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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20230083i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230083i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Editorial</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Assessment of Myocardial Fibrosis by Myocardial Deformation Analysis via Echocardiography</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3198-7114</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Martinelli</surname><given-names>Luiz M&#xE1;rio Baptista</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fernandes</surname><given-names>F&#xE1;bio</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8042-3841</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cardoso</surname><given-names>Juliano Novaes</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9236-3815</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Hotta</surname><given-names>Viviane Tiemi</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo, Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Luiz M&#xE1;rio Baptista Martinelli</bold> &#x2022; FMUSP, Unidade de Miocardiopatias, INCOR HCFMUSP. Rua Dr En&#xE9;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. Postal Code: <postal-code>01246-903</postal-code>. S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brazil E-mail: <email>luizmariom@usp.br</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>21</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<elocation-id>e20230083</elocation-id>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Myocardial fibrosis (MF) is a pathological condition common to several primary and secondary heart diseases. Diffuse MF is a common feature in nearly all heart diseases, playing a crucial role in the progression of heart failure (HF). Several studies have indicated that the existence of MF serves as a prognostic factor for adverse outcomes across a range of heart conditions, underscoring the significance of this factor in clinical settings. Consequently, diagnostic approaches for MF, whether in subclinical phases or within established heart diseases, emerge as valuable instruments for early detection, risk stratification, and/or ongoing monitoring of disease developments. Despite being the most accurate non-invasive test for MF research, cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging is a test that is not widely available and is expensive. An alternative method with increased accessibility and cost-effectiveness for assessing heart diseases and researching MF involves echocardiography with the Speckle Tracking (STE) technique to evaluate myocardial deformation (&#x201C;strain&#x201D;). Studies show that diminished strain values (both global and segmental) in various heart conditions are associated with the presence and extent of MF, as determined by CMR or histological analysis. MF research using echocardiographic myocardial deformation analysis with STE has gained more space in clinical and research routines as it is an easy-to-perform and low-cost test. The results found by this technique can have a relevant diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic impact on clinical practice.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Endomyocardial Fibrosis</kwd>
<kwd>Global Longitudinal Strain</kwd>
<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomyopathies</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="0"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="20"/></counts></article-meta></front>
<body>
<p>MF is a pathological condition common to several chronic heart diseases, whether primary ones or secondary to systemic diseases with cardiac involvement. Diffuse MF is a common feature in nearly all heart diseases, playing a crucial role in the progression of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> MF is commonly found after an ischemic insult, but other causes, such as pathologies leading to volume or pressure overload, diabetes mellitus, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), dilated cardiomyopathy, non-compacted myocardium, arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia, and systemic diseases such as sarcoidosis, can also contribute to MF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Several studies have demonstrated that MF serves as a prognostic factor for adverse outcomes across a range of heart conditions and HF, underscoring the significance of this factor in clinical settings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>MF occurs from the deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) in the myocardial tissue, leading to excess collagen in relation to cardiomyocytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Following an aggressive event, the activation of inflammatory cells and cytokines triggers the proliferation of cardiac fibroblasts, which is a pivotal process in enhancing the production of collagen and