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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230045i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>My Approach to Echocardiographic Evaluation after Pediatric Heart Transplantation to Control Rejection and/or Graft Vascular Disease</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5629-1626</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Siqueira</surname>
						<given-names>Adailson Wagner da Silva</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content,acquisition of data and writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Almeida</surname>
						<given-names>Mirela Frederico de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>acquisition of data and writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Coração</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Bahia</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Adailson Wagner da Silva Siqueira • Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração. Rua Doutor Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. Postal code: 05403-000. São Paulo, SP – Brazil E-mail: <email>adailson.siqueira@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsible for the review: Karen Saori Shiraishi Sawamura</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>30</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>36</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230045</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>25</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>28</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>28</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Pediatric heart transplantation is the definitive therapeutic option for patients with heart failure refractory to optimized clinical treatment, due either to cardiomyopathies or congenital heart disease. Morbidity and mortality remain concerning factors during evolution, and primary dysfunction, rejection, and graft vascular disease (GVD) are the main causes of death in the first 5 years after transplantation. As a surveillance method, transthoracic echocardiography has significant benefits in assisting diagnosis when there is clinical suspicion of rejection or GVD. The objective of this article is to present, in a clear and objective manner, which echocardiographic data assist pediatric cardiologists in follow-up of transplanted patients. The use of echocardiography, either through conventional tools or advanced methods, carefully focusing on different early and late post-cardiac transplantation phases, with information from current and comparative examination of evolution, mainly regarding tissue Doppler and longitudinal strain, can assist pediatric cardiologists in the decision to anticipate endomyocardial biopsy and coronary angiography (gold standard) for early diagnosis and immediate intervention, allowing greater graft durability.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
				<kwd>Heart Transplantation</kwd>
				<kwd>Heart Defects, Congenital</kwd>
				<kwd>Coronary Disease</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="21"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Pediatric heart transplantation is the definitive therapeutic option for patients with heart failure refractory to optimized clinical treatment, due either to cardiomyopathies or congenital heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Since the first pediatric heart transplant by Dr. Adrian Kantrowitz in 1967 to the present day, when approximately 700 transplants per year are performed, there has been substantial progress in the study of the immune response to grafts, the use of medications, surgical techniques, and lifestyle changes. Therefore, survival after pediatric transplantation has progressively improved in recent years, with a median survival of 18 years for all age groups; for transplants performed in patients younger than 1 year of age, the median survival is greater than 24 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Morbidity and mortality remain concerning factors during evolution, and primary dysfunction, rejection, and graft vascular disease (GVD) are the main causes of death in the first 5 years after transplantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Other complications are associated with the use of immunosuppressive drugs, such as infections, lymphoproliferative disorders, diabetes, and target organ damage, such as kidney failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>For evaluation of graft integrity, the gold standard is the presence of direct cardiomyocyte damage on microscopy obtained through endomyocardial biopsy and the study of the coronary arteries by catheterization. However, it is an invasive procedure with risks of complications (perforation, tamponade, thrombi, arrhythmias, tricuspid valve injury) and, in the pediatric age range, the need for sedation/anesthesia. As a surveillance method, transthoracic echocardiography has significant benefits in assisting diagnosis when there is clinical suspicion of rejection or GVD. The new methods associated with myocardial deformation have shown promising results in anticipating outcomes and long-term patient survival, as untreated episodes of subclinical rejection can progress to GVD and progressive deterioration of the organ.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> After diagnosis of GVD, survival drops significantly to 58% at 5 years and to only 40% at 10 years. These complications can lead to graft failure, and retransplantation is indicated, occurring in approximately 25% to 30% of pediatric heart transplants in the past decade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The objective of this article is to present, in a clear and objective manner, which echocardiographic data assist pediatric cardiologists in follow-up of transplanted patients, focusing on alterations that may, as early as possible, suggest graft anomalies before hemodynamic worsening, given that ventricular dysfunction due to reduced ejection fraction calculated by traditional methods is usually a late finding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>Transplant timing: early versus late</title>
