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<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia Imagem cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230009i</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>My Approach to Imaging in Sickle Cell Anemia</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2901-9480</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Braga</surname>
						<given-names>João Carlos Moron Saes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8760-2052</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Guimarães</surname>
						<given-names>Fábio Villaça</given-names>
						<suffix>Filho</suffix>
					</name>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7967-8735</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Rodrigues</surname>
						<given-names>Alexandre</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Barreto</surname>
						<given-names>Raphael Aparecido</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Silvacritical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Medicina e Enfermagem de Marília</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Marília</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina e Enfermagem de Marília (Famema), Marília, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto do Coração de Marília</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Marília</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração de Marília (ICM), Marília, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Unesp</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu (Unesp), Botucatu, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5">
				<label>5</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">SP </named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brazil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">
					<label>Mailing Address</label>: João Carlos Moron Saes Braga Av. Vicente Ferreira, 780. Postal code: 17515-000. Cascata, Marília, SP - Brazil E-mail: <email>joaocbraga2002@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsible for the review: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>24</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>36</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e20230009</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>14</day>
					<month>10</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>16</day>
					<month>10</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">
					<license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
<abstract><title>Abstract</title><p>Sickle cell disease (SCD) is recognized as a global problem
in public health, characterized by the alteration in the red blood cells to the sickle form. Moreover, chronic anemia can also be observed through the change in the rheology of the red blood cells, leading to a scenario of inflammation and oxidative stress, making SCD a multisystem disease.</p> 
<p>Cardiac output (CO) proved to be high, leading to an overall increase in the heart chambers and an eccentric myocardial hypertrophy. These heart alterations were attributed only to adaptive reactions to chronic anemia. Recent studies have more clearly recognized an association with pulmonary hypertension (PH), left ventricular diastolic dysfunction, arrhythmias, and sudden death. Moreover, what has also arisen in this context is the hypothesis of the existence of
a sickle-cell cardiomyopathy, characterized by diastolic dysfunction and restrictive physiology. The echocardiogram represents a key tool in determining cavitary volumes, diastolic dysfunction, and the estimation of pulmonary pressure, as well as constitutes a valuable resource in the diagnosis and therapeutic treatment of acute chest syndrome. The myocardial strain, rotational variables, myocardial work, and 3D echocardiography can be applied in an attempt to aid in the early detection of patients who are at a higher risk of developing complications and evolving to death related to SCD.</p></abstract>			
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Sickle Cell Anemia</kwd>
				<kwd>Diastolic Dysfunction</kwd>
				<kwd>Pulmonary Hypertension</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="20"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Sickle cell disease (SCD) is the most prevalent hereditary hematological condition in the world, affecting about 5 million people, and it is estimated that 300,000 babies are born with SCD per year, being recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Organization of the United Nations (UN) as a global public health concern.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A typical characteristic is the inheritance of mutant hemoglobin S, resulting from the replacement of a glutamic acid by a valine in position 6 of the beta chain, with consequent physical-chemistry modification in hemoglobin molecule.