes estágios da FEM estão representados na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 2</xref>.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– A classificação da FEM capta a diversidade na localização e severidade das alterações estruturais detectadas por ecocardiografia.</title>
								<p>A) Grau I predomínio diretito; B) Grau II bilateral; C) Grau III bilateral com obliteração do ventriculo direito; D) Grau IV com retração severa do ventriculo direito, distroção cardiaca e derrame pericardico.</p>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230107-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Estadiamento e modo de progressão</title>
					<p>O estadiamento e a caracterização do modo de progressão da FEM têm como objetivo distinguir a doença ativa da latente, especialmente no cenário clínico, e são usados para apoiar o manejo e apontar o prognóstico. Em um paciente com diagnóstico ecocardiográfico de FEM, a atividade foi definida como o achado de 2 ou mais dos seguintes sinais: i) febre inexplicável, edema facial recorrente, urticária ou episódios semelhantes à asma; ii) hipereosinofilia grave (contagem absoluta de eosinófilos &gt; 1,5 x 109/L); iii) trombos ventriculares não atribuíveis à disfunção miocárdica grave; iv) evidência de pancardite com insuficiência cardíaca aguda; e v) aumento da proteína C-reativa e/ou da taxa de eritrossedimentação. A persistência desses sinais e a velocidade de progressão das anormalidades estruturais e/ou funcionais nos 6 meses seguintes ao diagnóstico são usadas para definir três estágios distintos da doença: ativo com remissão, ativo persistente e rapidamente progressivo.</p>
					<p>A <italic>FEM ativa com remissão</italic> refere-se a pacientes com sinais de atividade no diagnóstico que regrediram durante os primeiros 6 meses de acompanhamento, enquanto a <italic>doença ativa persistente</italic> significa a persistência de sinais de atividade por 6 meses ou mais. Por fim, usamos a expressão <italic>ativa rapidamente progressiva</italic> para definir pacientes com persistência de sinais de atividade após o episódio inicial de insuficiência cardíaca, os quais evoluem para um grau de maior gravidade ou morte em menos de 6 meses. Dependendo da ocorrência de recrudescência da doença durante os primeiros 6 meses de acompanhamento, os pacientes foram classificados como tendo doença quiescente ou recorrente. Os pacientes que desenvolveram recrudescimento da doença ativa no decorrer do seguimento, em seguida regredindo a um estágio quiescente, foram considerados portadores de doença crônica recorrente.</p>
					<p>Os sinais de atividade são frequentes em pacientes dos registros clínicos, que apresentam sinais laboratoriais de doença ativa, hipereosinofilia e edema facial. A doença rapidamente progressiva e a morte podem estar associadas a trombos intraventriculares e disfunção miocárdica.</p>
					<p>Os pacientes também são classificados segundo a duração dos sintomas; se estiverem presentes por menos de 6 meses, são considerados portadores de doença aguda. A doença crônica é definida pela presença de sinais e sintomas atribuíveis à FEM por mais de 6 meses e características ecocardiográficas de FEM estabelecida.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Experiência de estudos baseados na comunidade e em hospitais</title>
					<p>As informações usadas para criar os critérios resultam da avaliação cuidadosa da ecocardiografia transtorácica e do seguimento de 1.534 indivíduos (1.063 indivíduos de todas as idades selecionados aleatoriamente na comunidade, 296 crianças em idade escolar e 175 pacientes com doença estabelecida assistidos em hospitais). Em termos clínicos, as características clínicas, o perfil biológico, os achados durante a cirurgia cardíaca aberta e as características patológicas do tecido obtido <italic>in vivo</italic> foram usados para complementar os estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Dos 413 indivíduos com FEM (idade média de 15 anos no momento do diagnóstico, sem diferenças quanto ao sexo), 52 pacientes (12,1%) lembravam-se de alguma queixa antes do diagnóstico, confirmando a alta ocorrência de dissociação clínico-ecocardiográfica na FEM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> As características mais comuns na ecocardiografia estão indicadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3002">Tabela 3</xref>.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t3002">
							<label>Tabela 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Frequência das características ecocardiográficas no lado esquerdo do coração em 411 pacientes com FEM em estudos clínicos e comunitários realizados em Moçambique</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="33%">
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Características ecocardiográficas</th>
										<th>Estudos comunitários</th>
										<th>Registro clínico</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Espessamento da CMA</td>
										<td align="center">121 (51,3%)</td>
										<td align="center">148 (84,5%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Espessamento da CMP</td>
										<td align="center">117 (49,6%)</td>
										<td align="center">102 (58,3%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Espessamento endocárdico da parede septal</td>
										<td align="center">106 (44,9%)</td>