				<p>Cardiac grafts present some peculiarities during the first postoperative months, requiring careful evaluation and interpretation of the data obtained by echocardiography in order to correlate and differentiate evolution suggestive of graft rejection in adaptation to the new hemodynamic state. Initially, during the period prior to implantation, the following factors may influence immediate organ function: ischemia time, donor age, presence of donor comorbidities, care in hemodynamic maintenance, and adequate preservation of the organ. After implantation, the graft may present temporary alterations due to reperfusion injury, adaptation of the right ventricle to elevated pulmonary artery pressure, and the presence of circulating inflammatory mediators.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The use of immunosuppressants, mainly cyclosporine,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> increased circulating catecholamines, systemic arterial hypertension, and worsening lymphatic drainage lead to a progressive increase in ventricular mass, which peaks around the third postoperative month and progressively reduces until normalization in the first year after transplantation<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref> ).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Main factors associated with success in early and late transplantation that influence graft function and echocardiographic findings, showing the evolution of ventricular mass and ventricular strain (STE). HT: heart transplantation; STE: speckle-tracking echocardiography; GVD: graft vascular disease.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230045-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Non-invasive detection of acute rejection is particularly challenging in the early post-transplant period as systolic and diastolic function (relaxation disorder and restrictive physiology) undergo changes during the first few months. The denervated heart has a particular physiology, with an impact on the validation and reliability of non-invasive methods; therefore, echocardiographic evaluation must take this graft modification/adaptation into consideration during the initial months. The follow-up protocols of most large transplant centers include mandatory hemodynamic study and endomyocardial biopsy at pre-established periods during the first months, regardless of good clinical evolution<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref> ).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Temporal follow-up of evolution after cardiac transplantation in parasternal longitudinal and short-axis echocardiographic views, showing 2-dimensional imaging, global longitudinal strain, ventricular mass, biomarkers, and paired endomyocardial biopsy results. BNP: B-type natriuretic peptide; EMB: endomyocardial biopsy; GLS: global longitudinal strain.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230045-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Conventional echocardiography measurements</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Tissue Doppler imaging</title>
					<p>Myocardial inflammation caused by graft rejection alters tissue characteristics even before the onset of systolic or diastolic dysfunction. Tissue Doppler imaging (TDI) quantifies the velocity of movement in a myocardial region in relation to the transducer. TDI is, thus, a tool that characterizes myocardial mechanics and a non-invasive imaging instrument that can monitor acute cellular rejection in adults and children.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>TDI values are normally lower in pediatric transplant patients without rejection in relation to the values found in healthy controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Thus, variations in TDI measurement values are more predictive for evaluation of rejection than when considered alone. The longitudinal evaluation of patients makes it possible to detect changes in graft systolic and diastolic function.</p>
					<p>Derek et al. studied 53 transplanted children, and 8 of them evolved to terminal graft failure (death or retransplantation). The authors detected a reduction in the S’ velocity of the tricuspid valve approximately 6 months before the terminal failure. A reduction in mitral valve S’ velocity occurred only 3 months before the event, demonstrating left ventricular failure after right ventricular failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Lunze et al. demonstrated that a reduction of up to 15% in S’ velocity and up to 5% in A’ velocity of the left ventricle was able to predict absence of rejection in pediatric transplant patients with an accuracy greater than 99%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>The E/E’ ratio of the mitral and tricuspid valves is also a useful parameter in suspected humoral graft rejection, as demonstrated by Behera et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> who studied 148 pediatric heart transplant patients. Echocardiography was performed on the same day as endomyocardial biopsy. The mitral and tricuspid E/E’ ratio was significantly lower in patients with rejection compared to patients without alterations on biopsy.</p>
