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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20230108i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230108i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Role of Shear Wave Elastography in the Assessment of Myocardial Stiffness in Various Cardiomyopathies</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fernandes</surname><given-names>Fabio</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6302-8014</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Santorio</surname><given-names>Nathalia Conci</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis</role>
<role>interpretation of the data</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7815-7807</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Pereira</surname><given-names>Nat&#xE1;lia de Melo</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis</role>
<role>interpretation of the data</role></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5960-2952</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cafezeiro</surname><given-names>Caio Rebou&#xE7;as Fonseca</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9524-0255</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Alencar</surname><given-names>Arist&#xF3;teles Comte de</given-names><suffix>Neto</suffix></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6721-7779</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Bueno</surname><given-names>Bruno Vaz Kerges</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5135-2829</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Pereira</surname><given-names>Fernando Linhares</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7041-3079</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Chammas</surname><given-names>Maria Cristina</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o (InCor), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas (HC), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: F&#xE1;bio Fernandes</bold> &#x2022; Av. Dr. En&#xE9;as Carvalho de Aguiar, 44. Postal code: <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>. Cerqueira C&#xE9;sar, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brazil E-mail: <email>fabio.fernandes@incor.usp.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>20</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<elocation-id>e20230108</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>28</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>01</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2023</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>01</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2023</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Echocardiography is essential for the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Assessing left ventricle diastolic function is a major challenge, and several well-known ultrasound techniques, such as pulsed Doppler for mitral flow, tissue Doppler, and myocardial strain, are used to non-invasively estimate left atrial filling pressure. Although widely available, this approach has several limitations and does not truly represent the intrinsic properties of the cardiac muscle. However, cardiac elastography can be studied non-invasively by estimating myocardial stiffness through shear wave propagation speed in cardiac tissue. Elastography is already widely used to assess stiffness in other tissue types, such as thyroid, liver, and breast. In the context of cardiological assessment, this technique has already been successfully used in diseases such as cardiac amyloidosis and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. This article aims to review the main concepts of this promising technique and present the published experiences of national and international services.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>Elasticity Imaging Techniques</kwd>
<kwd>Muscle Rigidity</kwd>
<kwd>Amyloidosis</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="4"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="20"/></counts></article-meta></front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Heart failure is defined as the heart&#x2019;s inability to pump a sufficient quantity of blood to meet the body&#x2019;s metabolic needs, or to do so at the expense of increased filling pressures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> This concept is extremely important, since approximately 50% of heart failure cases are classified as having preserved left ventricular ejection fraction,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> in which increased filling pressure appears to be the predominant mechanism.</p>
<p>Classically, cardiac catheterization, an invasive technique, is used to directly measure intracavitary filling pressures, allowing construction of the pressure-volume curve. This approach characterizes the intrinsic properties of ventricular pump function throughout the cardiac cycle, in addition to hemodynamic variables, which clarifies the pathophysiology of heart diseases and contributes to their diagnosis.</p>
