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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20230097i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230097i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Atrial Functional Mitral Regurgitation</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-6439-2757</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Pretto</surname><given-names>Alexsander da Silva</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">ImagemCor</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Tenente Portela</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">ImagemCor, Tenente Portela, RS – Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Alexsander da Silva Pretto</bold> • Clínica ImagemCor, Rua Tibiriçá, 155. Postal code: <postal-code>98500-000</postal-code>. Tenente Portela, RS – Brazil. E-mail: <email>axspretto@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>29</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year></pub-date>
<volume>37</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e20230097</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received"><day>01</day><month>11</month><year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd"><day>09</day><month>11</month><year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>10</day><month>11</month><year>2023</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Secondary mitral insufficiency (MI) in the setting of ventricular disease has always been a topic at conferences and has achieved extensive pathophysiological knowledge over the years. More recently, with the increasing incidence of atrial fibrillation (AF) and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), a new phenotype that had been little discussed has come to light: atrial functional mitral regurgitation. In this entity, special attention should be addressed to the left atrium and the mitral annulus because, in early stages, they present normal left ventricular dimensions and function.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Atrial Fibrillation</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Mitral Valve Insufficiency</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="12"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="24"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Mitral Insufficiency (MI) is one of the most common valvulopathies in the world<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>. New knowledge about its physiopathology, diagnosis and treatment are arising. In this sense, Atrial Fibrillation (AF) is the disorder of the rhythm more usually observed in the general population<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>. The estimation is that the prevalence of MI in the USA in 2030 will be higher than 4 million cases, and FA will reach 12.1 million<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>. Data indicate that, until 2050, the population aged more than 80 years will triple<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>.</p>
<p>The “epidemic” growth of the incidence of AF, with approximately 5 million new cases per year around the world<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup>, and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), responsible for 37 to 53% of the cases of Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) in the different series make us get to know this subgroup of patients better<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>. Besides, one to two thirds of the patients with HFpEF will experience AF at the time of diagnosis or at some point of the condition<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>.</p>
<p>The identification of the MI mechanism is the key for the treatment sequence. The Carpentier classification is the starting point for better understanding, which, in this author’s opinion, should be part of all reports of patients with moderate or severe MI (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Additionally, MI is classified as primary or organic (PMI) when leaflets and the subvalvular apparatus are normal and it is caused by functional abnormalities in the left heart. It occurs due to the imbalance between the increased tethering forces (resulting exclusively from the global or regional remodeling of the left ventricle (LV), promoting the apical-lateral displacement of papillary muscles (leaflet tethering) and the reduction of closing forces (reduced contractility and dyssynchrony)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup>. This model, which was known until then, began to be called ventricular functional mitral regurgitation (VFMR), and a new concept appeared: atrial functional mitral regurgitation (AFMR).</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Carpentier Classification. AFMR: atrial functional mitral regurgitation; VFMR: ventricular functional mitral regurgitation; MCH: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; SAM: systolic anterior motion; LV: left ventricle.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Historically, AFMR is only owed to mitral annular dilation, but recent evidence showed that this is only one piece of the puzzle, and new mechanisms were added. Its early recognition seems to be extremely important because studies demonstrate that a successful ablation and the maintenance of sinus rhythm reduce its severity<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup>.</p>