					<p>The myocardial performance index (MPI) derived from TDI is a useful parameter in suspected graft rejection in transplant patients. The MPI can increase by an average of 98% during the period of rejection compared to the baseline value and return to pretreatment index levels after resolution of myocardial inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Flanagan et al. studied 40 children with heart transplant (60 days after the procedure) with endomyocardial biopsy-proven acute cellular rejection and compared them with 40 children with transplantation, but without rejection. The authors identified a significant increase in left ventricular MPI during the rejection period in relation to the same patient’s baseline value (0.59 +/− 017 versus 0.41 +/− 0.11; p &lt; 0.001) and similar values of left ventricular MPI after resolution of inflammation compared to the baseline value without rejection (0.41 +/− 0.11 versus 0.42 +/− 0.11; p = 0.65). Thus, the authors concluded that an increase of ≥ 0.47 in the baseline value of left ventricular MPI had a sensitivity of 82.5% and specificity of 85% in the detection of acute cellular rejection and that an increase of ≥ 20.4% in left ventricular MPI in relation to the patient’s baseline value has a sensitivity of 90% and specificity of 100% in the detection of acute cellular rejection. Their study illustrates the importance of longitudinal evaluation of left ventricular MPI in patients with heart transplantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE)</title>
					<p>Echocardiographic markers are essential for diagnosis and monitoring of the graft in cases of rejection. Initially, this evaluation focused mainly on the left ventricle. More recently, parameters for evaluating right ventricular function have been studied in this scenario.</p>
					<p>TAPSE is a measure that evaluates right ventricular longitudinal function. Using the M mode, with the cursor positioned on the lateral wall of the tricuspid annulus, it is possible to measure the displacement distance of this annulus, a parameter that evaluates right ventricular longitudinal function. Heart transplantation alters the geometry of the heart and thus modifies the longitudinal movement of the right ventricle. Changes in TAPSE soon after heart transplantation may correspond to changes in the mechanism of right ventricular contractility rather than solely systolic dysfunction in this chamber.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Hence, longitudinal follow-up of patients is important in order to detect variations in graft performance.</p>
					<p>Brian et al. studied 127 stable pediatric heart transplant patients and compared them with 380 age-matched healthy children. The authors demonstrated a reduction in TAPSE values in transplant patients compared to healthy controls (mean Z score: −3.38).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Michalski et al. retrospectively studied 52 patients (pediatric and adult) with heart transplantation and observed a reduction in TAPSE immediately after transplantation, with progressive improvement over time. They also demonstrated an association between a reduction in TAPSE and an increase in mean pulmonary artery pressure calculated by cardiac catheterization 10 years after transplantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Pediatric patients show a decrease in TAPSE during an episode of rejection, and the values improve after resolution of the condition, as demonstrated in a retrospective study carried out by Arthur et al., which evaluated 44 pediatric heart transplant patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Mitral annular plane systolic excursion (MAPSE)</title>
					<p>MAPSE is a parameter for evaluating left ventricular systolic function, measured using the M mode of the lateral portion of the mitral annulus in 4-chamber view. This index may also be reduced in pediatric patients who have undergone heart transplantation.</p>
					<p>Chinalli et al. studied 60 children who underwent heart transplantation and compared them with 60 healthy controls. All patients had normal ejection fraction by Simpson’s method. The transplanted patients had lower MAPSE values than patients in the control group (13 mm +/− 2.6 versus 18 mm +/− 2.3; p &lt; 0.0001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>New technologies: applications in the pediatric range?</title>
			<p>Echocardiography is commonly the primary non-invasive technique for surveillance of the transplanted heart; however, the traditionally used parameters are affected by heart rate, pre- and after-load conditions, and paradoxical movement of the graft septum, leading to calculations of ventricular function with low sensitivity and specificity to detect asymptomatic episodes of rejection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> The greatest advantage in cardiac graft evaluation is the method’s ability to distinguish between passive and active myocardial movement.</p>