<p>One important property, a concept applied to different materials, is stiffness, ie, the extent to which an object resists deformation in response to an applied force.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Compliance, the opposite of stiffness, quantifies a material&#x2019;s deformability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Thus, myocardial stiffness represents resistance to stretching when the myocardium is subjected to stress, corresponding to the slope of the stress vs deformation curve.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Left ventricular compliance is the variation in pressure in relation to variation in volume, and left ventricular stiffness can be measured by the slope of the pressure-volume curve in final diastole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Normal diastolic function is characterized by a normal left ventricular relaxation rate, with myocardial and left ventricular stiffness parameters within normal limits, resulting in low filling pressures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> During diastole, both active relaxation and myocardial stiffness, an intrinsic property associated with sarcomere proteins (such as titin) and the extracellular matrix, simultaneously determine the filling pattern of the left ventricle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> However, active relaxation is more predominant in early diastole, while passive myocardial stiffness is more predominant at end-diastole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> This implies that myocardial stiffness has a greater influence on the slope of the pressure-volume curve during end-diastole<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>.</p>
<p>In most cases, diastolic function is determined through routine echocardiographic techniques, such as pulsed Doppler analysis of mitral flow, tissue Doppler and, more recently, myocardial strain, which allows non-invasive estimation of left atrial filling pressure. Despite their wide availability, these techniques have several limitations and do not, in fact, represent the intrinsic properties of the cardiac muscle.</p>
<p>Shear wave elastography represents a paradigm shift in echocardiography by non-invasively measuring myocardial stiffness, which can add important information to diastolic function assessment. In this article, we will discuss the fundamentals of its use and its main clinical applications.</p>
<sec>
<title>Physical properties and methodology of shear wave elastography</title>
<p>Shear wave elastography is widely used for non-invasive assessment of liver and breast nodules, in addition to other applications, such as the characterization of kidney, prostate, and thyroid lesions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>This technique involves measuring shear wave propagation speed in different tissues, which is directly proportional to their stiffness. It is important to conceptually differentiate between shear waves and compressive waves, which are used in conventional ultrasound to produce images. In compressive waves, the particles move in parallel with the propagation direction, while in shear waves they move perpendicularly to it.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Additionally, shear waves have a propagation speed of around 1-10 m/s, which is much lower than compressive acoustic waves (around 1450-1550 m/s in soft tissue).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> To evaluate shear waves with reasonable precision, specific transducers and equipment with a frame rate between 1000 and 10,000 frames/second are required.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>The lower propagation speed of shear waves make them essential for tissue characterization. It has been demonstrated that pathological tissue changes lead to increased propagation speed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The evolution of ultrasound devices has made it possible to track such waves and differentiate small variations that occur during their journey through unhealthy tissue.</p>
<p>Cardiac elastography can be performed in different ways, depending on how the waves are generated, which is illustrated in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Central Figure</xref>. One way is through short, high intensity acoustic radiation pulses emitted by the transducer itself, which form shear waves that displace tissue (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Central Figure A</xref>). To properly perform this technique, the targeted cardiac wall must be oriented parallel to the transducer, which emits the impulse and determines the speed at which the waves propagate through the tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f1">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-04-e20230108-gf01.tif"/>
<p>Myocardial elastography methods. In A, shear waves are generated through impulses emitted by the transducer itself. In B, shear waves are generated naturally by mitral valve closure. The blue arrows represent tissue displacement, while the green arrows indicate the direction of shear wave propagation.</p>
</fig>
<p>In the context of cardiac physiology, the closing of the atrioventricular and semilunar valves generates shear waves of itself. Another technique is based on assessing the intrinsic movement of these naturally generated waves (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Central Figure B</xref>). This analysis is more feasible and can be performed with more conventional equipment. Furthermore, such waves do not depend on an acoustic window for generation, allowing broader application in clinical practice. However, while transducer-generated waves can be controlled in time and space by an ultrasound device, naturally-generated waves appear at specific locations and periods during the cardiac cycle, requiring propagation velocity analysis at specific points.</p>
