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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230018i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>My Approach To Nuclear Medicine in the Evaluation of Prosthetic Valve and Cardiac Implantable Electronic Device Endocarditis</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mesquita</surname>
						<given-names>Claudio Tinoco</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-9804-7485</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Rezende</surname>
						<given-names>Maria Fernanda</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3988-4304</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Yahiro</surname>
						<given-names>Davi Shunji</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5103-5498</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Palazzo</surname>
						<given-names>Isabella Caterina</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Academia de Medicina do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Niterói</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Academia de Medicina do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (ACAMERJ), Niterói, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Vitória da Barra da Tijuca</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Vitória da Barra da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01"> Mailing Address: Claudio Tinoco Mesquita • Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro, Rua Marques do Paraná, 303. Postal Code 324330-900. Centro, Niterói, RJ – Brazil E-mail: <email>claudiotinocomesquita@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsible for the review: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>10</day>
				<month>05</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>36</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230018</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>23</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>2</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>2</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Endocarditis</kwd>
				<kwd>Valve Prostheses and Implantable Electronic Heart Devices</kwd>
				<kwd>PET-CT</kwd>
				<kwd>Scintigraphy</kwd>
				<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="6"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="20"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec>
			<title>Summary</title>
			<p>Nuclear medicine has played an increasing role in the evaluation of patients with a suspected or confirmed diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Scintigraphy with marked leukocytes (ML) is a method widely used in clinical practice to detect sites of infection, being especially indicated in patients with suspected infective endocarditis (IE) in prosthetic valves or implantable cardiac devices (ICD) when other conventional imaging methods studies are not conclusive. The technique involves labeling the patient’s own leukocytes with a radiotracer, such as 99m Tc-HMPAO, maintaining its biological properties. Upon injection into the bloodstream, leukocytes actively mark sites of active inflammation, allowing detection of infection.</p>
			<p>Blood collection for ML scintigraphy requires a sufficient amount of leukocytes, which can be a major limiting factor in patients with neutropenia. Another point of limitation is that the leukocyte labeling process and the start of obtaining scintigraphic images can take about 2 hours. The images are acquired at different times, and the presence of capture in the 4-hour and 24-hour images is important to confirm the presence of active infection.</p>
			<p>ML scintigraphy has been recommended as part of the diagnostic algorithm for IE in patients with prosthetic valves or implantable cardiac devices such as pacemakers who suspect the disease, being considered a major modified Duke criterion when positive. It is indicated when the echocardiogram is inconclusive or doubtful, and may change the categorization of IE from possible to defined in up to 25% of patients. In addition, it can also be used in the investigation of embolic events in extracardiac sites, such as the lung, spleen and bone/joint tissue.</p>
			<p>Positron Emission Tomography coupled with Computed Tomography (PET-CT) is a molecular imaging technique that has shown great importance in the management of IE. PET-CT uses a radiopharmaceutical labeled with a short-lived radioactive substance, such as 18F-fluordeoxyglucose (18F-FDG), which is captured by cells with high metabolism, such as inflammatory cells present in areas of active infection. This allows for accurate, non-invasive detection of areas of inflammation, including the lesions, vegetations and abscesses associated with IE.</p>
			<p>The use of PET-CT in IE has shown promise in the early detection of infection, providing important information for diagnosis and treatment planning. Additionally, PET-CT can help differentiate between active infection and post-surgical complications, as well as identify areas of infection in extracardiac sites, which can be useful in evaluating more complex cases. The high sensitivity and specificity of PET-CT in detecting active inflammation make it a valuable tool in the clinical management of IE, especially in cases of moderate clinical suspicion or when conventional imaging methods are inconclusive. However, it is important to consider the limitations of PET-CT, such as its availability in some health centers, cost and exposure to ionizing radiation, and to use PET-CT findings in conjunction with other clinical and laboratory data for an proper diagnosis and management of IE.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>The incidence of infective endocarditis (IE) has been increasing. It is estimated to be 3-15 cases per 100,000 inhabitants per year and associated with elevated morbidity and mortality. The most common cause of IE is Staphylococcus aureus infection, affecting mostly male and older individuals. In the United States and Europe, 16-30% of all cases of IC are prosthetic valve (PV) endocarditis, and 25-35% of native valve endocarditis are acquired in the hospital. In Brazil, rheumatic valve disease is still an important predisposing factor for infection, in contrast with developed countries where rheumatic disease has become rare.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Difficulty in raising clinical suspicion and confirming the diagnosis of IE are among the greatest challenges faced by cardiologists in their clinical practice. Although the use of clinical rules such as the Duke criteria increases the success of IE diagnosis and its clinical management, the presence of infection by atypical organisms, PVs or cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) can make the diagnosis of IE difficult.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>Risk factors for IE</title>