<p>The data about its real incidence and prevalence lack variable diagnostic criteria. Kagiyama et al. revised the prevalence of AFMR in nine studies and identified, initially, very different rates (between 2.8 and 66.7%). After excluding studies that used qualitative methods to classify the MI, and another one that included hospitalized patients, they reached a prevance rate of 3 to 15%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup>. Moonen et al. Studied 140,014 adults in 25 centers of Australia, only including patients with severe FMR, and found VFMR in 60% of the cases, and AFMR in 40% of the cases. Patients with AFMR were older (mean of 78 +- 11 years), with higher proportion of women (58%)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>.</p>
<p>Mesi et al., in a study with 283 patients, compared PMI with AFMR and identified that the latter presented more comorbidities, such as systemic arterial hypertension (SAH), Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, permanent AF, previous non-mitral cardiac surgery and pacemaker insertion<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup>.</p>
<p>A group from the Mayo Clinic published a study, led by Dziadzko, which analyzed 727 inhabitants of the Olmsted County, in Minnesota, referred to echocardiogram due to a diagnosis of moderate or severe MI, and reported FMI in 65% of the cases; organic, in 32%; and mixed, in 3%. Among the cases of FMI (65%), VFMR was found in 38% of the cases, and AFMR, in 27%.</p>
<sec>
<title>Physiopathology</title>
<p>The best proposal to understand the genesis of this entity was described by Silbiger<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup>.He described that left atrial dysfunction and the augmented pressure inside it lead this chamber and the mitral annulus to dilate, thus generating the consequent displacement of the posterior mitral annulus to the ridge in the LV input pathway. The progressive growth of the LA in the posterior direction leads to other findings.</p>
<p>At first, we believed this situation happened only and exclusively because of annular dilation; however, other studies added new mechanisms to the process.</p>
<p><bold>1. ISOLATED MITRAL ANNULAR DILATION:</bold> in a retrospective study, Gertz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup>, when analyzing 53 patients referred to first AF ablation, who presented with moderate to severe MI, type I, and Ejection Fraction (EF) &gt;50%, demonstrated that the dimension of the mitral annulus was the most important factor for MI in patients with FA (odds ratio 8.39; p= 0.004). Besides, they detected major MI in 82% of the patients with recurrene of FA, and in only 24% of patients with effective ablation. Another study that included 170 patients with AF, structurally normal mitral valve, normal function and dimensions of the LV, who underwent multidetector CT before the ablation, showed that patients with moderate to severe MI presented larger perimeter, annular area and intercommissural and anteroposterior diameters in comparison to patients without MI<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup>.</p>
<p><bold>2. INSUFFICIENT LEAFLET REMODELING:</bold> heart valvesare capable of presenting the compensatory growth of leaflets secondary to annular dilation and heart dimensions. This happens thanks to endothelial-mesenchymal cells. Kagiyama et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> found that the leaflet area was significantly larger in all patients with FA. Regarding the total leaflet area (TLA) to mitral annular area (MAA), it was significantly smaller in the MI group when compared to the group without MI and controls. In most patients with significant MI, the TLA/MMA ratio was lower than 1.4. This shows that when the mitral annulus is significantly dilated, leaflet growth does not follow and reaches a plateau, and this insufficient adaptation contributes with the onset of MI.</p>
<p><bold>3. CHANGES IN ANNULAR CONTRACTILITY AND SADDLE SHAPE:</bold> the mitral annulus is primarily composed of fibrous and fat tissue. It does not contract actively, but it moves passively with the contraction of the LA and the LV. Annular contraction begins in late diastole and continues through mesosystole, resulting in a reduction of approximately 25% of its area. About 60% of this reduction takes place in late diastole. Anatomic studies by Silbiger and Bazaz<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> suggest that, during late diastole, the mitral annulus becomes narrow due to the contraction of circumferential fibers that outlines the base of the LA (atriogenic annular contraction), whereas in systole, annular narrowing is facilitated by the superficial oblique fibers of the LV input pathway = basal twist (ventricular annular contraction). In FA, it is possible to identify the flattening of the mitral annulus and loss of annular movement. The flattening of the mitral annulus increases valvular stress, leading to fibrosis, thickening and calcification;</p>