			<p>The use of speckle tracking in 2-dimensional echocardiography is relatively new, non-invasive, and reliable, with adequate sensitivity, and it is not angle-dependent for measuring ventricular systolic and diastolic function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Two-dimensional strain and strain rate analyze myocardial deformity by tracking natural acoustic markers (speckles) during the cardiac cycle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The ability of myocardial strain to detect subclinical abnormalities, including subtle changes in regional mobilities, has led to its being explored as an early predictor of rejection. Longitudinal peak systolic strain has been shown to be more sensitive in the evaluation of lesions and reliable in relation to myocardial maturity in the pediatric population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			<p>A gradual increase occurs in longitudinal peak systolic strain values during the first 2 years after heart transplantation, and many patients continue with values below the normality of control groups, even in the absence of rejection or GVD, constituting the “new normal” for stable transplant patients, with absolute values between 16% and 18%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Chanana et al., simultaneously comparing data obtained by catheterization and echocardiography, obtained a cut-off value of 14% for longitudinal strain as a predictor of acute rejection in pediatric recipients, reaching sensitivity greater than 85% and specificity greater than 80%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Engelhardt et al., using global longitudinal strain comparatively during stable phase and episodes of rejection in transplanted children, observed that a 33% reduction in values from the baseline result was associated with the presence of rejection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Regardless of the presence or absence of focal coronary stenosis, GVD may be associated with low global longitudinal strain and strain rate values. The use of the method for evaluating left ventricular synchrony and synergy allows the detection of regional differences in the left ventricle and may even indicate the relationship with coronary perfusion and the area it encompasses ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref> ).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f03">
					<label>Figure 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Regional alterations demonstrated by segments in global longitudinal strain correlated with diffuse focal lesions in the left coronary artery visualized in coronary angiography.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230045-gf03.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>GVD typically manifests loss of the distal coronary vasculature by proliferation of the intima and media layer, and it occurs diffusely, affecting the entire microvasculature, resulting in diastolic dysfunction and graft loss. Zoller et al. have described a reduction in left ventricular global longitudinal strain in patients with coronary vasculopathy, preceding diagnosis via cardiac catheterization by approximately 2 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			<p>It is important to remember that it is very difficult to establish cut-off values in the pediatric age group, as the samples are numerically small for generalization, and the available data are from single-center studies; consequently, other echocardiographic measurements such as circumferential strain, radial strain, and twist present conflicting data. Due to the already mentioned aspects of the transplanted heart, stress echocardiography, whether induced by exercise or by the infusion of dobutamine, has limitations in the pediatric range. The use of the 3-dimensional method and right atrial and left atrial strain, with numerous studies carried out in adults, still require better validation in the pediatric range.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>How can these data help?</title>
			<p>The main objective of a multidisciplinary team is to provide quality of life to patients with heart transplant, limiting damage to the graft, by means of strict monitoring for early diagnosis of rejection and GVD, which are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. The use of echocardiography, either through conventional tools or advanced methods, carefully focusing on different early and late post-cardiac transplantation phases, with information from current and comparative examination of evolution, mainly regarding TDI and longitudinal strain, can assist pediatric cardiologists in the decision to anticipate endomyocardial biopsy and coronary angiography (gold standard) for early diagnosis and immediate intervention, allowing greater graft durability. In recent decades, the progressive increase in the survival of children who undergo heart transplantation has shown evidence of this continuous effort to adapt technological innovations without losing the human relationship ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 4</xref> ).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f04">
					<label>Figure 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Diagram of echocardiography findings directly associated with suspected alteration of the cardiac graft, highlighting the main data for pediatric cardiologists to intervene. DD: delta D or shortening fraction; ECG: electrocardiogram; GLS: global longitudinal strain; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; s’LV: s’ of the left ventricular lateral wall.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230045-gf04.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ref-list>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study Association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of Funding : There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230045</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Como Eu Faço Avaliação Ecocardiográfica no Pós-Transplante Cardíaco Pediátrico para Controle de Rejeição e/ou Doença Vascular do Enxerto</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5629-1626</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Siqueira</surname>