				<p>The major risk factors for IE are congenital heart disease (CHD), previous episode of IE, and the presence of PV or CIED.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>Regarding CHDs, the incidence of post-surgical IE varies from 1.3 to 13.3%, in addition to the high risk of mortality for CHDs, estimated at 6-14%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Recurrence or reinfection occurs in 2.6-8.8% of patients who survived IE, with high rates of complications and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Epidemiology of IE in patients with PVs</title>
				<p>Patients with PVs are at higher risk of IE in the first year after valve replacement, and the risk gradually decreases to a low and stable risk. Bioprosthetic valves are associated with a higher risk of IE as compared with mechanical valves. Besides, the risk of transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) for IE seems not to differ from that found in conventional surgery, with an incidence of 1.4-2.8 per 100 patient-years in the first year and 0.8 in each of the four following years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>CIED-related IE corresponds to nearly 10% of the IE episodes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In these cases, in-hospital mortality varies from six to 14%, with an overall mortality of approximately 20% a year.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> PV endocarditis is a severe, life-threatening condition, accounting for 10-30% of all cases of IE, with an incidence of 0.3-1.2% per patient-year. Patients with PVs are considered to be at high risk for IE, with higher morbidity and mortality, often requiring surgical interventions, with associated risks.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Challenges in the management of IE in PVs and CIEDs</title>
				<p>Echocardiography and laboratory tests are still the basis of diagnostic investigation of IE. However, conventional imaging techniques still yield inconclusive results in up to 40% of patients with PVs or CIEDs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) should be considered in all suspected cases of PV endocarditis for assessment of valve hemodynamics, and detection of vegetations, abscesses or fistulas. Detection of vegetation may be extremely difficult due to artifacts related to the material used in the PVs. Sensitivity of TEE in detecting IE in PVs varies from 82% to 96%, in contrast to transthoracic echocardiogram that has a sensitivity of 17-36%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> In case of suspicion of CIED endocarditis, echocardiography is the first test to be considered for detection of vegetations in the electrodes and cardiac valves, with TEE being superior to transthoracic echocardiography. Both techniques, however, have similar limitations for the detection of IE, be it for the size and location of vegetations, be it for the presence of foreign material to the body limits the visibility of echocardiogram. It is important to highlight that a normal echocardiogram does not rule out the diagnosis of IE in patients with CIEDs and clinical suspicion of IE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>In light of the increasing number of cases of IE, its high morbidity and mortality, and diagnostic limitations of conventional techniques, studies investigating the usefulness of nuclear imaging techniques, including the 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography (18F-FDG PET-CT) for in diagnosis of IE have been conducted. These techniques showed good cost-effectiveness relationship, preventing prolonged hospitalizations and unnecessary studies, and improving patient clinical outcomes. The set of studies in the literature, including meta-analysis and systematic reviews have demonstrated the clinical impact of 18F-FDG PET/CT, supporting its inclusion in the European guidelines on the investigation of PV endocarditis since 2015<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> and in the North American guidelines since 2020.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> In addition to PET-CT, another useful alternative is labeled leukocyte scintigraphy (LLS), currently the gold-standard method in the investigation of infections of prosthetic orthopedic implants. The method is also specific for IE, and useful in confirming the diagnosis in case of possible false-positive PET-CT results, as in the first months after surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>How to use PET-CT in IE</title>
				<p>The main use of PET-CT in the management of IE is in patients with suspicion of PV or CIED endocarditis, whose results from transthoracic or transesophageal echocardiogram were inconclusive or negative. In 18F-FDG PET/CT, FDG uptake occurs in areas of increased metabolic activity, since 18-fluorine is intensively captured by inflammatory cells. Thus, accumulation of the marker around the PV or in perivalvular cardiac tissues is a powerful indicator of active infection. Besides, whole-body 18F-FDG PET-CT allows the detection of infectious complications of endocarditis, such as splenic embolization, embolism to the lower extremities, spondylodiscitis, or even the portal entry in case of infection of soft tissues or the oral cavity.</p>