other ECM proteins. The disproportionate ECM increase prompts an adaptive response within the myocardium, progressively distorting the architecture of muscle fibers, affecting the physiology of cardiomyocytes, and ultimately resulting in the gradual dysfunction of the heart muscle, characterized by the loss of compliance and/or myocardial contractility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The MF process is the final stage of cardiomyopathies, resulting in irreversible damage to myocardium structure and to cellular and electrical functions, with consequent remodeling of the cavities. The degree of MF is related to the severity of ventricular dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>The diagnosis of MF is increasingly important in the context of cardiomyopathies, as it reflects the pathological structural evolution related to HF in heart diseases and corroborates the need to integrate its diagnosis into the clinical management of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Consequently, diagnostic approaches for MF, whether in subclinical phases or within established heart diseases, emerge as valuable instruments for early detection, risk stratification, and/or ongoing monitoring of disease developments.</p>
<p>The gold standard for diagnosing MF is endomyocardial biopsy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Nevertheless, due to its invasive nature and the potential for complications, the use of this test is limited to situations where there is recent-onset HF with unsatisfactory evolution, evolving with progressive hemodynamic instability and/or ventricular arrhythmias or second-degree atrioventricular blocks Mobitz II or third degree that do not respond adequately to conventional measures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Therefore, alternative non-invasive MF diagnostic methods are necessary for daily clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Non-invasive diagnostic techniques for MF include CMR with gadolinium for late enhancement investigation, heart tomography with iodinated contrast, PET CT, cardiac SPECT, and echocardiography with the assessment of myocardial deformation using the STE technique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>Among non-invasive MF diagnosis methods, CMR is considered the most accurate as it better characterizes the myocardial tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> By using gadolinium-based contrast and late enhancement investigation, it is possible to define areas of focal scar/fibrosis in the different segments of the heart. Still through T1 sequence mapping, the method can detect signs of increased extracellular volume compatible with diffuse fibrosis of the myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> However, due to its lower availability in peripheral centers and high cost, it has been limited to selected cases.</p>
<p>Echocardiography presents itself as a cost-effective and widely available alternative for assessing heart diseases. The integration of two-dimensional echocardiography with the evaluation of myocardial deformation using STE has become increasingly significant in clinical applications as both a diagnostic and prognostic tool across various heart diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>STE uses dedicated software to identify Speckles in the two-dimensional image of the heart muscle. Speckles are a group of points in the two-dimensional image that occur due to the interaction of ultrasound waves with the myocardial tissue. These grouped points are selected by the software and monitored during the myocardial contraction and relaxation process. Through displacement and speed, it is possible to estimate the strain values and strain rate of the myocardial segments. Myocardial deformation analysis can be performed in the longitudinal, circumferential, and radial axes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>STE has become a valuable tool for both the diagnosis and management of various myocardial diseases, including primary or systemic conditions, valvular heart disease, ischemic heart disease, HF, myocardial dyssynchrony, and those associated with diabetes mellitus and arterial hypertension. Additionally, STE is instrumental in diagnosing and monitoring cardiotoxicity resulting from chemotherapy, which is a prevalent application of this technique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Several studies have demonstrated that reduced strain values (both global and segmental) in different heart conditions are related to the presence and degree of MF, as determined by CMR or histological analysis. The assessment of myocardial deformation through STE allows for a comprehensive understanding of how the underlying disease impacts myocardial function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>In HCM, studies demonstrate that the reduced global and regional strain value is related to the detection