						<given-names>Adailson Wagner da Silva</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante,obtenção de dados e redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Almeida</surname>
						<given-names>Mirela Frederico de</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>obtenção de dados e redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">Correspondência: Adailson Wagner da Silva Siqueira • Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto do Coração. Rua Doutor Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. CEP: 05403-000. São Paulo, SP – Brasil E-mail: adailson.siqueira@gmail.com</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</p>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Karen Saori Shiraishi Sawamura</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>O transplante cardíaco pediátrico é escolha terapêutica definitiva para os pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca refratária ao tratamento clínico otimizado, seja em decorrência de cardiomiopatias ou cardiopatia congênita. A morbimortalidade permanece como fator de preocupação durante a evolução, sendo disfunção primária, rejeição e doença vascular do enxerto (DVE) as principais causas de morte nos primeiros 5 anos pós-transplante. O ecocardiograma transtorácico como método de vigilância apresenta benefícios significativos no auxílio diagnóstico quanto à suspeita clínica de rejeição ou de DVE. O objetivo deste artigo é trazer de forma clara e objetiva quais dados ecocardiográficos auxiliarão o cardiologista pediátrico no seguimento do paciente transplantado. O uso do ecocardiograma, seja através das ferramentas convencionais ou através de métodos avançados, direcionado e atento às diferentes fases do pós-transplante cardíaco, precoce e tardio, com as informações de exame atual e comparativo evolutivamente, principalmente quanto ao Doppler tecidual (TDI) e <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal, pode auxiliar ao cardiologista pediátrico na decisão de antecipar a biopsia endomiocárdica e coronariografia (padrão ouro) para diagnóstico precoce e imediata intervenção, permitindo maior durabilidade do enxerto.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
				<kwd>Transplante de Coração</kwd>
				<kwd>Cardiopatias Congênitas</kwd>
				<kwd>Doença das Coronárias</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>O transplante cardíaco pediátrico é escolha terapêutica definitiva para os pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca refratária ao tratamento clínico otimizado, seja em decorrência de cardiomiopatias ou cardiopatia congênita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Desde o primeiro transplante cardíaco pediátrico pelo Dr. Adrian Kantrowitz em 1967 aos dias de hoje, quando cerca de 700 transplantes por ano são realizados, muito se evoluiu no estudo da resposta imunológica aos enxertos, no uso de medicações, técnicas cirúrgicas e mudanças no estilo de vida; de forma que a sobrevida pós-transplante pediátrico está melhorando progressivamente nos últimos anos, com mediana para todas as faixas etárias de sobrevida de 18 anos e nos transplantes realizados em pacientes menores de 1 ano de idade, a mediana de sobrevida é superior a 24 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A morbimortalidade permanece como fator de preocupação durante a evolução, sendo disfunção primária, rejeição e doença vascular do enxerto (DVE) as principais causas de morte nos primeiros 5 anos pós-transplante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Outras complicações são associadas ao uso dos medicamentos imunossupressores, como infecções, doenças linfoproliferativas, diabetes e lesões em órgãos alvo, por exemplo insuficiência renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Para avaliação da integridade do enxerto o padrão ouro é a presença de lesão direta do cardiomiócito pela microscopia obtida através da biópsia endomiocárdica e o estudo das artérias coronárias pelo cateterismo. Porém, é um procedimento invasivo com riscos de complicações (perfuração, tamponamento, trombos, arritmias, lesão valvar tricúspide) e, na faixa pediátrica, a necessidade de sedação/anestesia. O ecocardiograma transtorácico como método de vigilância apresenta benefícios significativos no auxílio diagnóstico quanto a suspeita clínica de rejeição ou de DVE. Os novos métodos associados à deformação miocárdica apresentam resultados promissores na antecipação de desfechos e sobrevida do paciente a longo prazo, pois episódios de rejeição subclínica não tratados podem evoluir para DVE e progressiva deterioração do órgão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Após o diagnóstico de DVE a sobrevida cai significativamente em 5 anos para 58% e, em 10 anos, para apenas 40%. Essas complicações podem levar a falência do enxerto, sendo indicado o retransplante, ocorrendo em aproximadamente 25% a 30% dos transplantes cardíacos pediátricos na última década.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O objetivo deste artigo é trazer de forma clara e objetiva quais dados ecocardiográficos auxiliarão o cardiologista pediátrico no seguimento do paciente transplantado, com enfoque nas alterações que possam, da forma mais precoce possível, sugerir anomalias do enxerto antes da piora hemodinâmica, pois a disfunção ventricular pela redução da fração de ejeção calculada pelos métodos tradicionais é usualmente um achado tardio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<sec>
					<title>Tempo de transplante: precoce x tardio</title>