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> SCD encompasses the homozygosity of hemoglobin S (SS), which constitutes sickle cell anemia (SCA), and associations with other hemoglobin variants, such as Hb C (SC), Hb D (SD), Hb E (SE), and interactions with thalassemias (Sβ<sup>0</sup>, Sβ<sup>+</sup> and Sα). Sickle cell trait, heterozygosity for HbS, is not considered a disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>SCD is characterized by the strong tendency of mutant hemoglobin to polymerize, causing the red blood cell to change into a sickle shape, altering the erythrocyte membrane and the rheology of red blood cells, causing a scenario of intense hemolysis, occlusion of microvasculature, endothelial dysfunction, nitric oxide (NO) deficiency, inflammation, oxidative stress, increased neutrophil adhesiveness, activation of coagulation, making SCD a multisystem disease with high mortality, with a current average survival close to 50 years, even in developed countries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Mortality results mainly from target-organ lesion, with a high incidence of sudden death in young adults and, currently, cardiopulmonary complications are the most common cause of death in this population<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f01">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>– Mechanism proposed for sickle cell cardiomyopathy. Source: modified Rai et al. 2017.7 LV: left ventricle; LA: left atrial; HbS: hemoglobin; NO: nitric oxide; O2: oxygen; CO: cardiac output.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-01-e20230009-gf01.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardiovascular manifestation of SCD</title>
				<p>The regime of chronic anemia leads to adaptations that maintain adequate supply of oxygen to the tissues due to compensatory mechanisms. Non-hemodynamic mechanisms (stimulation of erythropoiesis) and hemodynamic mechanisms acting through afterload reduction (bradykinin, adenosine, NO) and preload increase (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system) and even greater inotropic and chronotropic stimulation resulting from greater reflex sympathetic activity justify the increase in left ventricular function and the state of high cardiac output (CO).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> These cardiac alterations classically found in SCD, such as enlargement of cardiac chambers, were only attributed to adaptive reactions to the chronic anemic state. Recent studies patently recognize the association with pulmonary hypertension (PH), left ventricular diastolic dysfunction, arrhythmia and sudden death and, in this context, the hypothesis of sickle cell cardiomyopathy characterized by diastolic dysfunction and restrictive physiology<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>). Coronary artery disease and cardiomyopathy secondary to iron overload are infrequent in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The most important aspects to be evaluated by echocardiography in SCD are presented below, as well as the indications for echocardiography in the cardiological evaluation in this population (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Echocardiogram indications in the cardiac assessment of patients with SCD</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="100%">
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Assessment of signs suggestive of PH and estimation of pulmonary pressure through maximum TRV.</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Assessment of cavity diameters and volumes.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Assessment of ventricular hypertrophy.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Analysis of systolic function and diastolic function.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Assessment of heart murmur evaluation and associated valvopathy.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Analysis of cardiac impairment due to associated comorbidities.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Cardiological assessment in ACS helps detect transient elevations in pulmonary pressure and right ventricular dysfunction in the acute period.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Assessment of patients with clinical and laboratory criteria of disease severity.</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p><italic>PH: pulmonary hypertension; TRV: tricuspid regurgitation velocity; ACS: acute chest syndrome.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Quantification of the heart chambers</title>
				<p>In SCD, CO is high due to increased systolic volume, with increased blood volume resulting from increased plasma volume and decreased peripheral resistance. Increased CO leads to enlargement of cardiac chambers globally, and eccentric-type myocardial hypertrophy. Abnormalities are of a progressive nature, and are more exuberant in the more advanced age groups. It is believed that right ventricle (RV) dilation occurs later and is less intense than that of the left cavities.</p>