<p><bold>4. ATRIOGENIC <italic>TETHERING</italic> of the leaflets:</bold> the anterior portion of the mitral annulus is connected to the aorta, at a more fixed and stable position of the heart. The posterior mitral annulus is anchored between the LA and the ridge in the LV input pathway. With the growth of the LA, it is pushed towards the epicardial surface of the posterior basal wall. The posterior leaflet follows this movement and increases annulo-papillary distance, causing a more abrupt angle and larger curvature towards the LV = atriogenic asymmetric posterior tethering<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup>.</p>
<p><bold>5. ATRIAL DYSFUNCTION AND CHANGES IN HEART RATE:</bold> there is probably a bidirectional relation between AFMR and atrial myopathy. Further studies are required to answer this question.</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title> Physiopathology of AFMR. AFMR: atrial functional mitral regurgitation; VFMR: ventricular functional mitral regurgitation; LA: left atrium.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Demonstrative model of pathological Evolution. Acknowledge to Kátia Debus for creating this artwork.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf03.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Echocardiographic findings</title>
<p>This item presents findings that are not commonly known, and the approach about the subject is necessary:</p>
<p><bold>Hamstringing:</bold> it is identified as a blocked movement of the posterior leaflet, which is practically paralyzed, favoring eccentric jets<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup>.</p>
<p><bold>1. Bending:</bold>it is characterized as a fold or arching of the posterior leaflet, forming an angle between the posterior and the anterior leaflet. In a retrospective study, Okamoto et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> examined 118 patients with AFMR and EF &gt; 50%, and compared 24 patients with bending and 94 patients without bending. For that, they defined bending as a relation between the angle of the posterior leaflet and the angle of the anterior leaflet as higher than or equal to 3.1. Survival rate after 36 months of follow-up was significantly lower in the group with bending of the posterior leaflet (63 x 78%, p= 0.047).</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Hamstringing. Kindly reproduced with permission from Serge Harb. Image taken from Mesi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf04.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figure 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Bending. Kindly reproduced with permission from Makoto Miyake. Image taken from Okamoto et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf05.tif"/>
</fig>
<p><bold>2. Anterior leaflet pseudoprolapse:</bold>the free border of the anterior leaflet does not meet the border of the posterior leaflet, which is pulled, leading to flawed coaptation and the false impression of a prolapse<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup>.</p>
<p>The <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> provides data that allow the comparison of aspects for the differential diagnosis between AFMR and VFMR.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Differential diagnosis between AMIF and CMIF.</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color: #C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle">PARAMETERS</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">AFMR</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">VFMR</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LV size and geometry</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><underline>= Normal by definition</underline> (Volume &lt; 78 ml/m2 for women and &lt; 85 ml/m2 for men) with preservation of usual morphology.<break/> = Absence of papillary displacement.<break/> = Preserved geometry.<break/> = In late stages of major AFMR, the LV can dilate and the papillary can be displaced due to volume overload.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Often dilated (but not necessarily).<break/> = Asymmetrical displacement of the papillary muscle (common Acute inferior / dorsal Myocardial Infarction) or symmetrical displacement in Dilated Cardiomyopathy.<break/> = Sphericity index (SI) often increased</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Wall thickness</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= At early stages, usually normal. May present concentric hypertrophy due to associated comorbidities.<break/> = Eccentric hypertrophy only at advanced stages.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Normal thickness, fibrotic of eccentric hypertrophy.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">EF</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Preserved regional and global function (EF &gt; 50%)<break/> = slightly reduced EF at advanced stages.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= EF usually &lt; 50% with global systolic dysfunction, or up to &gt; 50% with segmental abnormalities<break/> = May present intraventricular dyssynchrony</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Global Longitudinal Strain</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Usually preserved (&gt; 18%) or borderline (between 16-18%).