<p>Considering an isotropic medium with uniform density, stiffness can be estimated from the shear wave propagation speed according to the equation: <inline-formula><mml:math id="m1" display="inline"><mml:mo>&#xB5;</mml:mo><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mo>&#x3C1;</mml:mo><mml:msup><mml:mo>c</mml:mo><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:msup></mml:math></inline-formula>, where &#x201C;<italic>&#xB5;</italic>&#x201D; represents myocardial stiffness (kPa), &#x201C;&#x3C1;&#x201D; tissue density, and &#x201C;c&#x201D; the shear wave propagation speed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>A recently published Brazilian study was conducted at the Heart Institute of the University of S&#xE3;o Paulo School of Medicine (InCor), in partnership with the Radiology Institute of the University of S&#xE3;o Paulo University Hospital (InRad).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> In this study, assessments were performed with a device already used by the service, an APLIO i800 (Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan), with small adjustments made for the elastographic study and images obtained from a multifrequency convex probe (fundamental frequency 3.5 MHz). Shear wave propagation speed was measured at end-diastole, when the heart moves the least. Long-axis parasternal windows were used to assess the basal segment of the septum, while short-axis parasternal windows were used to assess the basal segment of the septum and the basal, middle and, apical segments of the septum, plus the right ventricle free wall, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption><title>Myocardial elastography. In A, the basal segment of the interventricular septum is assessed in a long-axis parasternal window. In B and C, the middle and basal segments of the septum, respectively, are assessed in a short-axis parasternal window. In D, the right ventricle free wall is assessed in a short-axis parasternal window.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-04-e20230108-gf02.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Clinical applications of shear wave elastography</title>
<p>Several studies have shown promising results with this technique. In 2019, Petrescu et al. found higher propagation velocities in patients with cardiac amyloidosis and older adults, which suggested a correlation between propagation velocities and myocardial stiffness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> In 2020, the same group evaluated propagation speed in heart transplant patients, finding a good correlation with invasive measurement (right catheterization) of pulmonary capillary pressure and a diffuse pattern of myocardial injury assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>Based on shear wave propagation speed, Villemain et al. found greater myocardial stiffness in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy than healthy controls, in addition to a significant correlation between fibrosis assessed by delayed enhancement cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and diastolic dysfunction parameters assessed by conventional echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Cvijic et al. used the method to evaluate hypertensive patients, finding that patients with advanced disease and concentric remodeling or concentric hypertrophy had greater stiffness than healthy controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Alencar Neto et al. found greater myocardial stiffness in patients with transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis than healthy controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A decreasing pattern of stiffness towards the apex was described,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> suggesting a pattern of apical sparing, which is compatible with the pathophysiology of the disease.</p>
<p>Although these are initial studies, they show that the technique is feasible and has potential clinical application. Considering that several diseases present with a hypertrophic phenotype, such as amyloidosis and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, additional and more expensive diagnostic resources are required; a non-invasive technique associated with echocardiography can improve diagnosis and may add prognostic value for these diseases. Furthermore, it may revolutionize the assessment and understanding of diastolic function in general.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Challenges to using shear wave elastography</title>
<p>In addition to the difficulties inherent to new diagnostic techniques, such as different acquisition protocols and equipment, being an ultrasound technique, it is consequently operator-dependent and angle-dependent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Associated with such technical factors, cardiac tissue is essentially anisotropic, with different layers, thin walls, and its own movement patterns,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> variables that can influence shear wave propagation speed. Furthermore, it has been shown that both geometric changes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> and increased preload<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> affect these measurements. These mechanical factors limit the use of Young&#x2019;s modulus to determine myocardial stiffness, since they are not considered in this equation. Given that propagation speed is influenced by these variables, they should ideally be determined at the time of evaluation for correct interpretation of the results.</p>
<p>Other limitations include definitions of the ideal echocardiographic window and the number of myocardial segments to be analyzed. Significantly higher propagation velocities were obtained in an apical window than a parasternal window in healthy volunteers, with no significant correlation between the measured values.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> It is worth mentioning that the directions in which the natural valve-generated shear waves propagate within the myocardium are unknown, which impairs accurate velocity estimation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>It is also important to consider that elastography assessment depends on the phase of the cardiac cycle, with the impulse activated according to electrical heartbeat monitoring. However, there is no impediment to using the method in irregular heart rhythms, which limits conventional diastolic function assessment.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Future perspectives for shear wave elastography</title>