				<p>In order to properly quantify the cardiac chambers in this population, the internal linear measurement of the cardiac cavities and their walls should be carried out routinely and, ideally, cavity volumes must be measured by indexing the patient's body surface on two-dimensional echocardiography (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>). Three-dimensional echocardiography, if available, can more accurately and reproducibly assess not only cavity volumes, but also left ventricle (LV) mass and function.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f02">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– (A) Two-dimensional echocardiography (parasternal long-axis view) in a 20-year-old patient with SCA, showing left ventricular diastolic diameter of 60 mm. (B) Same patient, showing LA volume of 46 ml/m2 (reference: &lt;34 ml/m2). (C)/(D) Same patient, showing left ventricular volume of 118 ml/m2 (reference: &lt;74 ml/m2). LV: left ventricle; LA: left atrium; AO: aorta.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-01-e20230009-gf02.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>It is also relevant to highlight some difficulties related to the echocardiographic evaluation of this particular population, since most patients have body mass index significantly reduced, chronic pain with relative limitation of mobility and, often, tachycardia during the test.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Systolic function and myocardial strain</title>
				<p>Left ventricular systolic function seems to be preserved in most patients with SCD, despite significant LV dilation, which is the rule in this population (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>). Segmental abnormalities and coronary artery disease are rare.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> When systolic dysfunction is present, it is mainly identified in older patients with associated diseases, such as systemic arterial hypertension and kidney disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>For many years, it has been considered that conventional parameters for measuring ejection fraction, due to their great influence from pre- and after-load abnormalities, would not serve to assess systolic function in patients with SCD, hiding the intrinsic function of the cardiac muscle. Therefore, preference should be given to the assessment of biventricular systolic function using two-dimensional and three-dimensional strain, if available, rotational variables (twist and torsion) and myocardial work (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f03">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– (A) Transthoracic echocardiogram (apical view) for analysis of the longitudinal strain in 20-year-old patient with SCA, showing preserved contractile function in each of the segments with LV global longitudinal Strain : -19.9 (Reference: &lt;-16.9). (B) Same patient, showing preserved contractile function in each of the RV free wall segments, analysis of right ventricular longitudinal strain with RV free wall strain result: -26.3 (Reference: &lt;-20).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-01-e20230009-gf03.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Several factors can influence the analysis by myocardial strain in the context of SCD: ethnicity, race, sex, age and hemodynamic factors (hyperdynamic state and hypervolemia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> And there may be technical limitations for three-dimensional echocardiography: mobility difficulty and respiratory apnea in image acquisition, difficulty in image acquisition with high heart rate, and difficulty acquiring the full image in the large ventricles.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Diastolic dysfunction</title>
				<p>LV diastolic dysfunction is common in patients with SCD, classically related to ventricular dilation and eccentric myocardial hypertrophy in response to chronic anemia, being an independent predictor of reduced exercise tolerance and mortality in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Recently, some experimental studies with anatomopathological analysis and cardiac resonance analysis have considered the possibility of myocardial fibrotic involvement due to the sequelae of microscopic ischemic events, resulting in restrictive ventricular filling and left atrial (LA) enlargement<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figures 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">4</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f04">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– (A) Diastolic flow in 20-year-old patient with SCA. Note the septal E/e´ ratio of 21, resulting in a worse prognosis. (B) Same patient, showing TRV of 3.0 m/s, resulting in a worse prognosis.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-01-e20230009-gf04.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Echocardiographic analysis of LV diastolic function is an integral part of the routine evaluation of patients with symptoms of dyspnea or heart failure. Diagnosis of diastolic dysfunction in this population is highly challenging, as patients usually have dilated LV and preserved ejection fraction, in addition to obvious signs of volume overload. To start the evaluation, it must be determined whether there is myocardial disease (evidence of relevant structural or functional heart disease, such as left ventricular hypertrophy — LVH — and/or systolic dysfunction) and, considering this determination, we suggest the evaluation of LV with routine two-dimensional strain for all patients. In addition, objective measures should be taken to assess filling pressures and diastolic function, which should be determined by analyzing echocardiographic variables, including mitral flow velocities, mitral annulus velocities, E/e' ratio, maximum tricuspid regurgitation velocity (TRV) and indexed LA volume. The four currently recommended variables and abnormal cutoff values are: 1) Mean E/e' ratio &gt;14; 2) Abnormal velocity of septal e' &lt;7 cm/sec or lateral e' &lt;10 cm/sec; 3) Indexed LA volume &gt;34 ml/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>; 4) Maximum tricuspid regurgitation (TR) speed &gt;2.8 m/sec.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>PH</title>