				<p>The study supporting the inclusion of PET-CT in the European Society of Cardiology guidelines was the study by Saby et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> The authors prospectively studied 72 consecutive patients with PV endocarditis, who were subjected to clinical, microbiological, and echocardiographic evaluation. Thirty-six patients (50%) exhibited abnormal FDG uptake around the site of the PV. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, and global accuracy were as follows (95% confidence interval): 73% (54% to 87%), 80% (56% to 93%), 85% (64% to 95%), 67% (45% to 84%), and 76% (63% to 86%), respectively. Adding abnormal FDG uptake around the PV significantly increased the sensitivity of the modified Duke criteria at admission (70% [52% to 83%] vs. 97% [83% to 99%] and became a new major criterion for IE diagnosis. This study was crucial in demonstrating the usefulness of 18F-FDG PET-CT in diagnosing IE in patients with PV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> In 2015, the ESC included the 18F-FDG PET-CT in the algorithm for the detection of VP endocarditis as a major diagnostic criterion (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>). PET CT should be carried out in patients whose modified Duke criteria are inconclusive (possible or rejected IE, in the presence of high clinical suspicion), two months after cardiac surgery, due to the risk of false-positive results related to scarring inflammatory process. At this point, the exam of choice is 18F-FDG PET-CT with labeled leukocytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>, we illustrate the use of 18F-FDG PET-CT in a patient with suspected IE and persistently negative echocardiography despite positive blood cultures. PET-CT clearly demonstrated abnormal glycolytic metabolism in the aortic prosthesis that was subcutaneously implanted on a valve-tube graft (valve-in-valve), compatible with IE.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Patients with suspected PV endocarditis benefit from the use of nuclear medicine after echocardiographic investigation, particularly TEE (adapted from Habib et al.1). IE: infective endocarditis; TEE: transesophageal echocardiography, 18F-FDG PET-CT: 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography; PV: prosthetic valve</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230018-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figura 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>PET CT with 18F-FDG showing tracer uptake around valve endoprosthesis (valve-in-valve transcatheter aortic valve replacement) in a patient with positive blood cultures for streptococcus and persistently negative transesophageal echocardiograph; positive PET CT scan for IE</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230018-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>It is worth noting that PET CT has also been indicated for patients with suspected IE in native valves and even for patients with confirmed IE, for localization of both local (e.g. cardiac abscesses) and distal (e.g. septic embolism) complications. This has been compiled in the literature by systematic reviews and meta-analyses, and been recommended by guidelines, including the updated Brazilian guideline on nuclear cardiology, updated in 2020.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>The use of PET-CT in the assessment of cardiac inflammation is one of the branches of nuclear medicine in precision medicine, not only in IE but also in the evaluation of myocarditis, particularly cardiac sarcoidosis, and pericardial inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>When to use LLS in the management of IE in PVs and CIEDs</title>
				<p>LLS has been widely used to detect infection sites and applied in clinical practice for decades. Today, its use is recommended in patients with suspected IE, particularly in those with PVs or CIEDs, with negative results from conventional imaging methods but still with moderate/high suspicion of IE. In LLS, patient blood is aseptically prepared for labeling of leukocytes with a radiotracer, such as the <sup>99m</sup>Tc-hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime (HMPAO). The leukocytes are then radiolabeled, without losing their biological properties of chemotaxis and diapedesis, <italic>i.e</italic>., they can actively accumulate in active inflammation sites after being injected into the circulation.</p>
				<p>In this method, a sufficient number of leukocytes is required; 50mL of blood is collected from the patient, and for neutropenic individuals (&lt;2x10<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> neutrophils/mm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>), an additional sample of blood may be required. Thus, the presence of neutropenia may be a limitation for the test. Also, LLS takes longer than 18F-FDG PET/CT, due to the whole process of labeling of leukocytes, and plasma and leukocyte isolation, which may take approximately two hours. For IE investigation, scintigraphic images are acquired at four and 24 hours after injection. This is important, since the scintigraphic criteria for detecting active infection is the presence of radiolabeled leukocyte uptake at four hours and an increase of the uptake at 24 hours. If radiolabeled leukocyte uptake is detected at four hours but not at 24 hours, the scans are classified as negative.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The type of scintigraphic imaging is also important. In addition to the conventional whole-body and static images of the region of interest (<italic>i.e.,</italic> the chest), single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) images are also indispensable in the investigation of endocarditis. Hybrid CT/scintigraphy devices allow acquisition of SPECT-CT images, which are more sensitive and specific than conventional scintigraphy and important in the diagnosis of IE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– 99mTc- HMPAO-labeled leukocyte scintigraphy with SPECT/CT in coronal (a) and axial (B) planes, with focal uptake in percutaneously inserted aortic valve prosthesis</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230018-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>99mTc-HMPAO-labeled leukocytes has several indications, including in IE investigation. In 2015, the method was formally included in the ESC guidelines in the diagnostic algorithm of IE in patients with PV or CIED and suspected IE, as a major modified Duke criterion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> According to the guidelines, <sup>99m</sup>Tc-HMPAO-labeled leukocytes is indicated for patients with suspected IE, when echocardiographic findings are inconclusive or doubtful, as it can change patient classification from possible IE (by the Duke criteria) to definite IE in up to 25% of cases. The method is also indicated for detection of embolic events in extracardiac sites. Scintigraphic findings of embolic disease/metastatic infection in the lungs, spleen, bone and articular tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> For the investigation of PV endocarditis, scintigraphy combined with <sup>99</sup>mTc-HMPAO-labeled leukocyte SPECT-CT has a sensitivity of 86% and specificity of 97%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Sensitivity of this method can reach 100% with the presence of perivalvular abscess.