<p>Elastography may prove useful in other heart diseases, improving diagnostic and, possibly, prognostic and therapeutic response assessment. Since it is a non-invasive, accessible, and low-cost technique, it can be incorporated into traditional echocardiogram, a daily component of the clinical practice of cardiologists.</p>
<p>As interest in the technique has grown, the number of studies on cardiac elastography has increased. However, different impulse emission techniques, ultrasound devices, and configurations make it difficult to understand the data and standardize the results. The technique&#x2019;s standardization is fundamental and must be achieved in the future. Likewise, different result metrics can be found in the literature. There is a greater tendency to use wave propagation speed, rather than elasticity, thus avoiding equations that depend on mechanical factors inapplicable to the myocardium.</p>
<p>Tissue dispersion and anisotropy data can also be obtained through elastography, allowing for more advanced tissue characterization. Furthermore, most studies typically report shear wave speed in the interventricular septum using a long-axis parasternal window, due to the almost orthogonal relationship between the position of the ultrasound beam and the cardiac tissue required to induce the shear waves. However, other echocardiographic windows and regions of the myocardium may be used for other assessments, commensurate with advances in device quality.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusions</title>
<p>Cardiac elastography has shown good accuracy in evaluating shear wave propagation speed, allowing myocardial stiffness estimation despite limitations, as well as a non-invasive and inexpensive detailed assessment of diastolic function. The method is still being tested and is the subject of growing interest in the national and international scientific community. The method may provide unique additional information to conventional echocardiography and add important diagnostic value for a variety of heart diseases.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1"><p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>This study was partially funded by Pfizer.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><p><bold>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4"><p>Editor responsible for the review: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9524-0255</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Alencar</surname><given-names>Arist&#xF3;teles Comte de</given-names><suffix>Neto</suffix></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao  conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6721-7779</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Bueno</surname><given-names>Bruno Vaz Kerges</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref>
<role>revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5135-2829</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Pereira</surname><given-names>Fernando Linhares</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7041-3079</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Chammas</surname><given-names>Maria Cristina</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<role>revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o (InCor), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas (HC), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: F&#xE1;bio Fernandes</bold> &#x2022; Av. Dr. En&#xE9;as Carvalho de Aguiar, 44. CEP: <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>. Cerqueira C&#xE9;sar, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brasil E-mail: <email>fabio.fernandes@incor.usp.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold></p>
<p>Declaro n&#xE3;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>O ecocardiograma &#xE9; fundamental para o diagn&#xF3;stico e tratamento das doen&#xE7;as cardiovasculares. A avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo constitui um grande desafio, sendo utilizadas v&#xE1;rias t&#xE9;cnicas ultrassonogr&#xE1;ficas conhecidas, tais como o Doppler puls&#xE1;til do fluxo mitral, o Doppler tecidual e o <italic>strain</italic> mioc&#xE1;rdico, com o objetivo de estimar de forma n&#xE3;o invasiva a press&#xE3;o de enchimento do &#xE1;trio esquerdo. Apesar de amplamente dispon&#xED;vel, essa abordagem possui v&#xE1;rias limita&#xE7;&#xF5;es e n&#xE3;o representa de fato as propriedades intr&#xED;nsecas do m&#xFA;sculo card&#xED;aco. Nesse contexto, a elastografia card&#xED;aca surge como uma forma de estimar a rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica de forma n&#xE3;o invasiva, ao estudar a velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o de ondas de cisalhamento no tecido card&#xED;aco. A elastografia j&#xE1; &#xE9; amplamente utilizada na avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da rigidez de outros tecidos, como tireoide, f&#xED;gado e mama. No &#xE2;mbito da avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o cardiol&#xF3;gica, essa t&#xE9;cnica j&#xE1; foi empregada com sucesso em doen&#xE7;as como amiloidose card&#xED;aca e cardiomiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica. Este artigo visa revisar os principais conceitos associados a essa t&#xE9;cnica promissora e expor as experi&#xEA;ncias publicadas de servi&#xE7;os nacionais e internacionais.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>T&#xE9;cnicas de Imagem por Elasticidade</kwd>