				<p>PH is a common serious complication in patients with SCD, being an important marker of mortality in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> PH in SCD is mixed, having a pre-capillary arterial component (pulmonary arterial hypertension — PAH) due to progressive increase in pulmonary vascular resistance (hemolysis, ↓NO, inflammation, free radicals, endothelial dysfunction, hypercoagulability, chronic thromboembolism) and a post-capillary venous component (venous pulmonary hypertension — VPH) (LV diastolic dysfunction). It is currently classified in PH group 5 due to multifactorial mechanisms (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 4</xref>). Estimation of pulmonary pressure by echocardiography is carried out mainly by measuring the TRV by which the pulmonary artery systolic pressure — PASP — is estimated (derived from the Bernoulli equation; PASP = 4 times the determination of TRV squared, then adding an estimated right atrial pressure). TRV greater than 2.9 m/s defines a subgroup of risk, occurring in approximately 10% of adults with SCD, and is associated with a relative risk of death of approximately 10, according to previous studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Intermediate TRV values between 2, 5 and 2.9 m/s remain a source of controversy. However, these patients also seem to have decreased exercise capacity and increased mortality with 4 risk ratio of death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Although the vast majority of epidemiological studies conducted to date have shown that a mild to moderate elevation of RV systolic pressure (TRV ≥2.5 m/s) is common in adults with SCD, it is associated with a higher rate of risk of early death. The 2.5 m/s cutoff leads to hyperdiagnosis of PH, and higher TRV thresholds (&gt;2.9 m/s) improves specificity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Due to the high risk of developing PH, patients with SCD should undergo regular echocardiography scans at least every two or three years to identify the presence of increased pulmonary pressures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Acute chest syndrome</title>
				<p>Acute chest syndrome (ACS) consists of a combination of signs and symptoms including dyspnea, chest pain, fever, cough and hypoxemia, associated with the emergence of a new pulmonary infiltrate. The etiology is complex and multifactorial, involving infectious and non-infectious causes and in a high number of cases it is not possible to define the etiology. Diagnosis of ACS is extremely important due to significant morbidity and mortality and high recurrence. Echocardiography in this scenario is usually performed at the bedside and often shows a transient increase in pulmonary pressure and right ventricular dysfunction in the acute condition, having a fundamental diagnostic and prognostic application in this context. Patients with TRV ≥3 m/s on echocardiography during the acute event are at particularly higher risk of multiorgan failure and sudden death. Point-of-care lung ultrasound has also proven to be an important tool in ACS, reducing diagnostic radiation in the sickle cell population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusions</title>
			<p>SCD evolves with cardiovascular manifestations characteristically with restrictive cardiomyopathy (diastolic dysfunction, LA enlargement and preserved ejection fraction) and PH (pulmonary arterial hypertension and pulmonary venous hypertension). The echocardiogram is a fundamental instrument for determining cavity volumes, diastolic function, and estimating pulmonary pressure, and constitutes a valuable resource in the diagnosis and therapeutic management of ACS. Myocardial strain, rotational variables, myocardial work and 3D echocardiography can be used in an attempt to support the early identification of patients at greater risk of developing complications and death related to SCD.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ref-list>
			<title>References</title>
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		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study Association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of Funding</p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230009</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Como Eu Faço o Ecocardiograma na Anemia Falciforme</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2901-9480</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Braga</surname>