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> For CIED-associated IE, scintigraphy with <sup>99</sup>mTc-HMPAO-labeled leukocyte SPECT-CT had 94% sensitivity, 100% specificity, 100% positive predictive value and 94% negative predictive value.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Besides, in these cases, the method helps to describe the extension of the infection, and whether it was specific to the generator or if the cables were involved. Patients with positive scintigraphy have higher risk of in-hospital mortality and complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The literature recommends 18F-FDG PET-CT as the first line imaging modality due to its higher sensitivity compared with scintigraphy. Scintigraphy has higher specificity and is particularly useful for patients with a history of recent surgery (within the last two months) due to higher chance of false-positive 18F-FDG PET-CT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>One of the greatest advantages of LLS is its high specificity for IE related to PV or devices, especially when compared with 18F-FDG PET-CT, and the earlier screening for IE in patients with recent surgery compared with PET-CT. Also, as compared with 18F-FDG PET-CT, there is no need for a special diet or fasting. Another advantage is the test is covered by the Brazilian national agency for supplementary health, which is not true for PET-CT.</p>
				<p>Limitations for LLS in clinical practice include manipulation of patient’s blood, the minimum volume of blood required for labeling, equipment (laminar flow cabinet and centrifuge) for leukocyte labeling). While in LLS, images should be obtained at two time points (four and 24 hours), in 18F-FDG PET-CT, 60- minute image acquisition was performed. Other clinical situations that may limit the use of LLS and its sensitivity are neutropenia, use of antibiotics or steroids, type of pathogens (higher sensitivity for neutrophil-mediated infections) and small vegetations (&lt;6mm).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Finally, similar to PET-CT, LLS uses ionizing radiation, which, <italic>per se</italic>, is contraindicated in pregnancy. Lactating women should be instructed to discontinue breastfeeding for 24 hours mainly due to exposure of the infants to radiation while on their laps.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Comparison of 18F-FDG PET CT <italic>versus</italic> LLS</title>
				<p>How to choose a nuclear imaging technique when both 18F-FDG PET CT and LLS are available? Referral centers for patients with suspected IE should have both techniques available; the methods are complementary, especially in highly complex cases and recent surgeries. The decision on which method to use should be individualized for each patient. Factors like technical characteristics, costs and availability of the methods, expertise of the group, and patient severity should be considered. In general, 18F-FDG PET CT is the method of choice in the literature, considering its wide availability in first-world countries, where the factor “cost” is less relevant in light of such a lethal disease as IE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> What makes FDG PET CT scintigraphy the method of choice is its operational characteristics. Rouzet et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> compared the performance of 18F-FDG PET and LLS in patients with PVs and showed that the former offers high sensitivity for the detection of active infection in patients with suspected PV endocarditis and inconclusive echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> However, LLS offered a higher specificity than for diagnosis of IE and should, mainly in the first two months after cardiac surgery. A direct comparison of nuclear imaging techniques in patients with CIEDs was conducted by Calais et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> who compared 18F-FDG PET CT with LLS. Forty-eight patients underwent both 18F-FDG PET CT and LLS. The diagnostic sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value were respectively 80%, 91%, 80%, and 91% for 18F-FDG PET CT and 60%, 100%, 100%, and 85% for LLS. Although PET-CT was more sensitive than LLS, the latter showed higher specificity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusions</title>
			<p>Nuclear medicine has become part of the diagnostic investigation of IE in patients with PVs or CIEDs. 18F-FDG PET CT has high sensitivity for detecting active infection when echocardiographic findings are inconclusive or negative. LLS is more specific than18F-FDG PET CT for the diagnosis of IE and should be considered in cases of doubtful or suspected false-positive 18F-FDG PET CT or in the first two months after cardiac surgery.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study Association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of Funding: This study was funded by CNPq.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230018</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Como Eu Faço Medicina Nuclear na Avaliação de Endocardite de Próteses Valvares e Dispositivos Cardíacos Eletrônicos Implantáveis</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Mesquita</surname>
						<given-names>Claudio Tinoco</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-9804-7485</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Rezende</surname>
						<given-names>Maria Fernanda</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa</role>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3988-4304</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Yahiro</surname>
						<given-names>Davi Shunji</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5103-5498</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Palazzo</surname>