of MF on CMR. Popovic et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> demonstrated that individuals with HCM and fibrosis detected on CMR exhibit reduced longitudinal strain values. Their findings also revealed that fibrosis and end-diastolic thickness of the myocardial wall are predictors of lower values of segmental longitudinal strain. Kobayashi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> compared the strain rate values of the septal segment of patients with HCM undergoing myomectomy due to dynamic obstruction of the left ventricular outflow tract with histopathological analysis and identified that lower strain rate values were correlated with the magnitude of myocyte hypertrophy, degree of fibrosis, dysplasia of intramural coronary arterioles, and disarray of myocardial fibers.</p>
<p>Gjesdal et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> compared the post-infarction scar tissue mass in chronic ischemic heart disease assessed by CMR with the values found in the analysis of myocardial deformation by STE. In this study, reduced global longitudinal strain (GLS) values showed a significant inverse correlation with the amount of scar tissue detected on CMR. The GLS was even superior to the measurement of left ventricular ejection fraction in identifying smaller infarcts.</p>
<p>Recently, Nagata et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> published a study evaluating the association between abnormal myocardial mechanics related to mitral valve prolapse (MVP), the presence of MF, and the association with arrhythmias. The study revealed that individuals with MVP and MF predominantly located in the basal and middle segments of the inferolateral wall, as observed through CMR, exhibited reduced strain values in the inferoposterior basal segment. Moreover, these patients demonstrated an abnormal strain pattern in the lower lateral wall, characterized by two distinct peaks&#x2014;pre- and post-systolic&#x2014;which occurred less frequently in the group without MF. Notably, the presence of MF and the abnormal double-peak strain pattern assessed through STE showed an association with ventricular arrhythmia.</p>
<p>In a separate study by Slimani et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> investigating the relation between post-load, MF, and left ventricular strain in the pre- and postoperative phases of patients with aortic stenosis undergoing valve replacement, it was revealed that reduced values of GLS and global circumferential strain (GCS) were linked to higher values of end-systolic stress in the left ventricular wall. Histopathological analysis of MF indicated that individuals with increased end-systolic stress in the left ventricular wall bore a greater burden of MF, leading to a more adverse outcome after aortic valve replacement. Fabiani et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> also demonstrated the association between reduced GLS and ventricular septum longitudinal strain values and the presence of MF in patients undergoing aortic valve replacement for aortic stenosis and myocardial biopsy.</p>
<p>In patients with HF undergoing heart transplantation, analysis of GLS by STE of the recipient&#x27;s heart before the procedure showed a correlation with the degree of MF, as assessed by histopathological evaluation of the diseased heart, showing lower GLS values in hearts with MF greater than 50%. Analysis of the GCS and left ventricular torsion also showed a correlation with the presence of MF, but to a lesser extent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Kostakou et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> and Leitman et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> when evaluating patients diagnosed with myocarditis, observed that these individuals had reduced GLS values despite preserved ejection fraction on conventional echocardiography, in addition to reduced myocardial deformation values in segments that showed fibrosis or edema on CMR.</p>
<p>Reduced strain values by STE of the left atrium and right ventricle are also associated with the histopathological finding of MF with prognostic impacts. In their review on MF detection using STE, Lisi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> highlight their study revealing a correlation between the GLS of the right ventricular free wall and the presence of MF, as observed in histological analyses. The review also discusses research indicating an association between reduced right ventricle GLS and a poorer prognosis in conditions such as pulmonary hypertension and left HF. Furthermore, this review mentions their group&#x27;s work on left atrium analysis using STE, demonstrating a connection between reduced values of peak GLS (PGLS) in the left atrium and the presence of MF in patients with significant mitral insufficiency undergoing valve repair due to MVP. They also mention that reduced PGLS values in the left atrium were predictors of a worse prognosis (HF and mortality) in two years.</p>