<break/> = Depending on the stage, might be slightly reduced.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Typically reduced (&lt; 16%).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">LA size</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><underline>= Dilated by definition.</underline><break/> Usually, moderated (42-28 ml/m2) or marked (&gt; 48 ml/m2) growth is found in volume</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Often dilated.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Annular size</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><underline>= Dilated by definition.</underline><break/> Systolic Antero-posterior diameter &gt; 35 mm in PLAX or &gt; 36 mm in 4 chambers or indexed annular area &gt; 7 cm2/m2 in 3D in mesosystole;<break/> = Relation periphery artery disease/diastolic length of anterior leaflet &gt; 1.3.<break/> = Annular flattening.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Often dilated in response to LA dilatation.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Leaflet morphology</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Normal macroscopic appearance.<break/> = Most presents mild thickening.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Normal macroscopic appearance.<break/> = Different levels of thickening.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Leaflet mobility</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Usually normal (Carpentier I), but can be classified as III b when Hamstringing is identified.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Restricted (Carpentier III b).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Point of leaflet coaptation</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">At the annulus level or slightly apically displaced</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Apically displaced (subvalvular tethering).</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tenting height</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Reduced. Usually between 3.5 +- 1.5 mm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Augmented. Usually between 8.1+- 2.4 mm.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Jet direction</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Usually central, but can be eccentric in case of Hamstringing, or with shorter length of the posterior leaflet.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">It is usually central in cases of symmetrical displacement of papillary muscles and eccentric in cases of asymmetrical displacement.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Associated RA dilation</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">More common</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Less common</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Moderate / severe RV systolic dysfunction</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Less common, but if present, prognosis is worse.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">More common</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prognosis</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Better prognosis in relation to VFMR <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup>. However, its prognosis is worse in comparison to PMI.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">It is the worst prognosis. VFMR &gt; AFMR &gt; PMI</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>EF: ejection fraction; AFMR: atrial functional mitral regurgitation; VFMR: ventricular functional mitral regurgitation; LV: left ventricle.</p></fn>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>This review aimed to approach several current aspects of AFMR. However, new studies are required to bring more information, adjusting the diagnostic criteria of this entity.</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 6</label>
<caption>
<title>Anterior leaflet prolapse and eccentric jet (posteriorly driven). Reproduced with permission from Silbiger.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf06.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
<p>Editor responsible for the review: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
<p><bold>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ack>
<title>Acknowledgments</title>
<p>To the colleagues in the Echocardiography Department of Rio Grande do Sul, who encouraged me to study the theme and speak at our annual event, especially Dr. Michel Cadore. To Dr. Daniela Rassi and DIC, I am grateful for the opportunity.</p>
</ack>
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<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/openhrt-2021-001574</pub-id>
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</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230097</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Insuficiência Mitral Funcional Atrial</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-6439-2757</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Pretto</surname><given-names>Alexsander da Silva</given-names></name>