										<td align="center">140 (80,0%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Padrão de enchimento restritivo</td>
										<td align="center">81 (34,3%)</td>
										<td align="center">57 (24,2%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Densidade aumentada dos músculos papilares</td>
										<td align="center">78 (33,1%)</td>
										<td align="center">130 (74,3%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Espessamento endocárdico apical</td>
										<td align="center">55 (23,3%)</td>
										<td align="center">57 (32,6%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Espessamento do falso tendão</td>
										<td align="center">47 (19,9%)</td>
										<td align="center">11 (6,29%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Obliteração do recesso atrás do CMP</td>
										<td align="center">27 (11,4%)</td>
										<td align="center">30 (17,1%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Regurgitação mitral</td>
										<td align="center">26 (11,0%)</td>
										<td align="center">107 (61,1%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Dilatação grave do átrio esquerdo</td>
										<td align="center">13 (5,5%)</td>
										<td align="center">87 (49,7%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Trombo/obliteração apical</td>
										<td align="center">4 (1,7%)</td>
										<td align="center">13 (7,4%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Trombo intraventricular não apical</td>
										<td align="center">1 (0,4%)</td>
										<td align="center">5 (2,9%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Trombo no átrio esquerdo</td>
										<td align="center">0 (0%)</td>
										<td align="center">7 (4,0%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td><bold>Total</bold></td>
										<td align="center"><bold>236</bold></td>
										<td align="center"><bold>175</bold></td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN3002">
									<p>CMA: cúspide mitral anterior; CMP: cúspide mitral posterior</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<sec>
						<title>Anormalidades do lado esquerdo do coração</title>
						<p>A FEM esquerda precoce é frequentemente detectada em indivíduos assintomáticos na comunidade e pode se caracterizar por fibrose dos falsos tendões, espessamento das cúspides mitrais (Figura 2a), trombo apical e/ou obliteração do ápice ou do recesso entre a cúspide posterior e a parede posterior. Os trombos no aparelho subvalvar envolvem as bordas livres de ambos os músculos papilares. O fluxo através da válvula mitral mostra enchimento diastólico precoce.</p>
						<p>Na FEM esquerda estabelecida, o espessamento do endocárdio é proeminente no ápice e na parede posterior, atrás do recesso da cúspide posterior da válvula mitral. O ventrículo assume forma esférica (Figura 2b), sendo hipercontrátil em sua porção basal. Nesse estágio, a maioria dos casos pode ter uma válvula mitral competente, mas em alguns casos o movimento da cúspide posterior é restrito, levando a uma regurgitação mitral excêntrica e hipertensão pulmonar passiva. Um achado comum na FEM esquerda é o chamado movimento em M do septo interventricular no modo M.</p>
						<p>As características mais marcantes da FEM esquerda avançada são fibrose septal e apical, regurgitação mitral excêntrica grave devido à fusão da cúspide posterior à parede, VE desproporcionalmente pequeno, átrio esquerdo aneurismático e hipertensão pulmonar grave (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4002">Tabela 4</xref>). Mesmo em pacientes com espessamento endocárdico extenso, não ocorre retração do ápice do VE (Figura 2c).</p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t4002">
								<label>Tabela 4</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Características ecocardiográficas da FEM que permitem a classificação como esquerda, direita e bilateral</title>
								</caption>
								<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
									<colgroup width="50%">
										<col/>
										<col/>
									</colgroup>
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th align="left">FEM DIREITA</th>
											<th align="left">FEM ESQUERDA</th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Realce do eco endocárdico</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Realce do eco endocárdico</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Aparelho da válvula tricúspide aderido à fibrose mural</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Cúspide pós-mitral rebocada</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Obliteração ou retração da porção trabecular do VD; entalhe apical ou cavidade do VD encolhida</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Ápice do VE obliterado, redução do diâmetro longitudinal, com formato oval ou globular</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Características da regurgitação tricúspide</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Características da regurgitação mitral</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Calcificação endocárdica no VD</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Calcificação endocárdica no VE</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Via de saída do VD dilatada e hiperdinâmica; movimento paradoxal do