						<given-names>João Carlos Moron Saes</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>Redação do manuscrito</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8760-2052</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Guimarães</surname>
						<given-names>Fábio Villaça</given-names>
						<suffix>Filho</suffix>
					</name>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7967-8735</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Rodrigues</surname>
						<given-names>Alexandre</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4002"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Raphael Aparecido Barreto</given-names>
					</name>
					<role>revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante</role>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3002"><sup>3</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5002"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina e Enfermagem de Marília (Famema), Marília, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3002">
				<label>3</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração de Marília (ICM), Marília, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4002">
				<label>4</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu (Unesp), Botucatu, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5002">
				<label>5</label>
				<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, São Paulo, SP – Brasil</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">
					<label>Correspondência</label>: João Carlos Moron Saes Braga • Av. Vicente Ferreira, 780. CEP: 17515-000. Cascata, Marília, SP - Brasil E-mail: joaocbraga2002@yahoo.com.br </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</p>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by">
					<p>Editor responsável pela revisão: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
<abstract><title>Resumo</title><p>A doença falciforme (DF) notabiliza-se como problema global de saúde pública, caracterizando-se pela mudança da hemácia para a forma de foice, além da anemia crônica verifica-se alteração da reologia dos glóbulos vermelhos, ocasionando um cenário de
inflamação e estresse oxidativo, fazendo da DF uma enfermidade multissistêmica. O débito cardíaco (DC) encontra-se elevado, acarretando aumento das câmaras cardíacas globalmente e hipertrofia miocárdica tipo excêntrica. Essas alterações cardíacas eram atribuídas apenas a reações adaptativas ao estado anêmico crônico. Estudos recentes reconhecem de maneira patente a
associação com hipertensão pulmonar (HP), disfunção diastólica do ventrículo esquerdo, arritmias e morte súbita; e, nesse contexto, surge recentemente a hipótese da existência de uma cardiomiopatia falcêmica, caracterizada por disfunção diastólica e fisiologia restritiva. O ecocardiograma configura como instrumento fundamental na determinação dos volumes cavitários, da função diastólica e da estimativa da pressão pulmonar, e constitui recurso valioso no diagnóstico e na condução terapêutica na síndrome torácica aguda. A utilização do strain miocárdico, as  variáveis rotacionais, o trabalho miocárdico e a ecocardiografia 3D podem ser utilizados na tentativa de auxiliar a identificação precoce dos pacientes que estão sob maior risco de desenvolverem complicações e morte relacionada à DF.</p></abstract>			
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Anemia Falciforme</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
				<kwd>Hipertensão Pulmonar</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A doença falciforme (DF) é a afecção hematológica hereditária de maior prevalência no mundo, acometendo cerca de 5 milhões de pessoas, e estima-se que nasçam 300 mil bebês com DF por ano, sendo reconhecida pela Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) e Organização das Nações Unidas (ONU) como problema global de saúde pública.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Possui como característica comum a herança da hemoglobina mutante S, que é resultado da substituição de um ácido glutâmico por uma valina na posição 6 da cadeia beta, com consequente modificação físico-química na molécula da hemoglobina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A denominação DF engloba a homozigose da hemoglobina S (SS), que configura a anemia falciforme (AF), e as associações com outras variantes de hemoglobinas, tais como Hb C (SC), Hb D (SD), Hb E (SE), e as interações com talassemias (Sβ<sup>0</sup>, Sβ<sup>+</sup> e Sα). O traço falciforme, a heterozigose para HbS, não é considerado doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A DF se caracteriza pela forte tendência da hemoglobina mutante à polimerização, provocando a mudança da hemácia para a forma de foice, alterando a membrana eritrocitária e a reologia dos glóbulos vermelhos, ocasionando um cenário de hemólise intensa, oclusão da microvasculatura, disfunção endotelial, deficiência de óxido nítrico (ON), inflamação, estresse oxidativo, adesividade aumentada de neutrófilos, ativação da coagulação, fazendo da DF uma enfermidade multissistêmica com elevada mortalidade, com sobrevida média atual próximo aos 50 anos, mesmo nos países desenvolvidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A mortalidade resulta principalmente de lesões de órgãos-alvo, sendo que existe elevada incidência de morte súbita em adultos jovens e, atualmente, as complicações cardiopulmonares são a causa mais comum de morte nessa população<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01002">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Mecanismo proposto para cardiomiopatia falciforme. Fonte: Modificada de Rai et al 2017.7 VE: ventrículo esquerdo; AE: átrio esquerdo; DC: débito cardíaco; HbS: Hemoglobina S; ON: óxido nítrico; O2: oxigênio.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-01-e20230009-gf01-pt.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Manifestação cardiovascular da DF</title>