<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obtenção de dados</role>
<role>análise e interpretação dos dados</role>
<role>redação do manuscrito</role>
<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Tenente Portela</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">ImagemCor, Tenente Portela, RS – Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Alexsander da Silva Pretto</bold> • Clínica ImagemCor, Rua Tibiriçá, 155. CEP: <postal-code>98500-000</postal-code>. Tenente Portela, RS – Brasil. E-mail: <email>axspretto@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold></p>
<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A insuficiência mitral (IM) secundária no cenário da doença ventricular sempre frequentou a pauta dos congressos e atingiu amplo conhecimento fisiopatológico ao longo dos anos. Mais recentemente, com incidência crescente de fibrilação atrial (FA) e de insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEP), um novo fenótipo até então pouco comentado veio à tona: a IM funcional atrial (IMFA). Nessa entidade, a atenção especial deve ser direcionada ao átrio esquerdo e ao anel mitral, visto que em fases precoces cursam com dimensões e função ventricular esquerda normais.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Fibrilação Atrial</kwd>
<kwd>Insuficiência Cardíaca</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Insuficiência da Valva Mitral</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdução</title>
<p>A insuficiência mitral (IM) está entre as valvulopatias mais comuns no mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Novos conhecimentos a respeito da sua fisiopatologia, diagnóstico e tratamento estão em ebulição. No mesmo sentido, a fibrilação atrial (FA) é a desordem do ritmo mais comumente observada na população em geral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Estima-se que a prevalência de IM nos EUA em 2030 será superior a 4 milhões de casos, e a de FA atingirá 12,1 milhões.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Dados apontam que, até 2050, a população acima de 80 anos irá triplicar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>O crescimento “epidêmico” da incidência de FA, com aproximadamente 5 milhões de casos novos globalmente ao ano,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> e da insuficiência cardíaca com fração ejeção preservada (ICFEP), responsável por 37 a 53% dos casos de insuficiência cardíaca congestiva (ICC) nas diferentes séries nos obriga a conhecer melhor este subgrupo de pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Além disso, um a dois terços dos pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada (ICFEP) experimentarão FA no momento do diagnóstico ou em algum ponto da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>A identificação do mecanismo da IM é chave para a sequência do tratamento. A classificação de Carpentier é o ponto de partida para a melhor compreensão, a qual, na opinião deste autor, deveria fazer parte de todos os laudos de pacientes com IM moderada ou importante (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 1</xref>). Tradicionalmente, a IM é classificada em primária ou orgânica (IMP), quando os folhetos ou o aparato subvalvar estão estruturalmente anormais; e em secundária ou funcional (IMF), quando os folhetos e o aparato estão normais e é causada por anormalidades funcionais no coração esquerdo. Ocorre pelo desbalanço entre as forças de tração (decorrentes exclusivamente do remodelamento global ou regional do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), promovendo o deslocamento ápico-lateral dos músculos papilares (<italic>tethering</italic> dos folhetos) e as forças de fechamento (redução da contratilidade e dissincronia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Este modelo, até então conhecido, passou a ser chamado de IM Funcional Ventricular (IMFV), e um novo conceito surgiu: a IM Funcional Atrial (IMFA).</p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Classificação de Carpentier. IMFA: insuficiência mitral funcional atrial; IMFV: insuficiência mitral funcional ventricular; MCH: miocardiopatia hipertrófica; SAM: movimento anterior sistólico; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Historicamente, a IMFA se devia somente à dilatação anular mitral, mas evidências recentes mostraram que esta é apenas uma peça do quebra-cabeça, e novos mecanismos foram adicionados. O reconhecimento precoce parece ser extremamente importante porque estudos demonstram que a ablação com sucesso e a manutenção do ritmo sinusal diminuem a sua severidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Os dados sobre sua real incidência e prevalência pecam devido a critérios diagnósticos variáveis. Kagiyama et al. revisaram a prevalência da IMFA em nove estudos e identificaram, inicialmente, taxas muito diferentes (entre 2,8 e 66,7%). Após excluírem estudos que usaram métodos qualitativos para classificação da IM e outro que incluía pacientes hospitalizados, chegaram a uma prevalência de 3 a 15%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Moonen et al. estudaram 140.014 adultos em 25 centros da Austrália, incluindo somente pacientes com IMF severa, e encontraram IMFV em 60% dos casos e IMFA em 40%. Os pacientes com IMFA eram mais idosos (média de 78 +- 11 anos) e com maior proporção de mulheres (58%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