					<p>O enxerto cardíaco apresenta algumas peculiaridades nos primeiros meses de pós-operatório, necessitando de cuidadosa avaliação e interpretação dos dados obtidos pelo estudo ecocardiográfico para correlacionar e diferenciar evolução sugestiva de rejeição da adaptação do enxerto ao novo estado hemodinâmico. Inicialmente, no período que antecede o implante, fatores que podem influenciar na função imediata do órgão são: tempo de isquemia, idade do doador, presença de comorbidades do doador, cuidados na manutenção hemodinâmica e a preservação adequada do órgão. Após o implante, o enxerto pode apresentar alterações temporárias devida lesão de reperfusão, adaptação do ventrículo direito à pressão arterial pulmonar elevada e presença de mediadores inflamatórios circulantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> O uso de imunossupressores, principalmente a ciclosporina,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> aumento de catecolaminas circulantes, hipertensão arterial sistêmica e piora na drenagem linfática levam ao aumento progressivo da massa ventricular, com pico por volta do terceiro mês de pós-operatório e redução progressiva até a normalização no primeiro ano pós-transplante<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref> ).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f01002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Principais fatores associados à captação, ao transplante precoce e tardio que influenciam na função do enxerto e dos achados ecocardiográficos, evidenciando a evolução da massa ventricular e do strain ventricular (STE). STE: ecocardiografia com speckle tracking; TX: transplante cardíaco</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230045-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>A detecção não invasiva de rejeição aguda é particularmente desafiadora no período pós-transplante precoce pois a função sistólica e diastólica (distúrbio de relaxamento e fisiologia restritiva) está em mudança nos primeiros meses. O coração desnervado tem uma particular fisiologia, com impacto na validação e confiabilidade nos métodos não invasivos, portanto, a avaliação ecocardiográfica deve levar em consideração essa modificação/adaptação do enxerto durante os meses iniciais. A maioria dos grandes centros transplantadores apresenta no protocolo de seguimento dos primeiros meses o estudo hemodinâmico e biópsia endomiocárdica obrigatórios em períodos pré-estabelecidos, independente da boa evolução clínica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref> ).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Controle evolutivo temporal pós-transplante cardíaco nas janelas ecocardiográficas paraesternal longitudinal e eixo curto, evidenciando imagem bidimensional, strain global longitudinal, a massa ventricular, biomarcadores e o resultado da biópsia endomiocárdica pareados. BNP: peptideo natriuretico tipo b; BX: biópsia endomiocárdica; GLS: strain global longitudinal.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230045-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Medidas convencionais ecocardiográficas</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Doppler tecidual (TDI)</title>
						<p>A inflamação miocárdica causada pela rejeição ao enxerto altera as características tissulares, antes mesmo do estabelecimento da disfunção sistólica ou diastólica. O TDI quantifica a velocidade de movimentação de uma região miocárdica em relação ao transdutor. Assim, o TDI é uma ferramenta que caracteriza a mecânica miocárdica e um instrumento de imagem não invasiva que pode monitorar a rejeição celular aguda em adultos e crianças.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Valores do TDI são normalmente inferiores em pacientes pediátricos transplantados sem rejeição em relação aos valores encontrados em controles sadios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Assim, variação nos valores de medidas do TDI são mais preditivos para avaliação de rejeição do que quando considerados isoladamente. A avaliação longitudinal do paciente permite a detecção de mudança na função sistólica e diastólica do enxerto.</p>
						<p>Fyfe et al. estudaram 53 crianças transplantadas sendo que 8 destas evoluíram para falência terminal do enxerto (óbito ou retransplante). Os autores detectaram redução na velocidade S’ da valva tricúspide cerca de 6 meses antes da falência terminal. Redução na velocidade S’ da valva mitral ocorreu apenas 3 meses antes do evento demonstrando falência do ventrículo esquerdo após a do ventrículo direito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Lunze et al. demonstraram que redução até 15% na velocidade S’ e até 5% na velocidade A’ do ventrículo esquerdo foi capaz de predizer ausência de rejeição em pacientes pediátricos transplantados com acurácia maior que 99%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
						<p>A relação E/E’ das valvas mitral e tricúspide também é um parâmetro útil na suspeição de rejeição humoral do enxerto como demonstraram Behera et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Os autores estudaram 148 pacientes pediátricos transplantados cardíacos. O ecocardiograma foi realizado no mesmo dia da biópsia endomiocárdica. A relação E/E’ mitral e tricúspide foi significativamente menor em pacientes com rejeição em relação aos pacientes sem alteração na biópsia.</p>