					<p>O regime de anemia crônica leva a adaptações que mantêm a oferta adequada de oxigênio aos tecidos em função de mecanismos compensatórios. Mecanismos não hemodinâmicos (estímulo à eritropoiese) e mecanismos hemodinâmicos agindo por meio da redução da pós-carga (bradicinina, adenosina, ON) e aumento da pré-carga (sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona) e estímulo inotrópico e cronotrópico ainda maior advindo de maior atividade simpática reflexa justificam o incremento da função ventricular esquerda e o estado de alto débito cardíaco (DC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Essas alterações cardíacas encontradas classicamente na DF, como aumento das câmaras cardíacas, eram atribuídas apenas a reações adaptativas ao estado anêmico crônico. Estudos recentes reconhecem de maneira patente a associação com hipertensão pulmonar (HP), disfunção diastólica do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), arritmias e morte súbita e, nesse contexto, surge recentemente a hipótese da existência de uma cardiomiopatia falcêmica caracterizada por disfunção diastólica e fisiologia restritiva<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref>). Doença arterial coronária e cardiomiopatia secundária à sobrecarga de ferro são infrequentes nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A seguir, apresentam-se os aspectos mais importantes a serem avaliados pela ecocardiografia na DF, bem como as indicações do ecocardiograma na avaliação cardiológica nessa população (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<label>Tabela 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– Indicações do ecocardiograma na avaliação cardiológica do paciente com DF</title>
							</caption>
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="100%">
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Avaliação de sinais sugestivos de HP e estimativa da pressão pulmonar por meio da VRT máxima.</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Avaliação dos diâmetros e volumes cavitários.</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Avaliação de hipertrofia ventricular.</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Análise da função sistólica e da função diastólica.</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Avaliação de sopros cardíacos e valvopatias associadas.</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Análise do comprometimento cardíaco por comorbidades associadas.</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Avaliação cardiológica na STA sendo útil para detectar a elevação transitória da pressão pulmonar e a disfunção ventricular direita durante o quadro agudo.</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Avaliação dos pacientes com critérios clínicos e laboratoriais de gravidade da doença.</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1002">
									<p>HP: hipertensão pulmonar; VRT: velocidade da regurgitação tricúspide; STA: síndrome torácica aguda.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Quantificação das câmaras cardíacas</title>
					<p>Na DF, o DC está elevado devido ao aumento do volume sistólico, sendo a elevação do volume sanguíneo resultante do aumento do volume plasmático e da diminuição da resistência periférica. O aumento do DC leva ao aumento das câmaras cardíacas globalmente, e a hipertrofia miocárdica tipo excêntrica. As alterações são de caráter progressivo, sendo mais exuberantes nos grupos etários mais avançados. Acredita-se que a dilatação do ventrículo direito (VD) seja mais tardia e menos intensa que a das cavidades esquerdas.</p>
					<p>Para que se proceda à adequada quantificação das câmaras cardíacas nessa população, deve-se realizar a medição linear interna das cavidades cardíacas e suas paredes como de rotina e, idealmente, prosseguir para a mensuração dos volumes cavitários indexando pela superfície corpórea do paciente, utilizando o ecocardiograma bidimensional (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref>). O ecocardiograma tridimensional, se disponível, poderá avaliar de forma mais acurada e reprodutível não somente os volumes cavitários, mas também a massa e a função do VE.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f02002">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– (A) Imagem ecocardiográfica bidimensional em corte paraesternal, eixo longo, em paciente com AF, 20 anos, evidenciando diâmetro diastólico do VE de 60 mm. (B) Mesmo paciente, evidenciando o volume do AE de 46 ml/m2 (referência: &lt;34 ml/m2). (C)/(D) Mesmo paciente, evidenciando o volume do VE 118 ml/m2 (referência: &lt;74 ml/m2). VE: ventriculo esquerdo; AE: átrio esquerdo; AO: aorta.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-01-e20230009-gf02-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>É relevante destacar ainda algumas dificuldades relacionadas à avaliação ecocardiográfica dessa população em particular, visto que a grande maioria dos pacientes tem redução significativa do índice de massa corporal, queixa de dor crônica com relativa limitação de mobilização e, frequentemente, apresenta taquicardia durante a realização do exame.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Função sistólica e <italic>strain</italic> miocárdico</title>