<p>Mesi et al., em um estudo contendo 283 pacientes, compararam IMP com IMFA e identicaram que neste segundo grupo havia mais comorbidades, como hipertensão arterial sistêmica (HAS), Diabetes Mellitus tipo 2, FA permanente, cirurgia cardíaca não-mitral prévia e implante de marcapasso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p>O grupo da Mayo Clinic publicou um estudo, capitaneado por Dziadzko, no qual analisaram 727 moradores do Condado de Olmsted, em Minnesota, encaminhados para ecocardiografia por diagnóstico de IM moderada ou severa, e reportaram IMF em 65% dos casos, orgânica em 32%, e mista em 3%. Dentre os casos de IMF (65%) encontrou-se IMFV em 38% e IMFA em 27%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<sec>
<title>Fisiopatologia</title>
<p>A melhor proposta para compreensão da gênese desta entidade foi descrita por Silbiger.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Ele descreveu que a disfunção atrial esquerda e o aumento de pressão em seu interior promovem dilatação desta câmara e do anel mitral, levando ao consequente deslocamento do ânulo mitral posterior para a crista da via de entrada do VE. O aumento progressivo do átrio esquerdo (AE) em direção posterior leva ao aparecimento de outros achados.</p>
<p>Inicialmente, acreditava-se que esta entidade ocorria única e exclusivamente por decorrência da dilatação anular; porém, com o evoluir das pesquisas, outros mecanismos foram adicionados.</p>
<p><bold>1. DILATAÇAO ISOLADA DO ANEL MITRAL:</bold> em um estudo retrospectivo, Gertz et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> ao analisarem 53 pacientes encaminhados para a primeira ablação de FA que apresentavam IM moderada a severa, tipo I, e Fração de Ejeção (FE) &gt;50%, demonstraram que a dimensão do anel mitral foi o fator mais importante para IM em pacientes com FA (<italic>odds ratio</italic> 8,39; p= 0,004). Além disso, detectaram IM importante em 82% dos pacientes com recorrência da FA e em apenas 24% dos pacientes com ablação efetiva. Outro estudo que incluiu 170 pacientes com FA, valva mitral estruturalmente normal, função e dimensões normais do VE submetidos à tomografia com multidetectores realizada antes de ablação mostrou que os pacientes com IM moderada e severa apresentavam maior perímetro, área anular e diâmetros intercomissural e anteroposterior em relação aos pacientes sem IM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p><bold>2. REMODELAMENTO INSUFICIENTE DOS FOLHETOS:</bold> as valvas cardíacas são capazes de apresentar crescimento compensatório dos folhetos secundário à dilatação anular e às dimensões cardíacas. Isso ocorre graças às células endoteliais-mesenquimais. Kagiyama et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> encontraram área diastólica dos folhetos significativamente maior em pacientes com FA sem IM em comparação aos controles. Já Kim et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> encontrou que a área dos folhetos foi significativamente maior em todos os pacientes com FA. A relação da área total dos folhetos (ATF) sobre a área anular mitral (AAM) foi significativamente menor no grupo IM quando comparado ao grupo sem IM e controles. Na maioria dos pacientes com IM significativa, a relação ATF/AAM era menor que 1,4. Isso demonstra que quando o anel mitral se dilata significativamente, o aumento dos folhetos não acompanha, atingindo um platô, e essa adaptação insuficiente contribui para o aparecimento da IM.</p>
<p><bold>3. MODIFICAÇÕES NA CONTRATILIDADE ANULAR E NA FORMA EM SELA:</bold> o anel mitral é composto primariamente por tecido fibroso e adiposo. Ele não se contrai ativamente, mas se move passivamente com a contração do AE e do VE. A contração anular começa na diástole tardia e continua por meio da mesossístole, resultando numa redução de aproximadamente 25% de sua área. Cerca de 60% desta redução acontece na diástole tardia. Estudos anatômicos de Silbiger e Bazaz<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> sugerem que durante a diástole tardia o anel mitral se estreita por causa da contração das fibras circunferenciais que contornam a base do AE (contração anular atriogênica), enquanto na sístole o estreitamento anular é facilitado pelas fibras oblíquas superficiais da via de entrada do VE = twist basal (contração anular ventriculogênica). Na FA identifica-se achatamento do anel mitral e perda da movimentação anular. O achatamento do anel mitral aumenta o estresse valvar levando à fibrose, espessamento e calcificação;</p>