<kwd>Rigidez Vascula</kwd>
<kwd>Amiloidose</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdu&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>A insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca &#xE9; definida como a incapacidade de o cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o bombear sangue na propor&#xE7;&#xE3;o necess&#xE1;ria para satisfazer &#xE0;s necessidades metab&#xF3;licas do organismo, ou faz&#xEA;-lo &#xE0;s custas de aumento de suas press&#xF5;es de enchimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Esse conceito &#xE9; de suma import&#xE2;ncia, visto que aproximadamente 50% dos casos de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca s&#xE3;o classificados como tendo fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular esquerda preservada,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> na qual o aumento das press&#xF5;es de enchimento se mostra como mecanismo predominante.</p>
<p>Classicamente, a medida direta das press&#xF5;es de enchimento intracavit&#xE1;rio &#xE9; feita pelo cateterismo card&#xED;aco, permitindo a constru&#xE7;&#xE3;o de curvas de press&#xE3;o-volume atrav&#xE9;s de dados obtidos de forma invasiva. Essa abordagem caracteriza as propriedades intr&#xED;nsecas da bomba ventricular ao longo do ciclo card&#xED;aco, bem como vari&#xE1;veis hemodin&#xE2;micas, o que permite melhor entendimento da fisiopatologia das doen&#xE7;as card&#xED;acas e contribui na abordagem diagn&#xF3;stica dessas doen&#xE7;as.</p>
<p>Uma propriedade importante &#xE9; a rigidez, conceito aplicado aos diferentes materiais, pois quantifica at&#xE9; que ponto um objeto resiste &#xE0; deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o em resposta a uma for&#xE7;a aplicada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A complac&#xEA;ncia, por sua vez, &#xE9; o inverso da rigidez e quantifica a deformabilidade de um material.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica, portanto, representa a resist&#xEA;ncia ao estiramento quando o mioc&#xE1;rdio &#xE9; submetido ao estresse, correspondendo &#xE0; inclina&#xE7;&#xE3;o da curva de estresse-deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> J&#xE1; a complac&#xEA;ncia do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo (VE) &#xE9; a varia&#xE7;&#xE3;o de press&#xE3;o em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE0; varia&#xE7;&#xE3;o de volume dessa c&#xE2;mara, e a rigidez do VE pode ser medida pela inclina&#xE7;&#xE3;o da curva de press&#xE3;o-volume na di&#xE1;stole final.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>A fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica normal &#xE9; caracterizada por uma taxa normal de relaxamento do VE, com par&#xE2;metros de rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica e ventricular esquerda dentro de limites normais, o que resulta em baixa press&#xE3;o de enchimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Durante a di&#xE1;stole, tanto o relaxamento ativo quanto a rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica, propriedade intr&#xED;nseca associada a prote&#xED;nas do sarc&#xF4;mero, como a titina, e &#xE0; matriz extracelular, determinam o enchimento do VE de forma simult&#xE2;nea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Por&#xE9;m, h&#xE1; maior predomin&#xE2;ncia do relaxamento ativo na di&#xE1;stole inicial, e da rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica passiva ao final da di&#xE1;stole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Isso implica maior influ&#xEA;ncia da rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica na inclina&#xE7;&#xE3;o da curva de press&#xE3;o-volume na di&#xE1;stole final.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>A avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica &#xE9; feita, na maioria das vezes, por meio de t&#xE9;cnicas ecocardiogr&#xE1;ficas rotineiras, como o Doppler puls&#xE1;til do fluxo mitral e o Doppler tecidual e, mais recentemente, do <italic>strain</italic> mioc&#xE1;rdico, que permitem estimar de forma n&#xE3;o invasiva a press&#xE3;o de enchimento do &#xE1;trio esquerdo. Apesar de amplamente dispon&#xED;veis, possuem v&#xE1;rias limita&#xE7;&#xF5;es e n&#xE3;o representam de fato as propriedades intr&#xED;nsecas do m&#xFA;sculo card&#xED;aco.</p>
<p>A elastografia por ondas de cisalhamento oferece uma quebra de paradigmas &#xE0; ecocardiografia ao medir a rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica de forma n&#xE3;o invasiva, podendo agregar importantes informa&#xE7;&#xF5;es &#xE0; an&#xE1;lise da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica. Neste artigo, discutiremos sobre os fundamentos de seu uso e suas principais aplica&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas.</p>
<sec>
<title>Propriedades f&#xED;sicas e funcionamento do m&#xE9;todo</title>