						<given-names>Isabella Caterina</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>redação do manuscrito e revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Academia de Medicina do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (ACAMERJ), Niterói, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Vitória da Barra da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital Pró-Cardíaco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002"> Correspondência: Claudio Tinoco Mesquita • Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro, Rua Marques do Paraná, 303. CEP: 24330-900. Centro, Niterói, RJ – Brasil E-mail: claudiotinocomesquita@gmail.com </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</p>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Daniela do Carmo Rassi</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A medicina nuclear tem tido um papel crescente na avaliação de pacientes com suspeita ou com o diagnóstico confirmado de endocardite infecciosa. A cintilografia com leucócitos marcados (LM) é um método amplamente utilizado na prática clínica para detectar locais de infecção, sendo especialmente indicada em pacientes com suspeita de endocardite infecciosa (EI) em próteses valvares ou dispositivos cardíacos implantáveis (DCI) quando outros métodos de imagem convencionais não são conclusivos. A técnica envolve a marcação dos leucócitos do próprio paciente com um radiotraçador, como o 99m Tc-HMPAO, mantendo suas propriedades biológicas. Após a injeção na corrente circulatória, os leucócitos marcam ativamente os sítios de inflamação em atividade, permitindo a detecção da infecção.A coleta de sangue para a cintilografia com LM requer quantidade suficiente de leucócitos, o que pode ser um grande limitador em pacientes com neutropenia. Outro ponto de limitação é que o processo de marcação dos leucócitos e o início da obtenção das imagens cintilográficas pode demorar cerca de 2 horas. As imagens são adquiridas em diferentes momentos, sendo importante a presença de captação nas imagens de 4 e 24 horas para confirmar a presença de infecção ativa.A cintilografia com LM tem sido recomendada como parte do algoritmo diagnóstico da EI nos pacientes com prótese valvar ou dispositivos cardíacos implantáveis como marcapassos que tenham suspeita da doença, sendo considerado um critério maior de Duke modificado quando positivo. É indicada quando o ecocardiograma é inconclusivo ou duvidoso, podendo alterar a categorização da EI de possível para definida em até 25% dos pacientes. Além disso, também pode ser utilizada na pesquisa de eventos embólicos em sítios extracardíacos, como pulmão, baço e tecido ósseo/articular.A Tomografia por Emissão de Pósitrons acoplada à Tomografia Computadorizada (PET-CT) é uma técnica de imagem molecular que tem se mostrado de grande importância no manejo da EI. O PET-CT utiliza um radiofármaco marcado com uma substância radioativa de vida curta, como o 18F-fluordesoxiglicose (18F-FDG), que é captada pelas células com alto metabolismo, como as células inflamatórias presentes nas áreas de infecção ativa. Isso permite a detecção precisa e não invasiva de áreas de inflamação, incluindo as lesões, vegetações e abscessos associados à EI.A utilização do PET-CT na EI tem se mostrado promissora na detecção precoce da infecção, fornecendo informações importantes para o diagnóstico e o planejamento terapêutico. Além disso, o PET-CT pode auxiliar na diferenciação entre a infecção ativa e as complicações pós-cirúrgicas, bem como na identificação de áreas de infecção em sítios extracardíacos, o que pode ser útil na avaliação de casos mais complexos. A alta sensibilidade e especificidade do PET-CT na detecção de inflamação ativa tornam-no uma ferramenta valiosa no manejo clínico da EI, especialmente em casos de suspeita clínica moderada ou quando os métodos de imagem convencionais são inconclusivos. No entanto, é importante considerar as limitações do PET-CT, como a sua disponibilidade em alguns centros de saúde, o custo e a exposição à radiação ionizante, e utilizar os achados do PET-CT em conjunto com outros dados clínicos e laboratoriais para um diagnóstico e manejo adequados da EI.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Endocardite</kwd>
				<kwd>Próteses Valvares e Dispositivos Cardíacos Eletrônicos Implantáveis</kwd>
				<kwd>PET-CT</kwd>
				<kwd>Cintilografia</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A endocardite infecciosa (EI) vem apresentando aumento na sua incidência, estimada entre 3-15 casos por 100000 habitantes por ano, com morbimortalidade elevada. A causa mais frequente da EI é infecção por Staphylococcus aureus, sendo mais comum em pessoas do sexo masculino e entre idosos. Nos Estados Unidos e na Europa, 16-30% de todos os casos de EI são infecções de prótese valvar, e 25-35% dos casos de endocardite de válvula nativa são adquiridos dentro do hospital. No Brasil, a doença valvar reumática ainda é um importante fator de predisposição à infecção, porém nos países desenvolvidos a doença reumática é cada vez mais rara.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Entre os maiores desafios que o cardiologista pode encontrar na sua prática clínica está na formulação de suspeita clínica e na confirmação diagnóstica da EI. Embora o uso de regras clínicas como os critérios de Duke aumenta o sucesso no diagnóstico e no manejo clínico, a infecção por germes atípicos, e a presença de próteses valvares e dispositivos cardíacos eletrônicos implantáveis (DCEI) são alguns dos fatores que dificultam o diagnóstico de endocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<sec>
					<title>Fatores de risco para EI</title>
					<p>Os principais fatores de risco para EI são: cardiopatia congênita (CC), episódio prévio de EI e a presença de prótese valvar ou de DCEIs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Em relação às CCs, a incidência de EI pós-cirurgia varia entre 1,3 e 13,3%, além do alto risco de mortalidade por CC, estimado em 6-14%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A recidiva ou reinfecção ocorre em 2,6-8,8% dos pacientes que sobrevivem à EI, com uma alta taxa de complicações e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Epidemiologia da EI em pacientes com próteses valvares</title>