<p>Although uncommon in the literature, some studies have also shown a correlation between reduced strain values using the STE technique and the presence of fibrosis on CMR in chagasic patients. Gomes et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> demonstrated that, in patients with stage A chagasic heart disease (asymptomatic, with positive serology, without changes on the electrocardiogram and chest x-ray) with MF on CMR, the analysis of deformation using STE detected reduced global, longitudinal, circumferential, and radial strain values when compared with patients who did not have fibrosis. A recently published meta-analysis found that patients with indeterminate-form Chagas disease (CD) did not show different GLS values when compared to healthy controls. However, in the segmental analysis, CD patients presented reduced myocardial deformation values in the basal and middle segments of the lower septal wall.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> STE application could perhaps be an additional tool for early diagnosis of myocardial changes not detected by conventional methods, possibly with clinical and prognostic implications.</p>
<p>The Cardiomyopathy Unit at Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o/HC-MFUSP has initiated a study involving chagasic patients lacking ventricular dysfunction but exhibiting fibrosis or edema on CMR, who underwent a one-year treatment with colchicine. Before and after the treatment, all participants underwent transthoracic echocardiography with an analysis of myocardial deformation through STE. The results of this analysis hold the potential for STE to identify segments affected by fibrosis/edema as observed on CMR.</p>
<p>MF research using echocardiographic myocardial deformation analysis with STE has gained more space in clinical and research routines as it is an easy-to-perform and low-cost test. The results found by this technique can have a relevant diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic impact on clinical practice.</p>
</body>
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<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230083</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Editorial</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da Fibrose Mioc&#xE1;rdica pela An&#xE1;lise da Deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o Mioc&#xE1;rdica &#xE0; Ecocardiografia</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3198-7114</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Martinelli</surname><given-names>Luiz M&#xE1;rio Baptista</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Fernandes</surname><given-names>F&#xE1;bio</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8042-3841</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Cardoso</surname><given-names>Juliano Novaes</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9236-3815</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Hotta</surname><given-names>Viviane Tiemi</given-names></name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo, Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o, S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Luiz M&#xE1;rio Baptista Martinelli &#x2022;</bold> FMUSP, Unidade de Miocardiopatias, INCOR HCFMUSP. Avenida Dr En&#xE9;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. CEP: <postal-code>01246-903</postal-code>. S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brasil E-mail: <email>luizmariom@usp.br</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A fibrose do mioc&#xE1;rdio (FM) &#xE9; uma condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o patol&#xF3;gica comum a diversas doen&#xE7;as do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o, sejam elas prim&#xE1;rias ou secund&#xE1;rias. A FM difusa est&#xE1; presente em quase todas as doen&#xE7;as card&#xED;acas e tem papel fundamental no desenvolvimento da insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC). Diversos estudos demostraram que a presen&#xE7;a de FM &#xE9; preditor de desfechos negativos em diversas cardiopatias, o que mostra a import&#xE2;ncia deste fator na pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica. Assim, m&#xE9;todos diagn&#xF3;sticos de FM ainda em fases subcl&#xED;nicas ou j&#xE1; com doen&#xE7;as do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o instaladas se tornam ferramentas importantes para o diagn&#xF3;stico precoce, estratifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de riscos diversos e/ou seguimento de evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o das patologias. Apesar de ser o exame n&#xE3;o invasivo de maior acur&#xE1;cia para a pesquisa de FM, a resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o (RMC) &#xE9; um exame pouco dispon&#xED;vel e de alto custo. Uma alternativa de maior disponibilidade e baixo custo para avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o das doen&#xE7;as do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o e pesquisa de FM &#xE9; o ecocardiograma com avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio (&#x201C;strain&#x201D;) pela t&#xE9;cnica de <italic>Speckle Tracking</italic> (STE). Estudos demonstram que valores reduzidos do &#x201C;strain&#x201D; (global e segmentar) em diversas patologias do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o t&#xEA;m rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o com a presen&#xE7;a e o grau de FM avaliado pela RMC ou pela an&#xE1;lise histol&#xF3;gica dos tecidos. A pesquisa de FM por ecocardiograma com an&#xE1;lise da deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio pela STE tem ganhado mais espa&#xE7;o na rotina cl&#xED;nica e de pesquisa por ser um exame de f&#xE1;cil execu&#xE7;&#xE3;o e baixo custo. Os resultados encontrados por esta t&#xE9;cnica podem ter impacto diagn&#xF3;stico, terap&#xEA;utico e progn&#xF3;sticos relevantes para a pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Fibrose endomioc&#xE1;rdica</kwd>
<kwd>Deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o Longitudinal Global</kwd>
<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomiopatias</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<p>A fibrose do mioc&#xE1;rdio (FM) &#xE9; uma condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o patol&#xF3;gica comum a diversas doen&#xE7;as cr&#xF4;nicas do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o, sejam elas prim&#xE1;rias ou secund&#xE1;rias a doen&#xE7;as sist&#xEA;micas com acometimento card&#xED;aco. A FM difusa est&#xE1; presente em quase todas as doen&#xE7;as do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o e tem papel fundamental no desenvolvimento da insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A FM &#xE9; comumente encontrada ap&#xF3;s um insulto isqu&#xEA;mico, por&#xE9;m outras causas como patologias que levam a sobrecarga de press&#xE3;o ou volume, Diabetes Melittus, cardiomiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica, cardiomiopatia dilatada, mioc&#xE1;rdio n&#xE3;o compactado, displasia arritmog&#xEA;nica do ventr&#xED;culo direito e doen&#xE7;as sist&#xEA;micas como sarcoidose s&#xE3;o causas de FM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Diversos estudos j&#xE1; demostraram que a presen&#xE7;a de FM &#xE9; preditor de desfechos negativos em diversas cardiopatias e na IC, o que mostra a import&#xE2;ncia deste fator na pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>A FM ocorre a partir da deposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de matriz extracelular (MEC) no tecido mioc&#xE1;rdico, levando ao excesso de col&#xE1;geno em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o aos cardiomi&#xF3;citos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Em resposta a um evento agressor, h&#xE1; a ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de c&#xE9;lulas inflamat&#xF3;rias e citocinas que levam &#xE0; prolifera&#xE7;&#xE3;o de fibroblastos card&#xED;acos que desempenham papel importante na produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o elevada de col&#xE1;geno e de outras prote&#xED;nas da MEC. A expans&#xE3;o exagerada da MEC inicia um processo adaptativo do mioc&#xE1;rdio que progressivamente gera distor&#xE7;&#xE3;o da arquitetura das fibras musculares, altera a fisiologia dos cardiomi&#xF3;citos e leva &#xE0; disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o progressiva do m&#xFA;sculo card&#xED;aco com perda de complac&#xEA;ncia e/ou da contratilidade mioc&#xE1;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> O processo de FM &#xE9; o est&#xE1;gio final das miocardiopatias, o qual resulta em dano irrevers&#xED;vel &#xE0; estrutura do mioc&#xE1;rdio e &#xE0;s fun&#xE7;&#xF5;es celulares e el&#xE9;tricas, com consequente remodelamento das cavidades. O grau de FM est&#xE1; relacionado com a gravidade da disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<p>O diagn&#xF3;stico de FM cada vez mais se mostra importante no contexto das miocardiopatias, j&#xE1; que traduz a evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o estrutural patol&#xF3;gica relacionada &#xE0; IC nas doen&#xE7;as do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o e corrobora a necessidade de integrar seu diagn&#xF3;stico ao manejo cl&#xED;nico dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Assim, m&#xE9;todos diagn&#xF3;sticos de FM ainda em fases subcl&#xED;nicas ou j&#xE1; com doen&#xE7;as do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o instaladas se tornam ferramentas importantes para o diagn&#xF3;stico precoce, estratifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de riscos diversos e/ou seguimento de evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o das patologias.</p>
<p>O padr&#xE3;o ouro para o diagn&#xF3;stico de FM &#xE9; a bi&#xF3;psia endomioc&#xE1;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> No entanto, por ser um exame invasivo com risco de complica&#xE7;&#xF5;es, tem suas indica&#xE7;&#xF5;es restritas a casos em que h&#xE1; IC de in&#xED;cio recente com evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o insatisfat&#xF3;ria, evoluindo com instabilidade hemodin&#xE2;mica progressiva e/ou com arritmias ventriculares ou bloqueios atrioventriculares de segundo grau Mobitz II ou terceiro grau que n&#xE3;o respondem satisfatoriamente &#xE0;s medidas usualmente adotadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Desta forma, m&#xE9;todos diagn&#xF3;sticos n&#xE3;o invasivos alternativos de FM s&#xE3;o necess&#xE1;rios para a pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica di&#xE1;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
<p>Dentre os m&#xE9;todos diagn&#xF3;sticos n&#xE3;o invasivos para o diagn&#xF3;stico de FM est&#xE3;o a RMC com gadol&#xED;nio para pesquisa de realce tardio, a tomografia de cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o com contraste iodado, o PET CT e o SPECT card&#xED;aco e o ecocardiograma com avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio pela t&#xE9;cnica de STE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
<p>A RMC, dentre os m&#xE9;todos n&#xE3;o invasivos de FM, &#xE9; considerada a mais acurada por caracterizar melhor o tecido mioc&#xE1;rdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Por meio do uso de contraste &#xE0; base de gadol&#xED;nio e da pesquisa de realce tardio, &#xE9; poss&#xED;vel definir &#xE1;reas de cicatriz/fibrose focais nos diversos segmentos do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o. Ainda por meio do mapeamento em sequ&#xEA;ncia T1, o m&#xE9;todo tem o poder de detectar sinais de aumento do volume extracelular compat&#xED;vel com fibrose difusa do mioc&#xE1;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> No entanto, devido &#xE0; sua menor disponibilidade em centros perif&#xE9;ricos e o alto custo, sua utiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o na pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica se limita a casos selecionados.</p>
<p>Uma alternativa de maior disponibilidade e baixo custo para avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o das doen&#xE7;as do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9; o ecocardiograma. A ecocardiografia bidimensional associada &#xE0; avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o de deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio pela STE tem se mostrado cada vez mais relevante na pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica como ferramenta diagn&#xF3;stica e progn&#xF3;stica em diversas patologias do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>A STE se baseia na identifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o, por software dedicado, de <italic>Speckles</italic> na imagem bidimensional do m&#xFA;sculo card&#xED;aco. <italic>Speckle</italic> &#xE9; um agrupado de pontos na imagem bidimensional que ocorrem devido &#xE0; intera&#xE7;&#xE3;o das ondas de ultrassom com o tecido mioc&#xE1;rdico. Estes pontos agrupados s&#xE3;o selecionados pelo software e s&#xE3;o acompanhados durante o processo de contra&#xE7;&#xE3;o e relaxamento do mioc&#xE1;rdio. Por meio de seu deslocamento e velocidade, pode-se estimar os valores de deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o (&#x201C;strain&#x201D;) dos segmentos do mioc&#xE1;rdio e de sua taxa de deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o (&#x201C;strain rate&#x201D;). A an&#xE1;lise da deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio pode ser realizada nos eixos longitudinal, circunferencial e radial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
<p>Atualmente, a STE tem utilidade no diagn&#xF3;stico e manejo de doen&#xE7;as do mioc&#xE1;rdio (prim&#xE1;rias ou sist&#xEA;micas), valvopatias, doen&#xE7;a isqu&#xEA;mica do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o, IC, dissincronia do mioc&#xE1;rdio, acometimentos relacionados ao diabetes melittus e hipertens&#xE3;o arterial, al&#xE9;m do diagn&#xF3;stico e seguimento de cardiotoxicidade por quimioter&#xE1;picos (indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o mais comum da t&#xE9;cnica).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
<p>Diversos estudos t&#xEA;m demonstrado que o valor reduzido do &#x201C;strain&#x201D; (global e segmentar) nas diversas patologias do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o tem rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o com a presen&#xE7;a e o grau de FM avaliado pela RMC ou pela an&#xE1;lise histol&#xF3;gica dos tecidos. A avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o da deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio pela STE permite avaliar o impacto da doen&#xE7;a subjacente na fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
<p>Na CMH, estudos demonstram que o valor reduzido do &#x201C;strain&#x201D; global e regional tem rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o com a detec&#xE7;&#xE3;o de FM &#xE0; RMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Popovi&#x107; et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> demostraram que pacientes portadores de CMH com fibrose &#xE0; RMC apresentavam valores de &#x201C;strain&#x201D; longitudinal reduzidos; demonstraram, ainda, que a presen&#xE7;a de fibrose e a espessura diast&#xF3;lica final da parede do mioc&#xE1;rdio foram preditores de valores menores de &#x201C;strain&#x201D; longitudinal segmentar. Kobayashi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> compararam os valores de &#x201C;strain rate&#x201D; do segmento septal de pacientes com CMH submetidos a miomectomia por obstru&#xE7;&#xE3;o din&#xE2;mica da via de sa&#xED;da do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo com a an&#xE1;lise histopatol&#xF3;gica e identificaram que valores menores de &#x201C;strain rate&#x201D; apresentavam correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o com a magnitude da hipertrofia dos mi&#xF3;citos, grau de fibrose, displasia de arter&#xED;olas coronarianas intramurais e desarranjo das fibras do mioc&#xE1;rdio.</p>
<p>Gjesdal et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> compararam a massa de tecido cicatricial p&#xF3;s-infarto na doen&#xE7;a isqu&#xEA;mica cr&#xF4;nica do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o avaliada pela RMC com os valores encontrados na an&#xE1;lise da deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio pela STE. Neste estudo, valores reduzidos de &#x201C;strain&#x201D; global longitudinal (SGL) apresentaram correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o inversa significativa com a quantidade de tecido cicatricial &#xE0; RMC. O SGL foi ainda superior &#xE0; medida da fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo na identifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de infartos menores.</p>
<p>Recentemente, Nagata et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> publicaram um estudo avaliando a associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre a mec&#xE2;nica mioc&#xE1;rdica anormal relacionada ao prolapso da valva mitral (PVM), a presen&#xE7;a de FM e a associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o com arritmias. A publica&#xE7;&#xE3;o revelou que portadores de PVM com FM predominantemente nos segmentos basal e m&#xE9;dio da parede inferolateral &#xE0; RMC apresentaram valores reduzidos de &#x201C;strain&#x201D; no segmento basal &#xED;nfero posterior. Evidenciaram ainda nestes pacientes um padr&#xE3;o anormal de &#x201C;strain&#x201D; com dois picos distintos, pr&#xE9;- e p&#xF3;s-sist&#xF3;lico, na parede &#xED;nfero lateral, que ocorreu com menor frequ&#xEA;ncia no grupo sem FM. Dentre outros, a presen&#xE7;a de FM e o padr&#xE3;o anormal de duplo pico de &#x201C;strain&#x201D; &#xE0; an&#xE1;lise pela STE mostraram associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o com arritmia ventricular.</p>
<p>Slimani et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> ao estudarem a rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre p&#xF3;s-carga, FM e &#x201C;strain&#x201D; do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo no pr&#xE9;- e p&#xF3;s-operat&#xF3;rio de pacientes com estenose a&#xF3;rtica submetidos a troca valvar, demostraram que valores reduzidos de SGL e &#x201C;strain&#x201D; global circunferencial (SGC) foram associados a valores maiores de estresse sist&#xF3;lico final da parede do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo. A an&#xE1;lise da FM pelo estudo histopatol&#xF3;gico mostrou que aqueles com estresse sist&#xF3;lico final da parede do VE aumentado apresentavam maior carga de FM e pior evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o no p&#xF3;s-operat&#xF3;rio de troca de valva a&#xF3;rtica. Fabiani et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> tamb&#xE9;m demonstraram a associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre valores reduzidos de SGL e &#x201C;strain&#x201D; longitudinal do septo ventricular e a presen&#xE7;a de FM em pacientes submetidos a troca valvar a&#xF3;rtica por estenose a&#xF3;rtica e a bi&#xF3;psia do mioc&#xE1;rdio.</p>
<p>Em pacientes com IC submetidos a transplante card&#xED;aco, a an&#xE1;lise do SGL pela STE do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o do receptor antes do procedimento mostrou correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o com o grau de FM avaliado pela avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o histopatol&#xF3;gica do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o doente, mostrando valores menores de SGL nos cora&#xE7;&#xF5;es com mais de 50% de FM. As an&#xE1;lises do SGC e da tor&#xE7;&#xE3;o do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo tamb&#xE9;m mostraram correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o com a presen&#xE7;a de FM, por&#xE9;m em menor grau.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
<p>Kostakou et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> e Leitman et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> ao avaliarem pacientes com diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite observaram que estes indiv&#xED;duos apresentavam valores de SGL reduzidos apesar da fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o preservada ao ecocardiograma convencional, al&#xE9;m de valores reduzidos da deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio em segmentos que apresentavam fibrose ou edema na RMC.</p>
<p>Valores reduzidos de &#x201C;strain&#x201D; pela STE do &#xE1;trio esquerdo e do ventr&#xED;culo direito tamb&#xE9;m s&#xE3;o associados ao achado histopatol&#xF3;gico de FM com impactos progn&#xF3;sticos. Lisi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> citam em sua revis&#xE3;o sobre a detec&#xE7;&#xE3;o de FM pela STE um estudo do grupo que demonstrou a rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o com SGL da parede livre do ventr&#xED;culo direito e a presen&#xE7;a de FM &#xE0; an&#xE1;lise histol&#xF3;gica. Referem tamb&#xE9;m estudos que mostram a rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre SGL reduzido do ventr&#xED;culo direito com pior progn&#xF3;stico em doen&#xE7;as como hipertens&#xE3;o pulmonar e IC esquerda. Ainda nesta revis&#xE3;o, citam trabalhos do grupo relacionados &#xE0; an&#xE1;lise do &#xE1;trio esquerdo pela STE, os quais demonstraram a associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de valores reduzidos do SGL de pico (SGLP) do &#xE1;trio esquerdo com a presen&#xE7;a de FM em pacientes portadores de insufici&#xEA;ncia mitral importante submetidos a reparo valvar por PVM. Citam, ainda, que valores reduzidos do SGLP do &#xE1;trio esquerdo foram preditores de pior progn&#xF3;stico (IC e mortalidade) em dois anos.</p>
<p>Apesar de pouco frequente na literatura, alguns estudos tamb&#xE9;m mostraram correla&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre valores reduzidos de &#x201C;strain&#x201D; pela t&#xE9;cnica de STE e presen&#xE7;a de fibrose &#xE0; RMC em pacientes chag&#xE1;sicos. Gomes et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> demostraram que, em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#xE1;sica no est&#xE1;dio A (assintom&#xE1;ticos, com sorologia positiva, sem altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es ao eletrocardiograma e a radiografia de t&#xF3;rax) que apresentavam fibrose mioc&#xE1;rdica &#xE0; RMC, a an&#xE1;lise da deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o pela t&#xE9;cnica de STE detectou valores reduzidos de &#x201C;Strain&#x201D; global longitudinal, circunferencial e radial quando comparados com pacientes que n&#xE3;o apresentavam fibrose. Uma metan&#xE1;lise publicada recentemente apurou que pacientes com doen&#xE7;a de Chagas forma indeterminada n&#xE3;o apresentaram valores de SGL diferentes quando comparados com controles saud&#xE1;veis. Por&#xE9;m, &#xE0; an&#xE1;lise segmentar, os portadores da DC apresentaram valores reduzidos de deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio nos segmentos basal e m&#xE9;dio da parede septal inferior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> A aplica&#xE7;&#xE3;o da STE talvez possa ser uma ferramenta complementar para diagnosticar precocemente altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es do mioc&#xE1;rdio n&#xE3;o detectadas pelos m&#xE9;todos convencionais, eventualmente com implica&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas e progn&#xF3;sticas.</p>
<p>A Unidade de Miocardiopatias do Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o/HC-FMUSP vem conduzindo um estudo em pacientes chag&#xE1;sicos, sem disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular, com fibrose ou edema &#xE0; RMC que foram submetidos ao tratamento com colchicina durante o per&#xED;odo de um ano. Todos os pacientes realizaram ecocardiograma transtor&#xE1;cico com an&#xE1;lise da deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio pela STE antes e ap&#xF3;s o tratamento. Os resultados desta an&#xE1;lise s&#xE3;o aguardados com a perspectiva que a STE seja capaz de detectar segmentos acometidos por fibrose/edema &#xE0; RMC.</p>
<p>A pesquisa de FM ao ecocardiograma com an&#xE1;lise da deforma&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio pela STE tem cada vez mais ganhado espa&#xE7;o na rotina cl&#xED;nica e de pesquisa por ser um exame de f&#xE1;cil execu&#xE7;&#xE3;o e baixo custo. Os resultados encontrados por esta t&#xE9;cnica podem ter impacto diagn&#xF3;stico, terap&#xEA;utico e progn&#xF3;sticos relevantes para a pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica.</p>
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