<p>A elastografia por ondas de cisalhamento j&#xE1; &#xE9; um m&#xE9;todo amplamente consolidado para avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o n&#xE3;o invasiva hep&#xE1;tica e de n&#xF3;dulos de mama, al&#xE9;m de outras aplica&#xE7;&#xF5;es, como caracteriza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de les&#xF5;es renais, prost&#xE1;ticas e tireoidianas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Essa t&#xE9;cnica envolve a medida da velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o das ondas de cisalhamento nos diversos tecidos, que &#xE9; diretamente proporcional &#xE0; sua rigidez. &#xC9; importante diferenciar conceitualmente as ondas de cisalhamento das ondas compressivas, utilizadas pela ultrassonografia convencional para gera&#xE7;&#xE3;o de imagens. As ondas compressivas geram movimenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o de part&#xED;culas de forma paralela &#xE0; dire&#xE7;&#xE3;o de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o, enquanto as ondas de cisalhamento geram movimenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o de forma perpendicular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Al&#xE9;m disso, as ondas de cisalhamento apresentam velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o em torno de 1-10 m/s, muito inferior &#xE0;s ondas ac&#xFA;sticas compressivas, que se propagam em torno de 1450-1550 m/s em tecidos moles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Para avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o das ondas de cisalhamento com razo&#xE1;vel precis&#xE3;o, s&#xE3;o necess&#xE1;rios transdutores espec&#xED;ficos e equipamentos com taxa de frame rate entre 1000 e 10 000 quadros/segundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>As menores velocidades de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o das ondas de cisalhamento as tornam essenciais para a sua fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o de caracteriza&#xE7;&#xE3;o tecidual. Foi demonstrado que mudan&#xE7;as patol&#xF3;gicas no tecido geram aumento de sua velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos aparelhos de ultrassom permitiu rastrear tais ondas e diferenciar pequenas varia&#xE7;&#xF5;es que podem ocorrer durante o seu percurso nos tecidos n&#xE3;o saud&#xE1;veis.</p>
<p>A elastografia card&#xED;aca pode ser realizada de diferentes maneiras, dependendo do modo como tais ondas s&#xE3;o geradas, o que &#xE9; ilustrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">figura central</xref>. Uma forma &#xE9; atrav&#xE9;s dos impulsos de radia&#xE7;&#xE3;o ac&#xFA;stica emitidos pelo pr&#xF3;prio transdutor, de alta intensidade e curta dura&#xE7;&#xE3;o, formando ondas de cisalhamento que geram deslocamento do tecido (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura Central A</xref>). Para a adequada realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o dessa t&#xE9;cnica, a parede card&#xED;aca de interesse deve estar orientada paralelamente ao transdutor, que emite o impulso e determina a velocidade em que as ondas se propagam no tecido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f3">
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-04-e20230108-gf01-pt.tif"/>
<p>Formas de avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da elastografia mioc&#xE1;rdica. Em A, observa-se a gera&#xE7;&#xE3;o de ondas de cisalhamento atrav&#xE9;s dos impulsos emitidos pelo pr&#xF3;prio transdutor. Em B, s&#xE3;o representadas as ondas de cisalhamento geradas naturalmente pelo fechamento da valva mitral. As setas azuis representam o deslocamento do tecido, enquanto as setas verdes indicam a dire&#xE7;&#xE3;o da propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o da onda de cisalhamento.</p>
</fig>
<p>No contexto da fisiologia card&#xED;aca, o fechamento das valvas atrioventriculares e semilunares gera, por si s&#xF3;, ondas de cisalhamento. Outra poss&#xED;vel t&#xE9;cnica &#xE9; baseada na avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da movimenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o intr&#xED;nseca dessas ondas naturalmente geradas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura Central B</xref>). Essa an&#xE1;lise &#xE9; mais fact&#xED;vel e pode ser realizada com equipamentos mais pr&#xF3;ximos aos convencionais. Al&#xE9;m disso, tais ondas n&#xE3;o dependem da janela ac&#xFA;stica para sua gera&#xE7;&#xE3;o, permitindo maior aplica&#xE7;&#xE3;o na pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica. Por&#xE9;m, enquanto as ondas geradas pelo transdutor podem ser controladas no tempo e no espa&#xE7;o pelo aparelho de ultrassom, as ondas naturalmente geradas surgem em locais e em per&#xED;odos determinados do ciclo card&#xED;aco. Isso exige que a an&#xE1;lise da velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o tamb&#xE9;m seja realizada em momentos espec&#xED;ficos do ciclo card&#xED;aco.</p>
<p>Considerando um meio isotr&#xF3;pico, com densidade uniforme, a rigidez pode ser estimada a partir da velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o da onda de cisalhamento, segundo a equa&#xE7;&#xE3;o: <inline-formula><mml:math id="m2" display="inline"><mml:mo>&#xB5;</mml:mo><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mo>&#x3C1;</mml:mo><mml:msup><mml:mo>c</mml:mo><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:msup></mml:math></inline-formula>, na qual &#x201C;<italic>&#xB5;</italic>&#x201D; representa a rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica (kPa), &#x201C;&#x3C1;&#x201D; a densidade do tecido, e &#x201C;c&#x201D; a velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o da onda de cisalhamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Recentemente, foram publicados resultados de um estudo brasileiro realizado no Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo (InCor) em parceria com o Instituto de Radiologia do Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo (InRad).