					<p>A função sistólica do VE parece estar preservada na maioria dos pacientes com DF, apesar da significativa dilatação do VE, que é a regra nessa população (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02002">Figura 2</xref>). As alterações segmentares e coronariopatias são raras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Quando a disfunção sistólica está presente, é identificada, principalmente, em pacientes com idade mais avançada e com doenças associadas, como hipertensão arterial sistêmica e doença renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Há muitos anos, considera-se que os parâmetros convencionais de mensuração de fração de ejeção, por sofrerem grande influência das alterações da pré e da pós-carga, não serviriam para avaliar a função sistólica em pacientes falcêmicos, ocultando a função intrínseca do músculo cardíaco. Portanto, deve-se dar preferência para a avaliação da função sistólica biventricular mediante a utilização do <italic>strain</italic> bidimensional e tridimensional, se disponível, variáveis rotacionais (twist e torção) e trabalho miocárdico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03002">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f03002">
							<label>Figura 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– (A) Imagem do ecocardiograma transtorácico em corte apical para análise da deformação longitudinal em paciente com AF, 20 anos, evidenciando função contrátil preservada em cada um dos segmentos com resultado do Strain Global Longitudinal de VE: -19,9 (Referência: &lt;-16,9). (B) Mesmo paciente, evidenciando função contrátil preservada em cada um dos segmentos da parede livre do VD, análise da deformação longitudinal do VD com resultado Strain parede livre VD: -26,3 (Referência: &lt;-20)</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-01-e20230009-gf03-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>É essencial ressaltar que vários fatores podem influenciar a análise pelo <italic>strain</italic> miocárdico no contexto da DF: etnia, raça, sexo, idade e fatores hemodinâmicos (estado hiperdinâmico e hipervolemia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> E pode haver limitações técnicas para ecocardiografia tridimensional: dificuldade para mobilização e apneia respiratória na aquisição da imagem, dificuldade de aquisição de imagem com alta frequência cardíaca e dificuldade de aquisição da imagem total nos grandes ventrículos.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Disfunção diastólica</title>
					<p>A disfunção diastólica do VE é comum em pacientes com DF, classicamente relacionada à dilatação ventricular e hipertrofia excêntrica do miocárdio como resposta à anemia crônica, sendo um preditor independente de redução da tolerância ao exercício e mortalidade nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Recentemente, alguns estudos experimentais com análise anatomopatológica e por ressonância cardíaca têm considerado a possibilidade de acometimento fibrótico miocárdico devido à sequela de eventos isquêmicos microscópicos, resultando em enchimento ventricular restritivo e aumento do átrio esquerdo (AE)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figuras 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">4</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f04002">
							<label>Figura 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– (A) Fluxo diastólico em paciente com AF, 20 anos. Observe a relação E/e´ septal de 21, conferindo pior prognóstico. (B) Mesmo paciente, evidenciando velocidade do refluxo tricúspide de 3,0 m/s, conferindo pior prognóstico.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-01-e20230009-gf04-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>A análise ecocardiográfica da função diastólica do VE é parte integrante da avaliação rotineira de pacientes com sintomas de dispneia ou insuficiência cardíaca. O diagnóstico de disfunção diastólica nessa população é muito desafiador, pois os pacientes geralmente têm VE dilatado e fração de ejeção preservada, além de sinais óbvios de sobrecarga volumétrica. Para iniciar a avaliação, deve-se definir se há doença miocárdica (evidência de doença cardíaca estrutural ou funcional relevante, como hipertrofia ventricular esquerda — HVE — e/ou disfunção sistólica) e, considerando essa definição, sugerimos avaliação do VE com <italic>strain</italic> bidimensional de rotina para todos os pacientes. Além disso, deve-se tomar medidas objetivas para avaliação das pressões de enchimento e função diastólica, que devem ser determinadas pela análise das variáveis ecocardiográficas, que incluem as velocidades do fluxo mitral, as velocidades do anel mitral, a relação E/e’, a velocidade máxima da regurgitação tricúspide (VRT) e o volume indexado do AE. As quatro variáveis recomendadas atualmente e os valores de corte anormais são: 1) Relação E/e’ média &gt;14; 2) A velocidade anormal do e’ septal &lt;7 cm/seg ou e’ lateral &lt;10 cm/seg; 3) Volume indexado do AE &gt;34 ml/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>; 4) Velocidade máxima de regurgitação tricúspide (TR) &gt;2,8 m/seg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>HP</title>