SIV</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Movimento M do SIV e PP; porção basal dilatada e hiperdinâmica do VE</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Padrão restritivo de enchimento do VD</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Padrão restritivo de enchimento do VE</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Átrio direito dilatado</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Dilatação do átrio esquerdo</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Derrame pericárdico variável</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Características da hipertensão pulmonar</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Ecos ou trombos intracavitários dinâmicos</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Ecos ou trombos intracavitários dinâmicos</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Dilatação da VCI e VSH</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>   </td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>
												<list list-type="simple">
													<list-item>
														<p>• Abertura diastólica da válvula pulmonar</p>
													</list-item>
												</list>
											</td>
											<td>   </td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
								<table-wrap-foot>
									<fn id="TFN4002">
										<p>VD: ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; FEM: fibrose endomiocárdica; VCI: veia cava inferior; VSH: veias supra-hepáticas; SIV: septo interventricular; PP: parede posterior do VE.</p>
									</fn>
								</table-wrap-foot>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Anormalidades do lado direito do coração</title>
						<p>No princípio da doença na FEM direita, a visão longitudinal do VD (usando a visão do eixo curto do VE no nível da aorta) mostra uma faixa moderadora esticada que separa as vias de entrada e saída da porção trabecular. (Figura 2a) É possível que haja fluxo sanguíneo turbulento dentro da porção trabecular do ventrículo. A obliteração do VD (desaparecimento da porção trabecular do VD) geralmente está associada à regurgitação tricúspide leve a moderada causada pela restrição ao movimento das cúspides anterior e septal da tricúspide. (Figura 2b) Essas cúspides podem estar presas à parede, levando a um quadro ecocardiográfico semelhante ao da “Malformação de Ebstein”, com dilatação do anel tricúspide e jato de regurgitação tricúspide originado dentro do VD.</p>
						<p>A FEM direita grave é caracterizada pela retração do VD (Figura 2c, 2d), regurgitação tricúspide grave com quase nenhuma turbulência e restrição do movimento da cúspide causada pelo envolvimento dos músculos papilares no processo fibrótico e pela dilatação do anel tricúspide relacionada à dilatação grave do átrio direito. São comuns imagens espontâneas de contraste no interior do átrio direito, estendendo-se tanto para a via de entrada do VD quanto para a veia cava inferior e as veias supra-hepáticas dilatadas; essas imagens geralmente não mostram as alterações respiratórias normais, indicando aumento da pressão venosa sistêmica.</p>
						<p>Em pacientes com FEM direita avançada, a redução do tamanho da cavidade do VD é parcialmente compensada pela dilatação da via de saída, e ocorre regurgitação tricúspide livre devido a um átrio direito aneurismático. Geralmente, há ecos intracavitários dinâmicos ou trombos volumosos. Pode haver equalização da pressão entre o átrio, o ventrículo e a artéria pulmonar, bem como abertura diastólica da válvula pulmonar. O átrio direito aneurismático causa distorção cardíaca e compressão das cavidades esquerdas, dificultando a avaliação da válvula mitral. O derrame pericárdico abundante é comum na FEM direita avançada (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4002">Tabela 4</xref>).</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>FEM bilateral</title>
						<p>Na FEM bilateral estabelecida, o coração tem um aspecto peculiar de átrios aumentados com ventrículos pequenos – o coração de “Mickey mouse” na visão de quatro câmaras – coexistência de regurgitação mitral e tricúspide (Figura 2b, 2c). A redução do débito ventricular direito e da perfusão pulmonar reduz parcialmente os efeitos da hipertensão venosa pulmonar causada pela doença ventricular esquerda, favorecendo um melhor desfecho em comparação com a FEM esquerda pura.</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="discussion">
				<title>Discussão</title>
				<p>Os critérios ecocardiográficos do diagnóstico da FEM podem ser aplicados para triagem, seguimento e manejo da FEM em áreas endêmicas. Nossa hipótese é que as avaliações em série da FEM precoce usando esses critérios forneceriam uma melhor compreensão de sua história natural. No entanto, é difícil implementar estudos epidemiológicos em áreas endêmicas para validar esses critérios em estudos de seguimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Essa classificação foi aplicada para avaliar a variação geográfica na apresentação clínica da FEM na Índia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A marca registrada da FEM estabelecida é o espessamento endocárdico em grandes placas ou distribuição irregular, interferindo na função diastólica e reduzindo o débito cardíaco. Com frequência, observa-se trombose ventricular ou “contraste espontâneo”: Na FEM esquerda, os trombos ventriculares são principalmente apicais e podem envolver o aparelho subvalvar, enquanto na doença direita a porção trabecular é mais afetada. Nessa classificação, os trombos recebem uma pontuação alta porque representam um enorme risco vital e são um dos principais determinantes do tratamento e do prognóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A distorção cardíaca é uma característica da FEM devido aos átrios aneurismáticos e à exclusão parcial ou completa da porção trabecular ventricular direita da circulação, em casos de retração ventricular com o característico “entalhe apical”, uma característica marcante da FEM direita avançada (Figura 2d).</p>