					<p>Pacientes com prótese valvar possuem um risco maior de EI no primeiro ano após a troca valvar e esse risco diminui gradualmente para uma taxa baixa e estável. Válvulas bioprotéticas possuem maior risco à EI comparado a válvulas mecânicas. Além disso, o risco por implante transcateter de válvula aórtica (TAVI, do inglês <italic>transcatheter aortic valve implantation</italic>) não parece ser diferente em comparação à cirurgia convencional, com uma incidência estimada de EI de 1,4-2,8 por 100 pacientes por ano no primeiro ano e 0,8 em cada um dos quatro anos seguintes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
					<p>EI relacionada a DCEI corresponde a cerca de 10% dos episódios de EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Nesses casos, a taxa de mortalidade intra-hospitalar varia de seis a 14%, com mortalidade total de aproximadamente 20% em um ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup>A endocardite de prótese valvar é uma doença grave e com risco de vida, respondendo por 10 a 30% de todos os casos de EI com uma incidência de 0,3 a 1,2% por paciente por ano. Pacientes com próteses valvares cardíacas (PVCs) são considerados de alto risco para o desenvolvimento de EI, têm maior morbidade e mortalidade, frequentemente requerendo intervenções cirúrgicas com riscos associados.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Desafios no manejo da EI em próteses valvares e em dispositivos cardíacos implantáveis</title>
					<p>A ecocardiografia e exames laboratoriais constituem a base da investigação diagnóstica dos pacientes com EI. Contudo, o uso das técnicas de imagem convencionais na investigação na EI apresentam resultados inconclusivos em até 30% a 40% dos casos de EI em pacientes com PVCs e com DCEI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O ecocardiograma transesofágico (ETE) é necessário em todos os casos de suspeita de EI em PVC para avaliação da hemodinâmica valvar, detecção de vegetação, abscesso ou fístula. A detecção de vegetação pode ser extremamente difícil devido a artefatos relacionados ao material utilizado nas próteses valvares. A sensibilidade do ETE na detecção de EI em PVC varia de 82% a 96% em contraste com ecocardiografia transtorácica que tem uma sensibilidade de 17% a 36%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Nos casos de suspeita de EI em DCEIs, a ecocardiografia é o primeiro exame a ser solicitado também para a detecção de vegetações nos eletrodos ou nas valvas cardíacas, sendo o ETE superior à ecocardiografia transtorácica. Ambas as técnicas, porém, têm limitações similares para EI, seja pelo tamanho das vegetações e sua localização, seja pela presença de material estranho ao organismo que limita a visibilidade do ecocardiograma. É importante enfatizar que um ecocardiograma normal nunca afasta o diagnóstico de EI em pacientes com DCEIs e suspeição clínica de EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Tendo em vista o crescente número de casos de EI, a morbimortalidade envolvida e as limitações diagnósticas das técnicas convencionais, foram realizados estudos para determinar a utilidade de técnicas de medicina nuclear, como a tomografia por emissão de pósitrons com 18F-fluordesoxiglicose (18F-FDG PET-CT), no diagnóstico de EI. Observou-se, nesses estudos, uma boa a relação custo-efetividade das técnicas, evitando internações prolongadas e investigações desnecessárias e melhorando os desfechos clínicos dos pacientes. O conjunto de trabalhos na literatura, incluindo meta-análises e revisões sistemáticas sobre o tema evidenciam impacto clínico da PET/CT com 18F-FDG levando a sua incorporação na diretriz europeia de investigação de EI em próteses valvares desde 2015<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> e na diretriz norte americana desde 2020.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Além do PET-CT, uma alternativa também útil é a cintilografia com leucócitos marcados (LM), exame considerado padrão-ouro para investigação de infecções em próteses ortopédicas. O método também é específico para EI, sendo útil para confirmação do seu diagnóstico em casos em que o exame de PET-CT pode ser falso-positivo, como nos primeiros meses de pós-operatório.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Como utilizar o PET-CT no contexto de EI</title>
					<p>O principal uso do PET-CT no manejo da EI é em pacientes com prótese valvar ou DCEIs e suspeita de EI, em que a investigação com ecocardiograma transtorácico ou transesofágico foi inconclusiva ou negativa. A PET-CT utilizando o 18F-FDG demonstra captação em áreas onde há maior atividade metabólica, pois, a glicose marcada com 18 flúor é captada com intensidade pelas células inflamatórias. Assim, o acúmulo dos traçados na projeção das próteses ou em tecidos cardíacos justa-valvares é um forte indicativo de infecção em atividade. Além disso o exame, que é caracteristicamente realizado do corpo inteiro, permite também identificar a presença de complicações infecciosas da endocardite como embolização para baço ou para membros inferiores, espondilodiscite, e, em alguns casos o sítio de entrada do germe como infecções em partes moles ou tecidos da cavidade oral.</p>
					<p>O estudo que levou à inclusão do PET-CT na diretriz da <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic> (ESC) de EI foi o estudo de Saby et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Os autores estudaram prospectivamente 72 pacientes consecutivos com suspeita de EI em PVC. Todos os pacientes foram submetidos à avaliação clínica, microbiológica e ecocardiográfica. Nesse estudo, 36 (50%) apresentaram captação anormal de FDG em próximo da prótese valvar. A sensibilidade, especificidade, valor preditivo positivo, valor preditivo negativo e acurácia global foram (intervalo de confiança de 95%): 73% (54% a 87%), 80% (56% a 93%), 85% (64 % a 95%), 67% (45% a 84%) e 76% (63% a 86%), respectivamente. A captação anormal de FDG na proximidade da válvula protética aumentou significativamente a sensibilidade dos critérios modificados de Duke na admissão (70% [52% a 83%] vs. 97% [83% a 99%] e se tornou um novo critério maior para o diagnóstico de EI. Este estudo foi capital na demonstração da utilidade da 18F-FDG PET / CT para diagnosticar EI em pacientes com PV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Em 2015, a ESC incluiu o 18F-FDG PET/CT no fluxograma de investigação de EI em próteses valvares, sendo considerado um critério diagnóstico maior (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref>). O PET CT deve ser realizado em pacientes em que os critérios modificados de Duke são inconclusivos (EI possível ou EI rejeitada associada à alta suspeição clínica), dois meses após a cirurgia cardíaca, pelo maior risco de falso-positivo, decorrente de processo inflamatório cicatricial. Neste período o exame preferido é a cintilografia com LM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref> ilustramos o uso da PET CT com 18F-FDG em um paciente com suspeita de EI em que a investigação com ecocardiografia foi persistentemente negativa apesar de hemoculturas positivas. O exame de PET-CT demonstrou claramente o aumento do metabolismo glicolítico anômalo na prótese aórtica que foi implantada por via percutânea sobre um tubo valvado (<italic>valve-in-valve</italic>) compatível com EI.