<p><bold>4. <italic>TETHERING</italic> ATRIOGÊNICO DOS FOLHETOS:</bold> a porção anterior do anel mitral está ligada à aorta, em uma posição mais fixa e estável do coração. Já o ânulo mitral posterior está ancorado entre o AE e a crista da via de entrada do VE. Com aumento do AE, ele é empurrado para a superfície epicárdica da parede basal posterior. O folheto posterior acompanha esse movimento aumentando a distância ânulo-papilar e causando um ângulo mais abrupto e maior curvatura em direção ao VE = <italic>tethering</italic> posterior assimétrico atriogênico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Fisiopatologia da IMFA. IMFA: insuficiência mitral funcional atrial; ICFEP: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada. AE: átrio esquerdo.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f9">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Modelo demonstrativo da evolução patológica. Agradecimentos a Kátia Debus pela confecção desta arte.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf03-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p><bold>5. DISFUNÇÃO ATRIAL E MUDANÇAS NA FREQUÊNCIA CARDÍACA:</bold> provavelmente existe uma relação bidirecional entre IMFA e miopatia atrial. Novos estudos são necessários para, no futuro, responder essa questão.</p>
<fig id="f10">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Hamstringing. Gentilmente reproduzido com a permissão de Serge Harb. Imagem retirada de Mesi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf04-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f11">
<label>Figura 5</label>
<caption>
<title>Bending. Gentilmente reproduzido com a permissão de Makoto Miyake. Imagem retirada de Okamoto et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf05-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<fig id="f12">
<label>Figura 6</label>
<caption>
<title>Pseudoprolapso do folheto anterior e um jato excêntrico (dirigido posteriormente). Reproduzido com a permissão de Silbiger, Echocardiography 2019.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-37-01-e20230097-gf06-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Achados Ecocardiográficos</title>
<p>Essa entidade apresenta alguns achados não habitualmente conhecidos, cuja abordagem se faz necessária. Entre eles:</p>
<p><bold>1. Hamstringing:</bold> é identificado como um movimento bloqueado do folheto posterior, o qual fica praticamente paralisado, favorecendo jatos excêntricos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
<p><bold>2. Bending:</bold> é caracterizado como uma dobradura ou arqueamento do folheto posterior com formação de uma angulação entre o folheto posterior e o folheto anterior. Em um estudo retrospectivo, Okamoto et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> examinaram 118 pacientes com IMFA com FE &gt; 50% e compararam 24 pacientes com bending e 94 pacientes sem bending. Para tanto, eles definiram o bending como uma relação do ângulo do folheto posterior e do ângulo do folheto anterior maior ou igual a 3,1. A sobrevida após 36 meses de follow-up foi significativamente menor no grupo com bending do folheto posterior (63 x 78%, p= 0,047).</p>
<p><bold>3. Pseudoprolapso do folheto anterior:</bold> a borda livre do folheto anterior não encontra a borda do folheto posterior que está tracionado, levando a uma falha de coaptação e à impressão falsa de um prolapso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
<p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> oferece dados que permitem comparar aspectos para o diagnóstico diferencial entre IMFA e IMFV.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Diagnóstico diferencial entre IMFA e IMFV</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr style="background-color: #C58874;">
<th align="left" valign="middle">PARÂMETROS</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">IMFA</th>
<th align="center" valign="middle">IMFV</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tamanho e geometria VE</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><underline>= Normal por definição</underline> (Volume &lt; 78 ml/m2 para mulheres e &lt; 85 ml/m2 para homens) com preservação da morfologia habitual.<break/> = Ausência de deslocamento dos papilares.<break/> = Geometria preservada.<break/> = Em estágios tardios de IMFA importante, o VE pode dilatar e os papilares aparecerem deslocados decorrentes da sobrecarga de volume.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Frequentemente dilatado (mas não necessariamente).<break/>= Deslocamento assimétrico do músculo papilar (comum Infarto Agudo do Miocário inferior/dorsal) ou simétrico na Miocardiopatia Dilatada.<break/> = Índice de Esfericidade (IE) frequentemente aumentado</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Espessura das paredes</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Em fases iniciais, geralmente normal. Pode apresentar hipertrofia concêntrica decorrente das comorbidades associadas.<break/> = Hipertrofia excêntrica somente em estágios avançados.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Espessura normal, fibrótica ou hipertrofia excêntrica.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">FE</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Função regional e global preservada (FE &gt; 50%)<break/> = FE levemente reduzida em estágios avançados.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Geralmente FE &lt; 50% com disfunção sistólica global ou até &gt; 50% com anormalidades segmentares<break/> = Pode apresentar dissincronia intraventricular</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle"><italic>Strain Longitudinal Global</italic></td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Geralmente preservado (&gt; 18%) ou borderline (entre 16-18%).