						<p>O índice de performance miocárdica (IPM) derivado do TDI é um parâmetro útil na suspeição de rejeição do enxerto em pacientes transplantados. Tal índice pode aumentar em média 98% durante o período de rejeição em comparação com o valor basal e retornar ao índice pré-tratamento após resolução da inflamação miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Flanagan et al. estudaram 40 crianças com transplante cardíaco (após 60 dias do procedimento) em rejeição celular aguda (documentada por biópsia endomiocádica) e compararam com outras 40 crianças também transplantadas, mas sem rejeição. Os autores identificaram aumento significativo do IPM do ventrículo esquerdo durante o quadro de rejeição em relação ao valor basal (0,59 +/− 017 versus 0,41 +/− 0,11; p &lt; 0,001) do próprio paciente e valores semelhantes de IPM do ventrículo esquerdo após a resolução da inflamação em comparação com valor basal sem rejeição (0,41 +/− 0,11 versus 0,42 +/− 0,11; p = 0,65). Assim, os autores concluíram que um aumento ≥ 0,47 do valor basal do IPM do ventrículo esquerdo tem sensibilidade de 82,5% e especificidade de 85% na detecção de rejeição celular aguda do enxerto e que um aumento ≥ 20,4% deste parâmetro em relação ao valor basal do paciente tem sensibilidade de 90% e especificidade de 100% na detecção de rejeição celular aguda do enxerto. Esse trabalho ilustra a importância da avaliação longitudinal do IPM do ventrículo esquerdo em pacientes em transplante cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE)</title>
						<p>Os marcadores ecocardiográficos são essenciais para diagnóstico e acompanhamento do enxerto nos quadros de rejeição. Inicialmente, essa avaliação focava principalmente no ventrículo esquerdo. Mais recentemente, parâmetros de avaliação da função do ventrículo direito vêm sendo estudados neste cenário.</p>
						<p>O TAPSE é uma medida que avalia a função longitudinal do ventrículo direito. Através do modo M, com o cursor posicionado na parede lateral do anel tricuspídeo, é possível medir a distância do deslocamento deste anel, um parâmetro que avalia a função longitudinal do ventrículo direito. O transplante cardíaco altera a geometria do coração e, assim, modifica o movimento longitudinal do ventrículo direito. Alterações no TAPSE logo após transplante cardíaco podem corresponder a mudanças no mecanismo de contratilidade do ventrículo direito e não apenas à disfunção sistólica desta câmara.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Daí a importância do seguimento longitudinal do paciente a fim de detectar variação na performance do enxerto.</p>
						<p>Brian et al. estudaram 127 pacientes pediátricos com transplante cardíaco estáveis e compararam com 380 crianças sadias pareadas por idade. Os autores demonstraram redução nos valores de TAPSE em pacientes transplantados em relação aos controles sadios (média Z score: −3,38).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Michalski et al. estudaram retrospectivamente 52 pacientes (pediátricos e adultos) transplantados cardíacos e observaram redução do TAPSE após o transplante imediato com melhora progressiva no decorrer do tempo. Além disso, demonstraram associação entre redução do TAPSE e aumento da pressão média da artéria pulmonar calculada em cateterismo cardíaco após 10 anos do enxerto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
						<p>Pacientes pediátricos apresentam redução do TAPSE durante episódio de rejeição com melhora dos valores após resolução do quadro como demonstrado em estudo retrospectivo realizado por Arthur et al. que avaliou 44 pacientes pediátricos com transplante cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Mitral annular plane systolic excursion (MAPSE)</title>
						<p>O MAPSE é um parâmetro de avaliação da função sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo, medido através do modo M da porção lateral do anel mitral na janela 4 câmaras. Este índice também pode estar reduzido em pacientes pediátricos submetidos ao transplante cardíaco.</p>
						<p>Chinali et al. estudaram 60 crianças submetidas a transplante cardíaco e compararam com 60 controles normais. Todos os pacientes apresentaram fração de ejeção pelo método de Simpson normal. Os pacientes transplantados apresentaram valores de MAPSE menores em relação aos pacientes do grupo controle (13 mm +/− 2,6 versus 18 mm +/− 2,3; p &lt; 0,0001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Novas tecnologias: aplicações na faixa pediátrica?</title>
				<p>O ecocardiograma é comumente a técnica primária não invasiva de vigilância do coração transplantado, porém, os parâmetros tradicionalmente usados são afetados pela frequência cardíaca, condição de pré e pós-carga e movimento paradoxal do septo do enxerto, levando a cálculos da função ventricular com baixa sensibilidade e especificidade para detectar episódios assintomáticos de rejeição.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> A maior vantagem na avaliação do enxerto cardíaco é a habilidade do método em separar entre o movimento miocárdico passivo e ativo.</p>
				<p>O uso do <italic>speckle tracking</italic> na ecocardiografia bidimensional é relativamente nova, não invasiva, confiável, com sensibilidade adequada e não dependente de ângulo para medida da função sistólica e diastólica ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> O <italic>strain</italic> bidimensional e o <italic>strain rate</italic> analisam a deformidade miocárdica pelo rastreio de marcadores acústicos naturais ( <italic>speckles</italic> ) durante o ciclo cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A habilidade do <italic>strain</italic> miocárdico em detectar anormalidades subclínicas, incluindo sutis alterações de mobilidades regionais tem levado a ser explorado como um preditor precoce de rejeição. O <italic>strain</italic> de pico sistólico longitudinal tem se mostrado mais sensível na avaliação das lesões e confiável em relação a maturidade miocárdica na população pediátrica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Há