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f01002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Pacientes com suspeita de EI em prótese valvar se beneficiam do uso da medicina nuclear após a realização de investigação com, de preferência ETE (adaptado de Habib et al.1). EI: endocardite infecciosa; ETE: ecocardiograma transesofágico ; PET-CT com 18F-FDG: tomografia por emissão de pósitrons com 18F-fluordesoxiglicose; LM: leucócitos marcados.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230018-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>PET CT com 18F-FDG demonstrando área de aumento de captação do traçador ao nível de endoprótese valvar aórtica (substituição da válvula aórtica por cateter “valve-in-valve”) em paciente com diversas hemoculturas positivas para estreptococos e ecocardiograma transesofágico repetidamente negativo; exame positivo para EI.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230018-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>É importante lembrar que o uso do PET CT também tem sido preconizado em pacientes com suspeita de EI em valvas nativas e em pacientes com EI confirmada, para a localização de complicações locais (como abscessos cardíacos) ou à distância como embolismos sépticos. Este uso tem sido consubstanciado na literatura por revisões sistemáticas e meta-análises e figura nas diretrizes, incluindo a diretriz brasileira de cardiologia nuclear atualizada em 2020.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> A utilização dos exames de PET-CT na avaliação de inflamação cardíaca é uma das novas vertentes da medicina nuclear na era da medicina de precisão, não somente para EI, como para avaliação de miocardite, em especial da sarcoidose cardíaca, e de processos inflamatórios no pericárdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Quando utilizar a cintilografia com LM no manejo da EI em próteses e dispositivos cardíacos implantáveis</title>
					<p>A cintilografia com LM é um método amplamente utilizado para detectar locais de infecção e tem sido empregada na prática clínica há décadas. Atualmente, seu uso é indicado em pacientes com suspeita de EI, em especial naqueles com PVC ou com DCEIs, em que a investigação por métodos de imagem convencionais não for positiva e em que ainda há suspeição clínica no mínimo moderada. Nesta técnica, manipulamos o sangue do próprio paciente de modo asséptico para realizar a marcação dos leucócitos com um radiotraçador, como por exemplo o <sup>99m</sup>Tc-HMPAO. Os leucócitos ficam radiomarcados sem perder suas propriedades biológicas de quimiotaxia e diapedese, sendo assim capazes de se acumular ativamente nos sítios de inflamação em atividade após a injeção na corrente circulatória.</p>
					<p>No exame cintilográfico com LM, uma amostra de 50 mL de sangue é coletada do paciente, sendo necessária quantidade suficiente de leucócitos; assim, para pacientes com neutropenia (&lt; 2x10<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> neutrófilos/mm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>), uma amostra a mais de sangue pode ser necessária. Desta forma, a presença de neutropenia é uma limitação para a realização do exame, que também demora mais que o exame de 18F-FDG pois requer todo o processo de marcação dos leucócitos, separação do plasma e isolamento dos leucócitos que ao todo pode demorar cerca de duas horas. Para pesquisa de EI, as imagens cintilográficas são adquiridas após quatro e 24 horas da injeção. Isso é importante pois o critério cintilográfico para a identificação de infecção ativa é a presença de captação nas imagens de quatro horas e aumento de intensidade nas imagens de 24 horas. Se a captação aparece nas imagens quatro horas e desaparece nas imagens de 24 horas o estudo é classificado como negativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> O tipo de imagem cintilográfica a ser realizada também é importante. Além das tradicionais imagens de corpo inteiro e estáticas da região de interesse (no caso da endocardite, o tórax) imagens tomográficas SPECT (sigla em inglês para tomografia computadorizada de emissão de fóton único) são indispensáveis para a pesquisa de endocardite. Aparelhos híbridos, que possuem tomografia computadorizada acoplada à cintilografia permitem realização de imagens SPECT-CT. As imagens SPECT-CT são mais sensíveis e específicas que as tradicionais imagens cintilográficas e de grande importância no diagnóstico de EI (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Imagem de SPECT-CT de uma cintilografia com 99mTc-HMPAO-leucócitos marcados nas projeções coronal (A) e axial (B) com acúmulo focal em prótese valvar aórtica implantada por via percutânea</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-02-e20230018-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>A cintilografia com <sup>99m</sup>Tc-HMPAO-leucócitos marcados possui diversas indicações na avaliação de EI. Em 2015, o método foi formalmente incluído nas diretrizes da ESC como parte do algoritmo diagnóstico de EI nos pacientes com PCV ou DCEI e suspeita da doença, como um critério maior de Duke modificado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Segundo o <italic>guideline</italic>, a cintilografia com <sup>99m</sup>Tc-HMPAO-leucócitos marcados é indicada ao paciente com suspeita de EI e ecocardiograma inconclusivo ou com achado duvidoso visto que pode mudar os pacientes da categoria de possível endocardite (pelo critério de Duke) para endocardite definida em até 25% dos