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Nesse estudo, as avalia&#xE7;&#xF5;es foram realizadas por um aparelho j&#xE1; empregado na rotina do servi&#xE7;o, APLIO i800 (Canon&#xAE;, Jap&#xE3;o), com pequenos ajustes para o estudo elastogr&#xE1;fico, com imagens obtidas a partir de uma sonda convexa multifrequencial (frequ&#xEA;ncia fundamental 3,5 MHz). As mensura&#xE7;&#xF5;es da velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o das ondas de cisalhamento foram obtidas ao final da di&#xE1;stole, momento de menor movimenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o. As janelas ecocardiogr&#xE1;ficas utilizadas foram as paraesternais de eixo longo (para avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o do segmento basal do septo) e curto (para avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos segmentos basal, m&#xE9;dio e apical do septo, al&#xE9;m da parede livre do ventr&#xED;culo direito), como mostrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption><title>Elastografia mioc&#xE1;rdica. Em A, observa-se a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o do segmento basal do septo interventricular na janela paraesternal de eixo longo. Em B e C, s&#xE3;o avaliados os segmentos m&#xE9;dio e basal do septo, respectivamente, na janela paraesternal de eixo curto. Em D, evidencia-se a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da parede livre do ventr&#xED;culo direito na janela paraesternal de eixo curto.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-04-e20230108-gf02-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Aplica&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas</title>
<p>V&#xE1;rios estudos t&#xEA;m mostrado resultados promissores com a t&#xE9;cnica. Em 2019, Petrescu et al. demonstraram aumento das velocidades de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o em pacientes com amiloidose card&#xED;aca e idosos, sugerindo uma poss&#xED;vel correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre as velocidades de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o e a rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Em 2020, o mesmo grupo avaliou as velocidades de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o em pacientes transplantados card&#xED;acos e mostrou boa correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o com a medida invasiva da press&#xE3;o capilar pulmonar medida por cateterismo direito e padr&#xE3;o de les&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica difusa avaliada por resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
<p>Villemain et al. demonstraram aumento da rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica, calculada a partir da velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o das ondas de cisalhamento, em pacientes com miocardiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica quando comparados a indiv&#xED;duos saud&#xE1;veis, apresentando ainda correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa com fibrose avaliada por resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca com realce tardio e com par&#xE2;metros de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica avaliados por ecocardiograma convencional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
<p>Cvijic et al. utilizaram o m&#xE9;todo para avaliar pacientes hipertensos, mostrando que pacientes com doen&#xE7;a avan&#xE7;ada e remodelamento conc&#xEA;ntrico ou hipertrofia conc&#xEA;ntrica apresentavam aumento de rigidez, quando comparados a controles saud&#xE1;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
<p>Alencar Neto et al. mostraram aumento da rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica em pacientes com amiloidose card&#xED;aca por transtirretina quando comparados a indiv&#xED;duos controle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Foi demonstrado um padr&#xE3;o decrescente da rigidez em dire&#xE7;&#xE3;o ao &#xE1;pice,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> sugerindo um padr&#xE3;o de <italic>apical sparing</italic>, compat&#xED;vel com a fisiopatologia da doen&#xE7;a.</p>
<p>Embora se trate de estudos iniciais, mostram que a t&#xE9;cnica &#xE9; fact&#xED;vel e com potencial aplica&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica. Considerando que v&#xE1;rias doen&#xE7;as que se apresentam com fen&#xF3;tipo hipertr&#xF3;fico, como amiloidose e miocardiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica, demandam recursos diagn&#xF3;sticos adicionais e de maior custo, o uso de uma t&#xE9;cnica n&#xE3;o invasiva associada ao ecocardiograma pode aprimorar o diagn&#xF3;stico dessas doen&#xE7;as no futuro e possivelmente agregar valor progn&#xF3;stico. Al&#xE9;m disso, trata-se de um m&#xE9;todo que pode revolucionar a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o e o entendimento da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica de um modo geral.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Desafios para sua utiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>Al&#xE9;m de dificuldades inerentes a t&#xE9;cnicas diagn&#xF3;sticas novas, como diferentes protocolos de aquisi&#xE7;&#xE3;o e equipamentos, trata-se de uma t&#xE9;cnica ultrassonogr&#xE1;fica e, consequentemente, operadora-dependente e &#xE2;ngulo-dependente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Associado a tais fatores t&#xE9;cnicos, o tecido card&#xED;aco &#xE9; essencialmente anisotr&#xF3;pico, com diferentes camadas, de paredes finas e com movimenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o pr&#xF3;pria,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> vari&#xE1;veis que podem influenciar adicionalmente na velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o da onda de cisalhamento. Al&#xE9;m disso, as altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es geom&#xE9;tricas j&#xE1; demonstraram impacto nessas medidas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> bem como aumentos de pr&#xE9;-carga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Esses fatores mec&#xE2;nicos limitam a utiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o do m&#xF3;dulo de Young para obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o da rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica, pois essa equa&#xE7;&#xE3;o n&#xE3;o os considera. Como a velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9; influenciada por essas vari&#xE1;veis, elas devem ser idealmente determinadas no momento da avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o para a interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o correta dos resultados.</p>