				<p>Os critérios em discussão neste documento não incluem as medidas convencionais de avaliação da função sistólica ventricular esquerda, pois elas são difíceis de aplicar na FEM grave e avançada devido à distorção acentuada da cavidade cardíaca. A avaliação da função miocárdica é dificultada pela presença de fibrose endocárdica que limita a contratilidade do miocárdio subjacente. Utilizam-se escalas visuais semiquantitativas para avaliar a função ventricular sistólica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Em relação à avaliação ventricular direita, a fração de encurtamento da via de saída do ventrículo (uma medida simples e não invasiva da função sistólica)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> não parece adequada, devido à presença de dilatação compensatória e hipercontratilidade da via de saída, como resultado da obliteração ou retração da cavidade trabecular.</p>
				<p>Devido às alterações geométricas associadas à FEM, sugere-se que o índice de esfericidade seja uma boa ferramenta para descrever anormalidades na forma e no volume ventricular. Esse índice é usado para avaliar alterações ocorridas na cardiomiopatia não isquêmica e parece ser uma boa ferramenta para quantificar as alterações geométricas anormais que acompanham a insuficiência cardíaca em VEs dilatados e falhos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> embora precise ser validado.</p>
				<p>Cabe ressaltar que os critérios padronizados para diagnóstico e classificação da FEM identificam os pacientes que podem se beneficiar da cirurgia e permitem a estratificação de risco, definindo os pacientes com FEM leve que não se beneficiam da cirurgia e aqueles que não são adequados para a cirurgia. Espessamento endocárdico extenso com desaparecimento do aparelho da válvula AV, endocárdio espesso sem miocárdio visível sob ele, calcificação extensa e/ou disfunção miocárdica grave são sinais usados para definir a contraindicação à cirurgia. Essa classificação também permite a estratificação do risco cirúrgico, o planejamento de técnicas cirúrgicas personalizadas e o seguimento pós-operatório.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Limitações</title>
					<p>Reconhecemos as limitações da ecocardiografia transtorácica para avaliar com precisão as anormalidades estruturais e hemodinâmicas em pacientes adultos com FEM avançada, especialmente quando há calcificação ou distorção importante das cavidades cardíacas. A ecocardiografia tridimensional permite caracterizar melhor a FEM, mas não é amplamente utilizada em ambientes endêmicos. A imagem por ressonância magnética e a ecocardiografia com contraste miocárdico fornecem informações anatômicas e funcionais mais detalhadas, inclusive a localização e o tamanho da fibrose endocárdica e dos trombos, sendo a técnica de escolha na avaliação pré e pós-cirúrgica, principalmente para detectar recorrência.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Em áreas endêmicas tanto para FEM quanto para doença cardíaca reumática, a distinção entre FEM esquerda e doença valvar cardíaca reumática pode ser desafiadora; enquanto o espessamento irregular difuso das cúspides da válvula AV com cordas finas sugere FEM, o espessamento proeminente das bordas livres das cúspides que se estendem até as cordas é típico da doença valvar reumática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusões</title>
				<p>O uso da ecocardiografia permite um diagnóstico confiável e não invasivo da FEM, é essencial para a indicação de cirurgia e escolha de técnicas operatórias, e tem o potencial de ser usado para definir o prognóstico. A FEM apresenta uma grande variabilidade fenotípica, com lesões que variam de espessamento endocárdico irregular, sem alterações hemodinâmicas, a fibrose endocárdica extensa mural e da válvula AV, com as consequentes alterações estruturais e hemodinâmicas.</p>
				<p>Como as suposições feitas para calcular os parâmetros de avaliação da função sistólica e diastólica de ambos os ventrículos não estão presentes em um número considerável de indivíduos com FEM moderada, grave e avançada, têm sido usadas medidas e índices não convencionais para avaliar a função ventricular. Os critérios padronizados de diagnóstico e classificação da FEM podem contribuir para melhor entendimento de sua patogênese e história natural, além de permitir a comparação de indivíduos afetados em diferentes áreas endêmicas.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label/>
					<p>Vinculação Acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<label/>
					<p>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
					<p>Fontes de Financiamento</p>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>