pacientes. Outra indicação do método no contexto da EI é a pesquisa de eventos embólicos em sítios extracardíacos. Foram descritos na literatura achados cintilográficos de doença embólica/infecção metastática em pulmão, baço e tecido ósseo/articular<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>. Para a pesquisa de EI relacionada à prótese valvar, a cintilografia com SPECT-CT <sup>99m</sup>Tc-HMPAO-leucócitos marcados teve sensibilidade de 86% e especificidade de 97%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> A sensibilidade do exame aumenta quando há presença de abscesso perivalvar, chegando a 100%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup>. Para endocardite associada a DCEIs, a cintilografia com SPECT-CT <sup>99m</sup>Tc-HMPAO-leucócitos marcados teve 94% de sensibilidade, 100% de especificidade, valor preditivo positivo de 100% e valor preditivo negativo de 94%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Além disso, nesses casos, a cintilografia ajuda a documentar a extensão da infecção, se exclusiva ao gerador ou se há acometimento dos cabos. Quando a cintilografia é positiva, os pacientes têm maior mortalidade intra-hospitalar e mais complicações.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A literatura recomenda uso do PET-CT com 18F-FDG como primeira linha, visto sua maior sensibilidade em relação a cintilografia. A cintilografia possui maior especificidade e é principalmente útil quando há história de procedimento cirúrgico recente (últimos dois meses) devido a maior chance de falso-positivos no PET-CT com 18F-FDG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Uma das maiores vantagens da cintilografia com LM é sua alta especificidade para EI relacionada a prótese ou dispositivos, principalmente quando comparada ao PET-CT com 18F-FDG, e a realização de pesquisa para EI mais precocemente que o PET no-CT paciente com procedimento cirúrgico recente. Ainda em comparação ao PET-CT com 18F-FDG não há necessidade de dieta especial ou jejum. Uma outra vantagem é a cobertura da realização do exame na saúde suplementar, enquanto o PET-CT não está incluído no rol da Agência Nacional de Saúde Suplementar (ANS).</p>
					<p>Limitações para o uso da cintilografia com LM na prática clínica, como a necessidade de manipulação do sangue do paciente, o volume mínimo de sangue suficiente para marcação, a estrutura física (capela de fluxo e centrífuga para marcação dos leucócitos). Ainda, enquanto na cintilografia com LM é necessário realizar imagem em dois tempos (4 e 24 horas), enquanto o PET-CT com 18F-FDG realiza apenas uma imagem de cerca de 60 minutos. Outras situações clínicas que podem limitar o método reduzindo a sua sensibilidade são: neutropenia, uso de antibióticos e esteroides, tipo de patógeno (melhor para infecções mediadas por neutrófilos) e vegetações pequenas (&lt;6 mm).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Finalmente, tal como a PET-CT, a cintilografia com LM é um exame que emprega radiação ionizante, a qual é uma contraindicação na gravidez. Pacientes que amamentam devem ser orientadas a suspender a amamentação por 24 horas principalmente pela exposição do bebê à radiação quando no colo da mãe.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Comparando as técnicas: PET CT com 18F-FDG versus cintilografia com LM</title>
					<p>Como escolher entre as técnicas nucleares quando ambas (PET CT e cintilografia com LM) estiverem disponíveis? Instituições que são referência para pacientes com suspeita de EI devem dispor de ambas as técnicas, as quais são complementares entre si, em especial nos casos complexos e nos casos de cirurgias recentes. A decisão de qual exame utilizar em cada paciente deve ser individualizada. Devemos levar em consideração as características técnicas, os custos, a disponibilidade, a expertise do grupo e a gravidade do paciente. De um modo geral o PET CT com 18F-FDG tem sido o exame de preferência na literatura pela sua ampla disponibilidade em países do primeiro mundo, onde o fator custo é de menor importância frente a uma doença tão letal como a EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> O que leva a esta predileção pela PET CT como exame nuclear de escolha são as suas características operacionais. Rouzet et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> fizeram um estudo comparativo da F-FDG PET com a cintilografia com leucócitos em pacientes com próteses valvares, demonstrando que o PET oferece alta sensibilidade para a detecção de infecção ativa em pacientes com suspeita de endocardite de válvula protética e ecocardiografia inconclusiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Entretanto, a cintilografia com LM ofereceu uma especificidade maior para o diagnóstico de EI em especial no período dos dois primeiros meses após cirurgia cardíaca. A comparação direta entre as técnicas nucleares em pacientes com dispositivos implantáveis foi realizada por Calais et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> que comparou o PET CT com 18F-FDG com a cintilografia com LM. Quarenta e oito pacientes foram submetidos a ambas as técnicas. A sensibilidade diagnóstica, especificidade, valor preditivo positivo e valor preditivo negativo foram, respectivamente, 80%, 91%, 80% e 91% para PET CT com 18F-FDG e 60%, 100%, 100% e 85% para cintilografia com SPECT-CT com LM. A PET-CT foi mais sensível que a cintilografia com LM, porém a última foi significativamente mais específica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusões</title>
				<p>A medicina nuclear está definitivamente incorporada na investigação diagnóstica de EI em pacientes com PVCs ou DCEIs. A 18F-FDG PET CT oferece alta sensibilidade para a detecção de infecção ativa em casos em que a ecocardiografia é inconclusiva ou negativa. A cintilografia de LM oferece uma especificidade mais elevada que a 18F-FDG PET CT para o diagnóstico de EI e deve ser considerada em casos de achados inconclusivos de 18F-FDG PET, nos casos de suspeita de falso-positivo ou nos primeiros dois meses após a cirurgia cardíaca.</p>
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					<p>Vinculação Acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento Informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de Financiamento: O presente estudo foi financiado por CNPq.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>