<p>Outras limita&#xE7;&#xF5;es s&#xE3;o as defini&#xE7;&#xF5;es quanto &#xE0; janela ecocardiogr&#xE1;fica ideal a ser utilizada e o n&#xFA;mero de segmentos mioc&#xE1;rdicos analisados. Velocidades de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativamente mais altas foram obtidas na janela apical em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE0; paraesternal em indiv&#xED;duos saud&#xE1;veis, sem correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa entre os valores medidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Vale ressaltar que as ondas de cisalhamento naturalmente geradas pelas valvas se propagam dentro do mioc&#xE1;rdio em dire&#xE7;&#xF5;es desconhecidas, o que prejudica a estimativa acurada das velocidades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
<p>&#xC9; importante considerar que a realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o da elastografia &#xE9; dependente da fase do ciclo card&#xED;aco, com acionamento do impulso realizado de acordo com a monitoriza&#xE7;&#xE3;o el&#xE9;trica do batimento card&#xED;aco. Por&#xE9;m, n&#xE3;o h&#xE1; impedimento do uso do m&#xE9;todo em avalia&#xE7;&#xF5;es com ritmo card&#xED;aco irregular, que limitam a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica convencional.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Perspectivas futuras</title>
<p>Existem perspectivas para avaliar o estudo da elastografia em outras cardiopatias, com a finalidade de aprimorar sua avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o diagn&#xF3;stica e, possivelmente, como fator progn&#xF3;stico e de resposta terap&#xEA;utica. Como se trata de uma t&#xE9;cnica n&#xE3;o invasiva, de f&#xE1;cil acesso e de baixo custo, pode ser incorporada ao ecocardiograma tradicional, t&#xE3;o presente na pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica do cardiologista.</p>
<p>&#xC0; medida que o interesse pela t&#xE9;cnica cresce, o n&#xFA;mero de estudos sobre elastografia card&#xED;aca tem aumentado. Por&#xE9;m, diferentes t&#xE9;cnicas de emiss&#xE3;o de impulso, de aparelhos de ultrassom e configura&#xE7;&#xF5;es dificultam o entendimento dos dados e a uniformiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o do conte&#xFA;do. A padroniza&#xE7;&#xE3;o da t&#xE9;cnica &#xE9; fundamental e deve ser alcan&#xE7;ada futuramente. Da mesma forma, diferentes m&#xE9;tricas de resultados podem ser encontradas na literatura. H&#xE1; maior tend&#xEA;ncia em se utilizar a velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o da onda, e n&#xE3;o a elasticidade, evitando-se a utiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de equa&#xE7;&#xF5;es que dependem de fatores mec&#xE2;nicos que n&#xE3;o s&#xE3;o aplic&#xE1;veis para o mioc&#xE1;rdio.</p>
<p>Dados como a dispers&#xE3;o e a anisotropia do tecido tamb&#xE9;m podem ser reportados e obtidos atrav&#xE9;s da elastografia, permitindo uma caracteriza&#xE7;&#xE3;o tecidual mais avan&#xE7;ada. Al&#xE9;m disso, a maior parte dos estudos reportam tipicamente a velocidade das ondas de cisalhamento no septo interventricular, em janela paraesternal de eixo longo, devido a rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o quase ortogonal entre a posi&#xE7;&#xE3;o do feixe de ultrassom e o tecido card&#xED;aco requerido para induzir as ondas de cisalhamento. Por&#xE9;m, &#xE9; poss&#xED;vel utilizar outras janelas ecocardiogr&#xE1;ficas e realizar avalia&#xE7;&#xF5;es de outras regi&#xF5;es do mioc&#xE1;rdio, de acordo com o avan&#xE7;o na qualidade do aparelho utilizado.</p>
</sec></sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclus&#xE3;o</title>
<p>A elastografia card&#xED;aca tem mostrado boa acur&#xE1;cia na avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da velocidade de propaga&#xE7;&#xE3;o das ondas de cisalhamento, permitindo estimar a rigidez mioc&#xE1;rdica, apesar das limita&#xE7;&#xF5;es, e realizar uma avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o mais detalhada da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica, de forma n&#xE3;o invasiva e de baixo custo.</p>
<p>O m&#xE9;todo ainda est&#xE1; em estudo e &#xE9; alvo de interesse crescente da comunidade cient&#xED;fica nacional e internacional. No futuro, poder&#xE1; fornecer informa&#xE7;&#xF5;es &#xFA;nicas incrementais ao ecocardiograma convencional e agregar importante valor diagn&#xF3;stico nas mais variadas cardiopatias.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn5"><p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por&#x2009;Pfizer.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o Acad&#xEA;mica&#x2009;</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o deste estudo a programas de p&#xF3;s-gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o.&#x2009;</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7"><p><bold>Aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xC9;tica e Consentimento Informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo n&#xE3;o cont&#xE9;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores</p>
</fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8"><p>Editor respons&#xE1;vel pela revis&#xE3;o: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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</sub-article>
</article>