					<p>A HP é uma complicação comum e grave nos pacientes com DF, sendo importante marcador de mortalidade nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> A HP na DF é mista, tendo um componente arterial (hipertensão pulmonar arterial — HPA) pré-capilar devido ao aumento progressivo na resistência vascular pulmonar (hemólise, ↓ON, inflamação, radicais livres, disfunção endotelial, hipercoagulabilidade, tromboembolismo crônico) e componente venoso (hipertensão pulmonar venosa — HPV) pós-capilar (disfunção diastólica do VE). Atualmente, classifica-se no grupo 5 de HP por mecanismos multifatoriais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04002">Figura 4</xref>). A estimativa da pressão pulmonar pelo ecocardiograma é realizada, principalmente, por meio da mensuração da VRT pela qual se estima a pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar — PSAP (derivada da equação de Bernoulli; PSAP = 4 vezes a determinação da VRT elevada ao quadrado, somando-se a seguir um valor estimado de pressão no átrio direito). Uma VRT superior a 2,9 m/s define um subgrupo de risco, ocorrendo em aproximadamente 10% dos adultos com DF, e é associada a risco relativo de morte de aproximadamente 10, segundo estudos prévios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Valores intermediários de VRT entre 2,5 e 2,9 m/s permanecem como fonte de controvérsia. No entanto, esses pacientes também parecem ter capacidade de exercício diminuída e aumento de mortalidade com razão de risco de morte de 4.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Embora na grande maioria dos estudos epidemiológicos conduzidos até o momento se demonstrou que uma leve a moderada elevação da pressão sistólica do VD (VRT≥2,5 m/s) seja comum em adultos com DF, é associada a maior taxa de risco de morte precoce. O corte de 2,5 m/s leva a um hiperdiagnóstico de HP, e a utilização de limiares mais elevados de VRT (&gt;2,9 m/s) melhora sua especificidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Pelo alto risco de desenvolver HP, os pacientes com DF devem realizar ecocardiogramas periódicos pelo menos a cada dois ou três anos para identificar a presença de aumento das pressões em território pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Síndrome torácica aguda</title>
					<p>A síndrome torácica aguda (STA) consiste em uma combinação de sinais e sintomas incluindo dispneia, dor torácica, febre, tosse e hipoxemia, associados ao aparecimento de um infiltrado pulmonar novo. A etiologia é complexa e multifatorial, sendo implicadas causas infecciosas e não infecciosas e em um elevado número de casos não é possível definir a etiologia. O diagnóstico de STA é extremamente importante devido à significativa morbimortalidade e a elevada recorrência. O ecocardiograma nesse cenário é usualmente realizado à beira do leito e evidencia, frequentemente, uma elevação transitória da pressão pulmonar e disfunção ventricular direita durante o quadro agudo, tendo aplicação diagnóstica e prognóstica fundamental nesse contexto. Os pacientes que exibem VRT ≥3 m/s ao ecocardiograma durante o evento agudo apresentam risco particularmente mais alto de falência de múltiplos órgãos e morte súbita. O ultrassom de pulmão (USP) na modalidade <italic>point-of-care</italic> tem se mostrado também uma importante ferramenta na STA, reduzindo a radiação diagnóstica na população falciforme.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusões</title>
				<p>A DF evolui com manifestação cardiovascular caracteristicamente com cardiomiopatia restritiva (disfunção diastólica, aumento do AE e fração de ejeção preservada) e HP (hipertensão arterial pulmonar e hipertensão venosa pulmonar). O ecocardiograma se configura como instrumento fundamental na determinação dos volumes cavitários, da função diastólica e da estimativa da pressão pulmonar e constitui recurso valioso no diagnóstico e condução terapêutica na STA. O <italic>strain</italic> miocárdico, variáveis rotacionais, trabalho miocárdico e a ecocardiografia 3D poderão ser utilizados na tentativa de auxiliar na identificação precoce dos pacientes que estão sob maior risco de desenvolverem complicações e morte relacionada à DF.</p>
			</sec>
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		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Vinculação Acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Aprovação Ética e Consentimento</p>
					<p>Informado Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de Financiamento</p>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>