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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abcimg.20230001i</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230001i</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Editorial</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Hypothesis on the Pathogenesis of Sub-Epicardial Scar Associated with Myocarditis</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8756-6995</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Lima</surname><given-names>Jo&#xE3;o A. C.</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8323-8086</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Bluemke</surname><given-names>David A.</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7751-5032</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Hare</surname><given-names>Joshua</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4958-5145</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Wu</surname><given-names>Katherine</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4050-1729</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Sara</surname><given-names>Leonardo</given-names></name>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4505-3344</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rochitte</surname><given-names>Carlos E.</given-names></name>
<role>Conception and design of the research</role>
<role>acquisition of data</role>
<role>analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
<role>writing of the manuscript</role>
<role>critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Baltimore</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MD</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="US">United States</country>
<institution content-type="original">Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD &#x2013; United States</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Centro de Diagn&#xF3;stico por Imagem</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Goi&#xE2;nia</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Centro de Diagn&#xF3;stico por Imagem (CDI), Goi&#xE2;nia, GO &#x2013; Brazil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo</institution>
    <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo (InCor - FMUSP), S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brazil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Leonardo Sara</bold> &#x2022; CDI (Centro de Diagnosticos por Imagem). Tomografia e Ressonancia Cardiovascular. Avenida Portugal, 1155. Postal code: <postal-code>74150-030</postal-code>. Setor Marista, Goi&#xE2;nia, GO &#x2013; Brazil. E-mail: <email>leosara@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>31</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year></pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e20230001</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>05</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>20</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>03</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2022</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Cardiac resonance</kwd>
<kwd>myocarditis</kwd>
<kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
<kwd>epicardial injury</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="2"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="12"/>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<p>The typical pattern of myocardial injury and subsequent fibrosis in patients with viral myocarditis is subepicardial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> However, other patterns of injury and scar, as detected by contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (cMRI), commonly occur, including sub-endocardial injury mimicking the ischemic heart disease pattern, and mid-wall circumferential scar seen more often in patients with advanced disease and dilated cardiomyopathies. In patients with myocarditis, who present malignant arrhythmias in the scenario of a preserved left ventricle (LV) function, it is not uncommon to find the typical subepicardial scar pattern in the presence of normal or mildly abnormal LV systolic function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> However, the pathogenesis of sub-epicardial scars in patients with myocarditis accompanied or not by significant LV dysfunction remains obscure.</p>
<p>In addition to myocarditis, subepicardial myocardial scar is found in association with various disease processes that are not believed to be secondary to a virally induced myocardial injury. The list includes disease processes with disparate etiologies, such Duchenne and Fabry&#x27;s disease, Chagas cardiomyopathy, and rheumatic heart disease, among others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Therefore, different theories have been proposed to explain this pattern of scar formation in patients with different pathologies. Increase in excessive regional stress and local perfusion alterations have been postulated as contributing mechanisms, but both fall short as main mechanisms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Calculated wall stress is greater at the level of the subendocardium, and reversible perfusion defects secondary to ischemia are commonly subendocardial. After scar formation, perfusion is diminished in proportion to capillary density reduction (fixed defect), but that does not implicate local ischemia as the pathogenetic mechanism underlying subepicardial scar formation.</p>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic may, however, provide a working hypothesis to explain the pathogenesis of focal subepicardial myocardial fibrosis in patients with myocarditis. COVID,-19 cardiac involvement has been amply documented by biomarker, electrocardiographic, echocardiographic and pathologic studies conducted during the acute infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Myocardial dysfunction leading to clinically manifested heart failure is uncommon, but it can occur during acute SARS-Cov-2 infection. Moreover, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies performed on COVID-19 convalescing patients with different degrees of systemic and pulmonary involvement during the acute phase have demonstrated different types, extents, anatomical distributions and degrees of severity of cardiac injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Frequently, in these studies, both pericardial leaflets appear hyperenhanced 10-20 minutes after gadolinium administration, suggesting pericardial inflammation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). In some patients, the subepicardial myocardial layer contains areas of localized delayed enhancement, reflecting fibrosis and/or inflammation. These abnormalities can persist in repeated imaging performed later in the convalescing period (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>) and resemble subepicardial injury commonly seen in patients with myocarditis due to other viral etiologies. These suggest that subepicardial damage may be related to pericardial inflammation in patients with myocarditis, either as an inflammatory process originated in the pericardial space or in association with pericardial inflammation as markers of pancardiac inflammation. The combination of pericardial inflammation and subepicardial injury or scar is also commonly seen in patients with rheumatic heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Example of patient with a post- COVID myocarditis- late gadolinium enhancement and evidence of active inflammation. Late gadolinium enhancement imaging (A and B) shows patchy areas of subepicardial enhancement in the basal inferior wall (white arrows). Short axis steady state free precession image (C) shows small pericardial effusion, and the T2-weighted image shows a small myocardial edema in the same region.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-01-e20230001-gf01.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>Viral infection leading to pericardial inflammation is seen not only in SARS-CoV-2 infection, but also in diverse types of viral cardiac infections, including Coxsachie B viruses, known to cause acute myocarditis that may evolve to dilated cardiomyopathy (9). In addition, clinically manifested acute pericarditis is also attributed to viral infection, sometimes leading to chronic constrictive pericarditis. Importantly, significant acute viral myocarditis can be unassociated with ventricular systolic dysfunction and therefore, the true prevalence of subclinical viral cardiac involvement in the community, as in the case of SARS-CoV-2 infection, remains largely unknown. In COVID-19, while severe cardiac involvement in non-hospitalized patients appears to be uncommon, the true prevalence of cardiac and also pulmonary involvement in the community has not been established. Much of the information obtained in non-hospitalized individuals comes from MRI studies performed in athletes before resuming intense physical activity after COVID-19 infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Findings from these studies suggest that myo-pericardial as well as pleural and parenchymal pulmonary involvement is common, although their long-term clinical significance remains unknown.</p>
<p>This hypothesis brought forth here, like hypotheses in general, leads us to additional questions. Why would subepicardial damage, if extending inwards from the pericardial leafs by contiguity, or as a marker of myocardial inflammation, be so often limited to the subepicardium? