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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230055i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>My Approach to Three-Dimensional Echocardiography for Pathophysiological Classification of Tricuspid Regurgitation</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7046-8707</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Felix</surname>
						<given-names>Alex dos Santos</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and writing of the manuscript,critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1348-9074</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Alcantara</surname>
						<given-names>Monica Luiza de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7356-2379</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Papadopoulos</surname>
						<given-names>Konstantinos</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">DASA</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">DASA, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto D’Or de Pesquisa e Ensino</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto D’Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">European Interbalkan Medical Center</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Athens</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="GR">Greece</country>
				<institution content-type="original">European Interbalkan Medical Center, Athens – Greece</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Alex dos Santos Félix • National Institute of Cardiology. Rua das Laranjeiras, 374. Postal Code: 20521-290. Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil E-mail: <email>alexsfelix@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsible for the review: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>30</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>36</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230055</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>2</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>13</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>13</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Tricuspid Valve</kwd>
				<kwd>Tricuspid Valve Insufficiency</kwd>
				<kwd>Echocardiography, Three-Dimensional</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="24"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="21"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Although it was known as the “forgotten valve” in the past, there has been increasing interest in studying the tricuspid valve (TV) during the last two decades. Tricuspid regurgitation (TR) has been identified as a prognostic marker not only when associated with other cardiac diseases, like heart failure, mitral regurgitation, or aortic stenosis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> but also as an isolated entity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms of this disease is of paramount importance, since new options of transcatheter devices and techniques are emerging, offering invasive treatment for high-risk patients unsuitable for surgical intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The TV is difficult to image in transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) for the following reasons: 1) the leaflets are much thinner compared to mitral leaflets, with greater anatomic variability; 2) it is an anterior structure, far away from the esophagus, with acoustic shadowing from the fibrous heart skeleton; and 3) it cannot be aligned to the esophageal probe in order to acquire en face views and requires use of lateral resolution. These restrictions may limit the ability of traditional TEE to evaluate the TV, making it necessary to complement the evaluation with special windows from the lower esophagus and transgastric views. Different from other cardiac valves, images of the TV obtained from transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) usually have better resolution than images obtained by TEE. Even though all protocols start with two-dimensional (2D) assessment of the TV, three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) plays an important role in the evaluation of TV diseases, due not only to its ability to precisely depict the anatomy of the valve and the subvalvular apparatus, but also to its accuracy in quantitation of right ventricular (RV) and right atrial volumes and function and functional analysis of valvular dysfunction, especially for grading TR and evaluating dynamics of the tricuspid annulus (TA) through dedicated software. All of this information is of unparalleled importance for patient management and pre-procedural planning in surgical and transcatheter approaches.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>TV anatomy</title>
				<p>The TV complex is a functional unity composed of leaflets, subvalvular apparatus, papillary muscles (PM), and TA ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref> ), which interact during the cardiac cycle in a dynamic fashion in order to maintain valvular function. Although it is called traditionally “tricuspid”, this valve has a great anatomical variability. As a matter of fact, up to 46% of them can have two, four or even more cusps<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref> ). TV leaflets are asymmetric; the anterior leaflet is typically the largest in radial diameter and area. The septal leaflet has the least mobility and is the shortest in radial diameter, while the posterior is the shortest circumferentially and often has multiple scallops. The attachment of the TV is more apically positioned than the mitral valve (normal distance ≤ 10 mm in relation to the anterior mitral leaflet).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– TV complex anatomy viewed by 3DE. A functional unity composed of leaflets, subvalvular apparatus, PM, and TA. Ant PM: anterior papillary muscle; Ant TV leaflet: anterior tricuspid valve leaflet; RA: right atrium; RAA: right atrial appendage; SVC: superior vena cava; *TV: tricuspid valve annulus.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Anatomical variations of TVs viewed by 3DE (ventricular perspective). In A we can see a bicuspid TV; in B a tricuspid TV; and in C a quadricuspid TV. TV: tricuspid valve</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The TV subvalvular apparatus is normally composed of two well differentiated PM: anterior and posterior, with a variable presence of a septal PM. The anterior PM is the most prominent and lends chordal support to anterior and posterior leaflets. It blends with the right end of the septal marginal trabeculae (moderator band) below the antero-posterior commissure. The posterior PM, which can be bifid or trifid, lends chordal support to the posterior and septal leaflets. The septal PM, when present, may be small or multiple, and is often indistinguishable from the ventricular wall. There are usually some small chords that emerge directly from the ventricular septum and attach to anterior and septal leaflets.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Accessory chords may be directly attached to the RV free wall or to the moderator band ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref> ). In the RV, the subvalvular chords are less distensible than those seen in the mitral valve, with dense collagen bundles, helping to explain why there is more extensive tethering when there is ventricular remodeling, with displacement of either the RV septal or lateral wall positions, affecting leaflet coaptation.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Anatomical detail of a TV complex viewed by transthoracic 3DE. A) 3D rendered coronal view showing anterior papillary muscle (green arrow) rising from the septomarginal trabeculeae (green asterisk) at the anterolateral wall. B) Oblique view, where we can see direct chordal attachment (yellow asterisk) to the interventricular septum. RA: right atrium; RV: right ventricle.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>One of the most important structures for maintaining adequate TV function is the TA. It is a very dynamic structure, with varying size and geometry during the cardiac cycle, usually oval and saddle-shaped. It becomes more spherical and planar when dilated, extending towards the anterolateral and posterior RV walls, regions where there is no fibrous tissue around the valve, making it less resistant to remodelling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Based on current guidelines,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> a significant dilatation of the TA is present when there is a linear medial-lateral measurement &gt; 40 mm or &gt; 21 mm/m<sup>2</sup> acquired by 2D echocardiography in apical 4-chamber view (during diastole). 3DE identifies numerous different linear dimensions for every TA in a cross section ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 4</xref> ), as expected for an oval structure, and it is important to mention that 2D apical 4-chamber view almost always fails to demonstrate the largest TV diameter. Using 3DE, we can measure the largest dimensions and area of the TA with great accuracy with multiplanar reconstruction tools. At the end of ventricular diastole, the normal value for the largest diameter of the TA is 40 ± 5 mm on 3DE (23 ± 3 mm/m<sup>2</sup>),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> always bearing in mind that this is a highly dynamic structure, whose area undergoes significant variations during the cardiac cycle (approximately 35%), being larger in the end of diastole and smaller in the middle and end of ventricular systole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f04">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Most TV annuli are oval-shaped, and 3DE is able to identify numerous different linear dimensions in a cross section with multiplanar reconstruction (A), and it is important to mention that 2D apical 4-chamber view almost always fails to demonstrate the largest TV diameter.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf04.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pathophysiological classification of TR</title>
				<p>It is of great importance to understand the pathophysiological mechanisms responsible for the development of TR, not only to define the best treatment modality and intervention timing for each specific patient, but also to prevent TR progression in some conditions, for example, in patients with atrial fibrillation that is amenable to cardioversion.</p>
				<p>Traditionally, TR is stratified by the presence of leaflet tissue involvement into two broad categories: primary TR (organic) and secondary TR (functional). However, given the great complexity and superposition of different mechanisms in TR development, a new classification was made necessary to provide a better understanding, integrating more information, not only focusing on the tricuspid leaflet tethering, but also considering right atrial, TA, and RV dilatation, as well as RV dysfunction. In this new approach, functional or secondary TR is divided into two categories: atrial functional TR (AFTR) and ventricular functional TR (VFTR). Furthermore, cardiac implantable electronic device (CIED)-related TR is also included as a new separate category.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Based on this new concept we propose a practical framework to differentiate between these pathophysiological phenotypes ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 5</xref> ). This new classification provides further information to understand the great diversity of phenotypes of TR, assisting therapeutic and interventional planning.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f05">
						<label>Figure 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Integrative classification of TR according to pathophysiology and predominant phenotypes. CIED: cardiac implantable electronic device; FTR: functional tricuspid regurgitation; RHD: rheumatic heart disease; TR: tricuspid regurgitation.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf05.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Primary TR (organic)</title>
				<p>TR may be the result of organic valvular disease (primary TR), when tissue damage or degeneration is the main reason for valvular incompetence. Primary TR is far less common than secondary TR, with reported prevalence in literature of less than 10%, and generally more difficult to repair, demanding surgical TV replacement. In the new integrated classification of TR, the main pathophysiologic mechanisms for primary TR are leaflet changes leading to restricted or excessive leaflet mobility or leaflet perforation. Specific conditions have also been included in the Carpentier classification with type I including congenital heart diseases and endocarditis (both vegetations and perforation), type II referring to myxomatous valve disease with prolapse, traumatic TR (e.g., chest trauma) and TR after biopsy, and type IIIA including carcinoid, rheumatic dysfunction, radiotherapy, and tumors ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 6</xref> ). Imaging plays a major role in the identification of these subgroups of valvopathies, because the echocardiographic criteria are definitive for diagnosis and easily detectable.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f06">
						<label>Figure 6</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– TR mechanisms, adapted from classical Carpentier classification (Carpentier A., et al. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1983). RV: right ventricle.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf06.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Ventricular secondary TR</title>
				<p>Secondary TR is the most prevalent form. It is frequently the result of inappropriate leaflet coaptation as a secondary mechanism, in response to volume or pressure overload, due to RV remodeling, annular dilatations, displacement of the PM, and leaflet tethering ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figure 7</xref> ). Left-sided heart diseases are the leading cause of secondary TR, either as a consequence of elevated pulmonary pressures due to left-sided valvular heart diseases or secondary to non-valvular heart failure, with high diastolic filling pressures, both in reduced or preserved ejection fraction. Secondary TR may also be frequently present in advanced isolated RV diseases, such as pulmonary hypertension (cor pulmonale), congenital heart diseases, or primary RV myocardial diseases (arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, RV myocardial infarction). For each patient with secondary TR, it is very important to have a full understanding of the mechanisms involved, to evaluate the possibility and best technical approach for a surgical management (when submitted to left-sided heart valve surgery), or in patients with high surgical risk, to explore transcatheter therapeutic options. Optimization of pharmacologic therapy for heart failure may change the degree of secondary TR, which is very sensitive to preload (volume) and afterload (elevated left ventricular filling pressures transmitted retrograde as elevation of capillary pressures and pulmonary artery systolic pressures), and, according to ACC and ESC guidelines, secondary TR should be treated percutaneously in patients under optimal medical treatment only.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f07">
						<label>Figure 7</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Example of ventricular secondary TR. Young patient with chronic renal failure, high output A-V fistula with congestive heart failure. A) Simultaneous 2D images with and without color Doppler showing severe tenting of leaflets and torrential TR. B) Color 3D rendered image, from a sagittal perspective, of the huge coaptation gap and the large TR color jet. C) Using dedicated software for analysis of TV, we can see also a dilated annulus (16.4 cm2) pointing to already mixed mechanism and a tenting volume of 12 mL. D) Volumetric analysis of right ventricular volumes and function by 3DE, showing a dilated right ventricle with dysfunction (RVEF = 35%). RVEDV: right ventricular end-diastolic volume; RVEF: right ventricular ejection fraction.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf07.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Atrial secondary TR</title>
				<p>What was previously known as “idiopathic” TR, today is recognized as AFTR, or “atriogenic” TR, a distinct pathophysiological phenotype, where TA dilatation and dysfunction is the main substrate of valvular incompetence. It is primarily caused by right atrial remodeling, as we often notice in patients with persistent atrial fibrillation,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> where right atrial volume is the key factor to determine alterations in the TV/TA complex<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figure 8</xref> ). Differently from the classic form of functional TR (“ventricular” TR), patients with AFTR have normal-sized or only mildly dilated (conical-shaped) RV, usually without RV dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f08">
						<label>Figure 8</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Example of secondary atriogenic TR. An elderly patient with persistent atrial fibrillation. A) Torrential TR with eccentric jet in a hugely dilated right atrium. There is no significant tenting of leaflets on 2D parasternal right ventricular inflow view (B), and a dilated annulus showed on quantitative analysis (16.4 cm2). This patient has no right ventricular pathology, with normal volumes and ejection fraction in 3D volumetric analysis (D). RVEDV: right ventricular end-diastolic volume; RVEF: right ventricular ejection fraction.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf08.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>For the diagnosis of AFTR, we have to exclude other conditions which may justify the development of TR, such as all causes of primary TR, the presence of left-sided valvular heart disease, left ventricular systolic dysfunction, pulmonary hypertension, or the presence of pacemaker wires. Distinguishing atrial from ventricular forms of secondary TR is very important, not only because they carry different prognostic implications (atrial TR develops more rapidly than ventricular TR, which is usually seen only in advanced stages of disease), but also to help guide specific interventions such as rhythm control or cardioversion in patients with persistent atrial fibrillation.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>CIED-related TR</title>
				<p>CIED-related TR is a multifactorial disease, comprising different possible types of pathophysiology, and it can share features of primary or secondary TR, depending on its etiological features. Primary CIED-related TR may be caused by lead impingement or adherence to TV leaflets ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">Figure 9</xref> ), interference with subvalvular apparatus, leaflet perforation, laceration, or in some dramatic cases even leaflet avulsion (caused by lead extraction).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f09">
						<label>Figure 9</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– CIED-related TR caused by pacemaker lead impingement (arrows). Transthoracic acquisition, with 3D rendered views of the TV from atrial perspective (A), ventricular perspective showing lack of coaptation of leaflets (asterisk) caused by septal leaflet impingement (B). In C, 3D color image from atrial perspective showing torrential TR. Ant: anterior leaflet; P: posterior leaflet; PM: pacemaker; S: septal leaflet.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf09.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Approximately 25% to 29% of patients with permanent pacemaker have TR, which is more than double the frequency of TR compared to control groups.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Defining the underlying mechanism is very important to explore the therapeutic options or even the need for lead extraction in some cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> CIED-related TR is associated with poor outcomes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> and must be avoided at any cost. By using 3DE it is feasible to guide lead positioning intraoperatively, avoiding complications and leaflet impingement, or evaluate the interference of the wire with the TV in the early postoperative period, when there is still the option to intervene and reposition the wire.</p>
				<p>The pathophysiological link between the existence of device leads and the development of a significant TR or worsening of a pre-existent regurgitation is not always related to mechanical interference of the device with leaflet mobility or the subvalvular apparatus (primary TR); it can also be due to secondary mechanisms, for example, in cases where pacing causes chamber dilatation and/or heart failure, or when it causes significant RV dyssynchrony. In fact, secondary mechanisms may be responsible for more than 60% of cases of CIED-related TR,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> and even when primary TR is the initial mechanism, long-lasting volumetric overload may lead to RV dilatation and remodeling, generating a model of coexistent primary and secondary TR.</p>
				<p>When considering lead extraction in an attempt to reduce TR, we must perform a detailed evaluation of the TV complex to determine if there is a significant secondary component (isolated or mixed); specifically looking for annular dilation, RV remodeling, RV dysfunction, and leaflet tethering, which can be determinants of worse treatment response.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Analysis of TV anatomy and mechanisms of TR with 3DE</title>
				<p>3DE is a promising technique for accurate qualitative and quantitative analysis of the TV, obtaining important parameters which can guide the best therapeutic option for each patient. 3DE is more accurate than 2D in severity assessment with vena contracta area and anatomic evaluation of the valve. With 3DE, it is possible to study any of the components of the TV complex in a dynamic way, with good temporal and spatial resolution.</p>
				<p>Step by Step approach for acquisiton and analysis of an optimized TV 3DE Dataset:</p>
				<list list-type="bullet">
					<list-item>
						<p>The main key to a reliable 3DE analysis is to obtain a good echocardiographic dataset. Specifically, focusing on the RV is important, along with good patient positioning at left lateral decubitus, preferentially with a proper examination bed, with a removable lateral part to properly expose the chest to the transducer ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figure 10A</xref> ).</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f10">
								<label>Figure 10</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Acquiring an optimized TV 3DE dataset. A) Acquiring a good apical right ventricular focused view is very important. Ensure good patient positioning at left lateral decubitus, preferentially with a proper examination bed, with a removable lateral part to properly expose the chest to the transducer. B) To obtain good 2D images, it is essential to have a good 3D image, including all the TV in the dataset, in the most central position possible, with some surrounding structures, such as the interventricular septum and aorta for spatial orientation (C). Before storing the acquired dataset, we should always check the quality of the images obtained, verifying whether all right ventricular walls are included and looking for artifacts. We can do this on rendered images or with a multislice tool (D). The suggested anatomic view of the TV is acquired from the ventricular side, by placing the septum on our right side (3 o’clock) and the aortic valve on top of it (1 o’clock). Thus, the septal leaflet (s) is shown on the right side, next to the septum, the anterior leaflet (a) on top, next to the aortic valve, and the posterior leaflet (p) on the bottom side opposite the aortic valve (E).</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf10.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>The first important rule in 3DE is that optimal 2D images are necessary in order to achieve adequate analysis of 3DE views. In case of poor acoustic window, the acquisition of 3DE will be difficult and data obtained may not be interpretable or reliable ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figure 10B</xref> ).</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Asking for breath-hold from the patient, if possible, to enable a multi-beat acquisition without significant artifacts (stitching), can help us achieve decent temporal and spatial resolution at the same time. This requires a patient on sinus rhythm or at least not on a significant arrhythmia with great R-R variation between the cardiac cycles. Even with atrial fibrillation, it may be possible to acquire multi-beat images, but never for example with a bigeminy rhythm.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>In order to achieve a good temporal resolution, ensuring a satisfactory volume rate, we have to use the maximum number of beats possible for each patient (difficult when the patient cannot or is not cooperative or in the setting of rhythm disturbances), while limiting lateral and elevation widths and focusing on the TV and subvalvular apparatus only. Surrounding structures such as the interventricular septum and the aortic valve should also be included and serve as markers during 3D analysis ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figure 10C</xref> ).</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>Before storing the acquired dataset, we should always check the quality of the images obtained, looking for artifacts (significant stitching) and confirm if the entire structure of interest was adequately included. This can be done either in volume rendering mode or in the 2D multi-slice/multiplanar mode ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figure 10D</xref> ).</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>For post-processing we can navigate freely into the dataset looking for anatomic abnormalities and the relation to surrounding structures. The suggested anatomic view of the TV is acquired from the ventricular side, by placing the septum on our right side (3 o’clock) and the aortic valve on top of it (1 o’clock). That way the septal leaflet is demonstrated on the right side, next to the septum, the anterior leaflet on the top, next to the aortic valve, and the posterior on the bottom side opposite to the aortic valve ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figure 10E</xref> ). Easy cropping features are also available, embedded in most machines, and they are an important tool to understand the etiology and pathophysiology of TR.</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>It is possible to analyze dimensions of the TV annulus using multiplanar slicing or multiplanar reconstruction tools. Both modalities enable the alignment of planes to obtain accurate annular dimensions and area ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figure 11</xref> ).</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f11">
								<label>Figure 11</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– Tricuspid annular dimensions and area analysis by 3DE post-processing. A) multi-slice tool with appropriate alignment for TV annulus (hinge point of leaflets) in 3 different projections (2D on the left image) showing an oval annulus with different dimensions depending on the axis chosen. B) The same aspect is showed by multiplanar reconstruction.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf11.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</list-item>
					<list-item>
						<p>To analyze tenting volume, coaptation height, annulus area, and other quantitative parameters, we can adapt the mitral valve software (available from many vendors), or use a specific software dedicated to the TV developed by GE Healthcare (AutoTVQ) ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figure 12</xref> ). These applications are easy to use and have a good correlation of measurements, when compared to cardiac computed tomography.</p>
						<p>
							<fig id="f12">
								<label>Figure 12</label>
								<caption>
									<title>– TV analysis using dedicated software (GE healthcare) in a patient with pulmonary arterial hypertension. In this case, we can see not only an important ventricular mechanism of secondary TR, with large tenting volume of 7.7 mL (normal volume = 1.1 ± 0.6 [Sukmawan, R, JASE 2007]), but also annular dilatation = 20.4 cm2 (normal = 8.6 ± 2.0 cm2 [Addetia et al., JACC 2017]), secondary to a chronic associated volumetric overload due to torrential TR.</title>
								</caption>
								<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf12.tif"/>
							</fig>
						</p>
					</list-item>
				</list>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>Echocardiography is the most important noninvasive diagnostic method for evaluation of TV diseases, and 3DE has been proven to have additional value, not only for evaluation of valve anatomy and quantitation of TR, but also for a complete understanding of its pathophysiological mechanisms, playing a decisive role in planning the best therapeutic strategy. Quantitative data obtained from 3D TV analysis by specific software can provide valuable information to tailor the best surgical or percutaneous technique for each patient and to help develop new treatment strategies for valve intervention in the near future.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study Association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of Funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230055</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Como Eu Faço Ecocardiografia Tridimensional para Classificação Fisiopatológica da Regurgitação Tricúspide</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7046-8707</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Felix</surname>
						<given-names>Alex dos Santos</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e redação do manuscrito,revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1348-9074</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Alcantara</surname>
						<given-names>Monica Luiza de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7356-2379</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Papadopoulos</surname>
						<given-names>Konstantinos</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">DASA, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto D’Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="GR">Grécia</country>
				<institution content-type="original">European Interbalkan Medical Center, Atenas – Grécia</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">Correspondência: Alex dos Santos Félix • National Institute of Cardiology. Rua das Laranjeiras, 374. CEP: 20521-290. Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil E-mail: alexsfelix@gmail.com</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</p>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Valva Tricúspide</kwd>
				<kwd>Insuficiência da Valva Tricúspide</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia Tridimensiona</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>Embora conhecida no passado como a “valva esquecida”, nas duas últimas décadas houve um interesse crescente no estudo da valva tricúspide (VT). A regurgitação tricúspide (RT) tem sido identificada como um marcador prognóstico não apenas quando associada a outras doenças cardíacas, como insuficiência cardíaca, regurgitação mitral ou estenose aórtica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> mas também como uma entidade isolada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Compreender os mecanismos fisiopatológicos desta doença é de suma importância, pelo desenvolvimento de novas opções de dispositivos e técnicas transcateter, oferecendo tratamento invasivo para pacientes de alto risco para os quais a intervenção cirúrgica não seria adequada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>É difícil obter imagens da VT na ecocardiografia transesofágica pelos seguintes motivos: 1) os folhetos são muito mais finos em comparação com os folhetos mitrais, com maior variabilidade anatômica; 2) é uma estrutura anterior, distante do esôfago, com sombra acústica do esqueleto fibroso do coração; e 3) não pode ser alinhado com a sonda esofágica para adquirir imagens <italic>en face</italic> e requer o uso de resolução lateral. Essas restrições podem limitar a capacidade da ecocardiografia transesofágica tradicional de avaliar a TV, tornando-se necessário complementar a avaliação com janelas especiais do esôfago inferior e transgástricas. Diferentemente de outras valvas cardíacas, as imagens da VT obtidas por ecocardiografia transtorácica costumam ter melhor resolução do que as imagens obtidas pela ecocardiografia transesofágica. Embora todos os protocolos comecem com a avaliação bidimensional (2D) da VT, a ecocardiografia tridimensional (3D) desempenha um papel importante na avaliação das doenças da VT, não apenas por sua capacidade de retratar com precisão a anatomia da valva e do aparelho subvalvar, mas também pela sua acurácia na quantificação dos volumes e da função do ventrículo direito (VD) e do átrio direito, bem como da análise funcional da disfunção valvar, especialmente para graduar a RT e avaliar a dinâmica do anel tricúspide por meio de software dedicado. Todas essas informações são de importância inigualável para o manejo do paciente e o planejamento pré-procedimento em abordagens cirúrgicas e transcateter.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Anatomia da VT</title>
					<p>O complexo da VT é uma unidade funcional composta por folhetos, aparelho subvalvar, músculos papilares e anel tricúspide ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref> ), que interagem durante o ciclo cardíaco de forma dinâmica para manter a função valvar. Embora seja chamada tradicionalmente de “tricúspide”, essa valva apresenta grande variabilidade anatômica. Aliás, até 46% delas podem ter duas, quatro ou até mais cúspides<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref> ). Os folhetos da VT são assimétricos; o folheto anterior é tipicamente o maior em diâmetro radial e área. O folheto septal tem a menor mobilidade e é o mais curto em diâmetro radial, enquanto o posterior é o mais curto circunferencialmente e, muitas vezes, tem múltiplos escalopes. A VT tem sua inserção posicionada mais apicalmente que a valva mitral (distância normal ≤ 10 mm em relação ao folheto mitral anterior).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f01002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Anatomia do complexo valvar tricúspide visualizado por ecocardiografia 3D. Uma unidade funcional composta por folhetos, aparelho subvalvar, músculos papilares e anel tricúspide. AD: apêndice atrial direito; AD: átrio direito; AVT: anel da valva tricúspide; MP ant: músculo papilar anterior; VCS: veia cava superior; VT: valva tricúspide.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Variações anatômicas de valvas tricúspides (VT) visualizadas por ecocardiografia 3D (perspectiva ventricular). Em A vemos o exemplo de uma TV bicúspide; em B uma TV tricúspide; e em C uma TV quadricúspide.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>O aparelho subvalvar da VT é normalmente composto por dois músculos papilares bem diferenciados: anterior e posterior, com presença variável de um músculo papilar septal. O músculo papilar anterior é o mais proeminente e fornece suporte cordal aos folhetos anterior e posterior. Ele se funde com a extremidade direita das trabéculas marginais septais (banda moderadora) abaixo da comissura ântero-posterior. O músculo papilar posterior, que pode ser bífido ou trífido, fornece suporte cordal aos folhetos posteriores e septais. O músculo papilar septal, quando presente, pode ser pequeno ou múltiplo, sendo muitas vezes indistinguível da parede ventricular. Geralmente existem algumas cordas pequenas que emergem diretamente do septo ventricular e se inserem nos folhetos anterior e septal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Cordas acessórias podem se inserir diretamente na parede livre do VD ou na banda moderadora ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 3</xref> ). No VD, as cordas subvalvares são menos distensíveis do que as observadas na valva mitral, com densos feixes de colágeno, ajudando a explicar porque há <italic>tethering</italic> (repuxamento) mais extenso quando há remodelamento ventricular, com deslocamento das posições do septo ou da parede lateral do VD, afetando a coaptação dos folhetos.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Detalhe anatômico do complexo valvar tricúspide visualizado por ecocardiografia transtorácica 3D. A) Corte coronal renderizado em 3D mostrando o músculo papilar anterior (seta verde) emergindo das trabéculas septomarginais (asterisco verde) na parede anterolateral. B) Corte oblíquo, onde podemos ver a inserção cordal direta (asterisco amarelo) no septo interventricular. AD: átrio direito; VD: ventrículo direito.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Uma das estruturas mais importantes para manter o funcionamento adequado da VT é o anel tricúspide. É uma estrutura muito dinâmica, com tamanho e geometria variáveis durante o ciclo cardíaco, geralmente em forma de sela e oval. Torna-se mais esférico e plano quando dilatado, estendendo-se em direção às paredes anterolateral e posterior do VD, regiões onde não há tecido fibroso ao redor da valva, sendo menos resistente ao remodelamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Com base nas diretrizes atuais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> uma dilatação significativa do anel tricúspide está presente quando há uma medida linear médio-lateral &gt; 40 mm ou &gt; 21 mm/m<sup>2</sup>adquirida pela ecocardiografia 2D no corte apical de 4 câmaras (durante a diástole). A ecocardiografia 3D identifica várias dimensões lineares diferentes para cada anel tricúspide em um corte transversal ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 4</xref> ), como esperado para uma estrutura oval. É importante mencionar que o corte apical 2D de 4 câmaras quase sempre falha em demonstrar o maior diâmetro da VT. Usando a ecocardiografia 3D, podemos medir as maiores dimensões e área do anel tricúspide com grande acurácia usando ferramentas de reconstrução multiplanar. Ao final da diástole ventricular, o valor normal para o maior diâmetro do anel tricúspide é de 40 ± 5 mm na ecocardiografia 3D (23 ± 3 mm/m<sup>2</sup>),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> sempre considerando que se trata de uma estrutura altamente dinâmica cuja área sofre variações significativas durante o ciclo cardíaco (aproximadamente 35%), sendo maior no final da diástole e menor no meio e final da sístole ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04002">
							<label>Figura 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– A maioria dos anéis da VT tem formato oval, e a ecocardiografia 3D é capaz de identificar inúmeras dimensões lineares diferentes em um corte transversal com reconstrução multiplanar (A), sendo importante mencionar que o corte apical 2D de 4 câmaras quase sempre falha em demonstrar o maior diâmetro da VT.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf04-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Classificação fisiopatológica da RT</title>
					<p>É de grande importância compreender os mecanismos fisiopatológicos responsáveis pelo desenvolvimento da RT, não só para definir a melhor modalidade de tratamento e momento ideal de intervenção para cada paciente específico, mas também para prevenir a progressão da RT em algumas condições, por exemplo, em pacientes com fibrilação atrial passível de cardioversão.</p>
					<p>Tradicionalmente, a RT é estratificada pela presença ou não de dano tecidual dos folhetos em duas categorias amplas: RT primária (orgânica) e RT secundária (funcional). No entanto, dada a grande complexidade e superposição de diversos mecanismos no desenvolvimento da RT, uma nova classificação se fez necessária para melhor entendimento, integrando mais informações, não apenas focando no <italic>tethering</italic> dos folhetos tricúspides, mas também considerando a dilatação do átrio direito, do anel tricúspide e do VD, bem como a disfunção do VD. Nessa nova abordagem, a RT funcional ou secundária é dividida em duas categorias: RT funcional atrial e RT funcional ventricular. Além disso, a RT relacionada a dispositivos cardíacos eletrônicos implantáveis (DCEI) também é incluída como uma nova categoria separada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Baseado neste novo conceito, podemos ilustrar, com um organograma prático, a diferenciação entre estes fenótipos fisiopatológicos de RT ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05002">Figura 5</xref> ). Essa nova classificação fornece mais informações para compreender a grande diversidade de fenótipos da RT, auxiliando no planejamento terapêutico e de intervenção.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f05002">
							<label>Figura 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Classificação integrativa da RT de acordo com a fisiopatologia e os fenótipos predominantes. CR: cardiopatia reumática; DCEI: dispositivos cardíacos eletrônicos implantáveis: RTF: regurgitação tricúspide funcional; RT: regurgitação tricúspide; VD: ventrículo direito.AD: átrio direito; VD: ventrículo direito.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf05-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>RT primária (orgânica)</title>
					<p>A RT pode ser resultado de valvopatia orgânica (RT primária) quando o dano ou degeneração tecidual é a principal razão para a incompetência valvar. A RT primária é bem menos comum que a secundária, com prevalência relatada na literatura de menos de 10%, e é geralmente mais difícil de reparar, exigindo frequentemente substituição cirúrgica da VT. Na nova classificação integrada da RT, os principais mecanismos fisiopatológicos da RT primária são as alterações dos folhetos que levam à mobilidade restrita ou excessiva dos folhetos ou à perfuração dos folhetos. Condições específicas também foram incluídas na classificação de Carpentier com tipo I incluindo doenças cardíacas congênitas e endocardite (tanto vegetações quanto perfuração), tipo II referindo-se a valvopatia mixomatosa com prolapso, RT traumática (por exemplo, trauma torácico) e RT após biópsia, e tipo IIIA incluindo carcinoide, disfunção reumática, radioterapia e tumores ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06002">Figura 6</xref> ). A imagem desempenha um papel importante na identificação desses subgrupos de valvopatias, pois os critérios ecocardiográficos são definitivos para o diagnóstico e de fácil obtenção.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f06002">
							<label>Figura 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Mecanismos da RT, adaptados da classificação clássica de Carpentier (Carpentier A., et al. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1983). AD: átrio direito; VD: ventrículo direito.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf06-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>RT secundária ventricular</title>
					<p>A RT secundária é a forma mais prevalente. Frequentemente resulta da coaptação inapropriada dos folhetos como mecanismo secundário, em resposta à sobrecarga de volume ou pressão, devido ao remodelamento do VD, dilatações anulares, deslocamento dos músculos papilares e <italic>tethering</italic> dos folhetos ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07002">Figura 7</xref> ). As doenças do lado esquerdo do coração são a principal causa da RT secundária, seja como consequência de pressões pulmonares elevadas devido a valvopatias do lado esquerdo ou secundárias à insuficiência cardíaca não valvar, com altas pressões de enchimento diastólico, tanto nas insuficiências cardíacas com fração de ejeção reduzida quanto preservada. A RT secundária também pode estar frequentemente presente em doenças do VD avançadas e isoladas, como hipertensão pulmonar (cor pulmonale), cardiopatias congênitas ou cardiomiopatias primárias do VD (cardiomiopatia arritmogênica, infarto do miocárdio do VD). Para cada paciente com RT secundária, é muito importante ter um entendimento completo dos mecanismos envolvidos, para avaliar a possibilidade e a melhor abordagem técnica para o manejo cirúrgico (quando submetido à cirurgia valvar do lado esquerdo) e em pacientes com alto risco cirúrgico, para explorar opções terapêuticas transcateter. A otimização da terapia farmacológica para insuficiência cardíaca pode alterar o grau de RT secundária, que é muito sensível à pré-carga (volemia) e à pós-carga (pressões elevadas de enchimento do ventrículo esquerdo, transmitidas retrogradamente como elevação das pressões capilares e pressões sistólicas da artéria pulmonar). De acordo com as Diretrizes da American College of Cardiology e da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia, a RT secundária deve ser tratada apenas em pacientes sob tratamento clínico otimizado.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f07002">
							<label>Figura 7</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Exemplo de RT secundária ventricular. Paciente jovem com insuficiência renal crônica, fístula A-V de alto débito com insuficiência cardíaca congestiva. A) Imagens 2D simultâneas com e sem Doppler colorido mostrando tenting importante de folhetos e RT torrencial. B) Imagem renderizada em 3D colorida, em perspectiva sagital, com enorme falha de coaptação e do grande jato colorido de RT. C) Usando software dedicado para análise da VT, podemos ver também um anel dilatado (16,4 cm2) indicando um mecanismo já misto e um volume de tenting de 12 mL. D) Análise volumétrica dos volumes e da função do VD pela ecocardiografia 3D, mostrando um VD dilatado com disfunção (FEVD = 35%). FEVD: fração de ejeção do ventrículo direito; VDFVD: volume diastólico final do ventrículo direito.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf07-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>RT secundária atrial</title>
					<p>A doença que antes era conhecida como RT “idiopática”, hoje é reconhecida como RT funcional atrial, ou RT “atriogênica”, um fenótipo fisiopatológico distinto, em que a dilatação e a disfunção do anel tricúspide são o principal substrato da incompetência valvar. Ela é causada principalmente pelo remodelamento do átrio direito, como frequentemente observamos em pacientes com fibrilação atrial persistente,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> em que o volume do átrio direito é o fator chave para determinar alterações no complexo VT/anel tricúspide<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08002">Figura 8</xref> ). Diferentemente da forma clássica de RT funcional (RT “ventricular”), os pacientes com RT funcional atrial apresentam VD de tamanho normal ou apenas levemente dilatado (formato cônico), geralmente sem disfunção do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f08002">
							<label>Figura 8</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Exemplo de RT secundária atriogênica. Paciente idoso com fibrilação atrial persistente. A) RT torrencial com jato excêntrico em um átrio direito com dilatação importante. Não há tenting significativo dos folhetos no corte paraesternal 2D de via de entrada do VD (B), e mostrou um anel dilatado na análise quantitativa (16,4 cm2). O paciente não apresenta patologia do VD, com volumes e fração de ejeção normais na análise volumétrica 3D (D). FEVD: fração de ejeção do ventrículo direito; VDFVD: volume diastólico final do ventrículo direito.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf08-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Para o diagnóstico de RT funcional atrial, devemos excluir outras condições que possam justificar o desenvolvimento de RT, como todas as causas de RT primária, a presença de valvopatia esquerda, disfunção sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo, hipertensão pulmonar ou presença de cabos de marcapasso. A distinção entre formas atriais e ventriculares de RT secundária é muito importante, não apenas porque elas acarretam diferentes implicações prognósticas (RT atrial se desenvolve mais rapidamente do que RT ventricular, que é geralmente observada apenas em estágios avançados da doença), mas também por ajudar a orientar intervenções específicas como controle do ritmo ou cardioversão em pacientes com fibrilação atrial persistente.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>RT relacionada a DCEI</title>
					<p>A RT relacionada a DCEI é uma doença multifatorial, compreendendo diferentes tipos possíveis de fisiopatologia, podendo compartilhar características da RT primária ou secundária, a depender de suas características etiológicas. A RT primária relacionada a DCEI pode ser causada por <italic>impingement</italic> (interferência no fechamento do folheto pelo contato direto do cabo do marcapasso) ou aderência aos folhetos da VT ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09002">Figura 9</xref> ), interferência com o aparelho subvalvar, perfuração do folheto, laceração ou, em alguns casos dramáticos, até mesmo avulsão do folheto (causada pela extração do eletrodo).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f09002">
							<label>Figura 9</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– RT relacionada a dispositivo cardíaco eletrônico implantável, causada por impingement (interferência do cabo de marcapasso sobre o fechamento do folheto) (setas). Aquisição transtorácica, com visualização 3D da VT na perspectiva atrial (A), perspectiva ventricular demonstrando ausência de coaptação das cúspides (asterisco) causada por impingement do folheto septal (B). Em C, imagem 3D colorida da perspectiva atrial mostrando RT torrencial. Ant: folheto anterior; P: folheto posterior; MP: marcapasso; S: folheto septal.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf09-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Aproximadamente 25% a 29% dos pacientes com marcapasso permanente têm RT, o que corresponde a mais que o dobro da frequência de RT em comparação com grupos de controle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> É muito importante definir o mecanismo subjacente para explorar as opções terapêuticas ou mesmo a necessidade de extração de eletrodos em alguns casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A TR relacionada a DCEI está associada a desfechos desfavoráveis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> e deve ser evitada a qualquer custo. Com o uso da ecocardiografia 3D é factível orientar o posicionamento do eletrodo no intraoperatório, evitando complicações e <italic>impingement</italic> dos folhetos, ou avaliar a interferência do cabo com a VT no pós-operatório imediato, quando ainda existe a opção de intervir e reposicioná-lo.</p>
					<p>A relação fisiopatológica entre a existência de eletrodos de dispositivo e o desenvolvimento de RT significativa ou agravamento de uma regurgitação pré-existente nem sempre está ligada à interferência mecânica do dispositivo na mobilidade dos folhetos ou no aparelho subvalvar (RT primária); ela também pode ser devido a mecanismos secundários, por exemplo, nos casos em que a estimulação causa dilatação das câmaras e/ou insuficiência cardíaca, ou quando causa dissincronia significativa do VD. De fato, mecanismos secundários podem ser responsáveis por mais de 60% dos casos de RT relacionados a DCEI,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> e mesmo quando a RT primária é o mecanismo inicial, a sobrecarga volumétrica de longa duração pode levar à dilatação e ao remodelamento do VD, gerando um modelo de RT primária e secundária coexistentes.</p>
					<p>Ao considerar a extração de um eletrodo na tentativa de reduzir a RT, devemos fazer uma avaliação detalhada do complexo da VT para determinar se existe um componente secundário significativo (isolado ou misto) procurando especificamente dilatação anular, remodelamento do VD, disfunção do VD e <italic>tethering</italic> dos folhetos, que podem ser determinantes de pior resposta ao tratamento.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Análise da anatomia da VT e dos mecanismos da RT com a ecocardiografia 3D</title>
					<p>A ecocardiografia 3D é uma técnica promissora para análise qualitativa e quantitativa precisa da VT, obtendo parâmetros importantes que podem orientar a melhor opção terapêutica para cada paciente. A ecocardiografia 3D é mais precisa do que a 2D na avaliação da gravidade com a determinação da área da vena contracta e avaliação anatômica da valva. Com a ecocardiografia 3D, é possível estudar qualquer um dos componentes do complexo da VT de forma dinâmica, com boa resolução temporal e espacial.</p>
					<p>Abordagem passo a passo para a aquisição e análise de um Dataset otimizado de ECO3D para a valva tricúspide:</p>
					<list list-type="bullet">
						<list-item>
							<p>A chave para uma análise confiável pela ecocardiografia 3D é obter um bom conjunto de dados ecocardiográficos ( <italic>Dataset</italic> ). Especificamente, focar o VD é importante, juntamente com o bom posicionamento do paciente em decúbito lateral esquerdo, preferencialmente com mesa de exame adequada, com lateral removível para expor adequadamente o tórax ao transdutor ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10002">Figura 10A</xref> ).</p>
							<p>
								<fig id="f10002">
									<label>Figura 10</label>
									<caption>
										<title>– Aquisição otimizada de um dataset de ecocardiografia 3D da VT. A) É muito importante adquirir uma boa janela apical focada em VD. Garantir o bom posicionamento do paciente em decúbito lateral esquerdo, preferencialmente em uma mesa de exame adequada, com lateral removível para expor adequadamente o tórax ao transdutor. B) Para obter boas imagens 2D, é essencial ter uma boa imagem 3D, incluindo toda a VT no conjunto de dados, na posição mais central possível, com algumas estruturas circunjacentes, como o septo interventricular e a aorta para orientação espacial (C). Antes de armazenar o Dataset adquirido, devemos sempre verificar a qualidade das imagens obtidas, verificando se todas as paredes do VD estão incluídas e procurando artefatos. Podemos fazer isso em imagens renderizadas ou com uma ferramenta multi-slice (D). A visão anatômica sugerida da VT é adquirida do lado ventricular, colocando o septo ao nosso lado direito (3 horas) e a valva aórtica em cima dele (1 hora). Assim, o folheto septal (s) é mostrado ao lado direito, próximo ao septo; o folheto anterior (a) na parte superior, próximo à valva aórtica; e o folheto posterior (p) no lado inferior oposto à valva aórtica (E).</title>
									</caption>
									<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf10-pt.tif"/>
								</fig>
							</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>A primeira regra importante na ecocardiografia 3D é que as imagens 2D otimizadas são necessárias para obter a análise adequada das visualizações 3D. Em caso de janela acústica inadequada, a aquisição do Dataset 3D será bastante difícil e os dados obtidos poderão não ser interpretáveis ou confiáveis ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10002">Figura 10B</xref> ).</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Pedir ao paciente para que prenda a respiração, se possível, para permitir uma aquisição de múltiplos batimentos “ <italic>multi-beat</italic> ” sem artefatos significativos ( <italic>stitching</italic> ), pode nos ajudar a obter uma resolução temporal e espacial adequada ao mesmo tempo. Isso requer um paciente em ritmo sinusal ou pelo menos não em uma arritmia significativa com grande variação R-R entre os ciclos cardíacos. Mesmo com fibrilação atrial, pode ser possível adquirir imagens multi-beat, mas nunca, por exemplo, com um ritmo de bigeminismo.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Para obter uma boa resolução temporal, garantindo uma taxa de volumes satisfatória, temos que usar o número máximo de batimentos possível para cada paciente (difícil quando o paciente não pode ou não é cooperativo ou no cenário de distúrbios do ritmo), limitando larguras laterais e de elevação e focando apenas na VT e no aparelho subvalvar. Estruturas circunjacentes como o septo interventricular e a valva aórtica também devem ser incluídas e servir como marcadores durante a análise 3D ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10002">Figura 10C</xref> ).</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Antes de armazenar o dataset adquirido, devemos sempre verificar a qualidade das imagens obtidas, procurando artefatos ( <italic>stitching</italic> significativos) e confirmar se toda a estrutura de interesse foi adequadamente incluída. Isso pode ser feito no modo de renderização de volume ou no modo 2D <italic>multi-slice</italic> /multiplanar ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10002">Figura 10D</xref> ).</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Para pós-processamento, podemos navegar livremente no dataset procurando alterações anatômicas e a relação com as estruturas vizinhas. A visão anatômica sugerida da VT é adquirida pela perspectiva ventricular, colocando o septo ao nosso lado direito (3 horas) e a válvula aórtica em cima dele (1 hora). Assim, fica demonstrado o folheto septal ao lado direito, próximo ao septo, o folheto anterior na parte superior, próximo à valva aórtica, e o posterior no lado inferior oposto à valva aórtica ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10002">Figura 10E</xref> ). Recursos para um fácil <italic>cropping</italic> também estão disponíveis, incorporados na maioria das máquinas, sendo uma ferramenta importante para entender a etiologia e a fisiopatologia da RT.</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>É possível analisar as dimensões do anel da VT usando <italic>slicing</italic> multiplanar ou ferramentas de reconstrução multiplanar. Ambas as modalidades permitem o alinhamento dos planos para obter dimensões e áreas anulares precisas ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11002">Figura 11</xref> ).</p>
							<p>
								<fig id="f11002">
									<label>Figura 11</label>
									<caption>
										<title>– Dimensões do anel tricúspide e análise de área por pós-processamento da ecocardiografia 3D. A) Ferramenta multi-slice com alinhamento adequado para o anel da VT (ponto de inserção dos folhetos) em 3 projeções diferentes (2D na imagem esquerda) mostrando um anel oval com dimensões diferentes dependendo do eixo escolhido. B) O mesmo aspecto é mostrado pela reconstrução multiplanar.</title>
									</caption>
									<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf11-pt.tif"/>
								</fig>
							</p>
						</list-item>
						<list-item>
							<p>Para analisar o volume de <italic>tenting</italic> , altura de coaptação, área do anel e outros parâmetros quantitativos, podemos adaptar o software da valva mitral (disponível em vários fornecedores) ou usar um software específico dedicado à VT desenvolvido pela GE Healthcare (AutoTVQ) ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12002">Figura 12</xref> ). Esses aplicativos são fáceis de usar e apresentam boa correlação de medidas, quando comparados à tomografia computadorizada cardíaca.</p>
							<p>
								<fig id="f12002">
									<label>Figura 12</label>
									<caption>
										<title>– Análise da VT usando software dedicado (GE Healthcare) em um paciente com hipertensão arterial pulmonar. Neste caso, podemos ver não apenas um importante mecanismo ventricular de RT secundária, com grande volume de tenting de 7,7 mL (volume normal = 1,1 ± 0,6, segundo Sukmawan, R, JASE 2007), mas também dilatação anular = 20,4 cm2 (normal = 8,6 ± 2,0 cm2, segundo Addetia et al., JACC 2017), secundária a uma sobrecarga volumétrica crônica devido à RT torrencial.</title>
									</caption>
									<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230055-gf12-pt.tif"/>
								</fig>
							</p>
						</list-item>
					</list>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A ecocardiografia é o método diagnóstico não invasivo mais importante para avaliação das valvopatias tricúspides, e a ecocardiografia 3D provou ter valor adicional, não apenas para avaliação da anatomia valvar e quantificação da RT, mas também para o entendimento completo de seus mecanismos fisiopatológicos, desempenhando um papel decisivo no planejamento da melhor estratégia terapêutica. Os dados quantitativos obtidos da análise 3D da VT usando software específico podem fornecer informações valiosas para escolher a melhor técnica cirúrgica ou percutânea para cada paciente e ajudar a desenvolver novas estratégias de tratamento para intervenção valvar em um futuro próximo.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Vinculação Acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de Financiamento: O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>