<break/> = Dependendo do estágio, pode estar levemente reduzido.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Tipicamente reduzido (&lt; 16%).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tamanho do AE</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><underline>= Dilatado por definição.</underline><break/> Geralmente são encontrados aumentos moderados (42-48 ml/m2) ou acentuados do volume (&gt; 48 ml/m2)</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Frequentemente dilatado.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Tamanho anular</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle"><underline>= Dilatado por definição.</underline><break/> Diâmetro Antero-Posterior sistólico (DAPs) &gt; 35 mm no PLAX ou &gt; 36 mm em 4 câmaras ou área anular indexada &gt; 7 cm2/m2 ao 3D na mesossístole;<break/> = Relação DAPs /comprimento diastólico do folheto anterior &gt; 1,3.<break/> = Achatamento anular.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Frequentemente dilatado em resposta à dilatação do AE.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Morfologia dos folhetos</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Aparência macroscópica normal.<break/> = A maioria apresenta leve espessamento.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">= Aparência macroscópica normal.<break/> = Graus variados de espessamento.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Mobilidade dos folhetos</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Usualmente normal (Carpentier I), mas pode ser classificado com III b quando identificado Hamstringing.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Restrita (Carpentier III b).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Ponto de coaptação dos folhetos</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Ao nível do anel ou levemente deslocado apicalmente</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Deslocado apicalmente (tethering subvalvar).</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Altura do Tenting</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Reduzida. Geralmente entre 3,5 +- 1,5 mm</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Aumentada. Geralmente entre 8,1+- 2,4 mm.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Direção do jato</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Frequentemente central, mas pode ser excêntrico no caso de Hamstringing ou de menor comprimento do folheto posterior.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Costuma ser central nos casos de deslocamento simétrico dos músculos papilares e excêntrico nos casos de deslocamento assimétrico.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Dilatação associada do AD</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Mais comum</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Menos comum</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="middle">Disfunção sistólica moderada / acentuada do VD</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Menos comum, mas quando presente carrega pior prognóstico.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Mais comum</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #E8CCBF;">
<td align="left" valign="middle">Prognóstico</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">Melhor prognóstico em relação à IMFV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup>. Porém, seu o prognóstico é pior em relação à IMP.</td>
<td align="center" valign="middle">É por ordem a de pior prognóstico.<break/> IMFV &gt; IMFA &gt; IMP</td>
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<p>FE: Fração de Ejeção; IMFA: insuficiência mitral funcional atrial; IMFV: insuficiência mitral funcional ventricular; VE: ventrículo esquerda; IMP: insuficiência mitral primária; AE: átrio esquerdo; AD: átrio direito; VD: ventrículo direito; DAP: Diâmetro Ântero-Posterior.</p></fn>
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<title>Conclusão</title>
<p>Essa revisão buscou abordar diversos aspectos atuais da IMFA. Porém, novos estudos são necessários para trazer mais informações ajustando os critérios diagnósticos desta entidade.</p>
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<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
<p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p></fn>
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<p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
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<p><bold>Vinculação Acadêmica</bold></p>
<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p></fn>
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<p><bold>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
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<ack>
<title>Agradecimentos</title>
<p>Aos colegas do Departamento de Ecocardiografia do Rio Grande do Sul, que me instigaram ao aprofundamento no tema para palestrar em nossa Jornada anual, em especial ao Dr. Michel Cadore.</p>
<p>A Dra. Daniela Rassi e ao DIC, minha gratidão pela oportunidade.</p>
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