um gradual aumento dos valores do <italic>strain</italic> de pico sistólico longitudinal nos primeiros dois anos pós-transplante cardíaco, e muitos pacientes permanecem com valores abaixo da normalidade de grupos controle, mesmo na ausência de rejeição ou DVE, constituindo o “novo normal” para pacientes transplantados estáveis, com valores absolutos entre 16% e 18%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Chanana e colaboradores, comparando simultaneamente dados obtidos pelo cateterismo e ecocardiograma, obtiveram valor de corte 14% do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal como preditor de rejeição aguda em receptores pediátricos, alcançando sensibilidade maior que 85% e especificidade acima de 80%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Engelhardt e colaboradores, utilizando o <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal comparativamente durante fase estável e episódios de rejeição em crianças transplantadas, observaram que redução de valores em 33% do resultado de base estava associado a presença de rejeição.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Na DVE, independente da presença ou ausência de estenose focal coronária, pode estar associada a baixos valores de <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal e <italic>strain rate</italic> . O uso do método para avaliação de sincronia e sinergia ventricular esquerda permite detectar diferenças regionais no ventrículo esquerdo, podendo inclusive direcionar para a relação com a perfusão coronária e sua área de abrangência ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 3</xref> ).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03002">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Alterações regionais evidenciadas pelos segmentos no strain global longitudinal correlacionado com as lesões difusas e focais na artéria coronária esquerda visibilizadas na coronariografia.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230045-gf03-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>DVE tipicamente manifesta perda da vasculatura coronariana distal pela proliferação da camada íntima e média, e ocorre difusamente afetando toda microvasculatura resultando em disfunção diastólica e perda do enxerto. Zoller et al. têm descrito redução no strain global longitudinal do ventrículo esquerdo em pacientes com vasculopatia coronária, antecedendo em cerca de 2 anos o diagnóstico pelo cateterismo cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>É importante lembrar que há uma grande dificuldade no estabelecimento de valores de cortes na faixa etária pediátrica, pois as amostras são numericamente pequenas para generalizações e os dados disponíveis são de estudos de centro único, de forma que outras medidas ecocardiográficas como o <italic>strain</italic> circunferencial, o radial e <italic>twist</italic> apresentam dados conflitantes. Devido aos aspectos já citados do coração transplantado, a avaliação ecocardiográfica através do estresse, seja induzido por exercício ou pela infusão de dobutamina tem limitações na faixa pediátrica. A utilização do método tridimensional, <italic>strain</italic> de átrio direito e átrio esquerdo, com inúmeros trabalhos realizados em adultos, ainda precisam de melhor validação na faixa pediátrica.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>E como esses dados podem ajudar?</title>
				<p>O maior objetivo da equipe multidisciplinar é dar qualidade de vida ao paciente transplantado cardíaco, limitando as injurias ao enxerto, através de monitorização rigorosa para diagnóstico precoce de rejeição e DVE, associadas a significativa morbidade e mortalidade. O uso do ecocardiograma, seja através das ferramentas convencionais ou através de métodos avançados, direcionado e atento as diferentes fases do pós-transplante cardíaco, precoce e tardio, com as informações de exame atual e comparativo evolutivamente, principalmente quanto ao TDI e <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal, pode auxiliar ao cardiologista pediátrico na decisão de antecipar a biopsia endomiocárdica e coronariografia (padrão ouro) para diagnóstico precoce e imediata intervenção, permitindo maior durabilidade do enxerto. Nas últimas décadas, o aumento progressivo da sobrevida das crianças submetidas ao transplante cardíaco tem evidenciado este esforço contínuo em adequar as inovações tecnológicas de vigilância, novas medicações e modificações nos hábitos cotidianos, com objetivo de melhorar continuamente a qualidade de vida do transplantado, sem perder a relação humanizada entre o médico e o paciente.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f04002">
						<label>Figura 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Esquema dos achados ecocardiográficos diretamente associados a suspeita de alteração do enxerto cardíaco, evidenciando principais dados para o cardiologista pediátrico intervir. DD: delta D ou fração de encurtamento; ECG: eletrocardiograma; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; SGL: strain global longitudinal; s’VE: s’ de parede lateral de ventrículo esquerdo.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230045-gf04-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
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					<p>Vinculação Acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
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				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
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					<p>Fontes de Financiamento: O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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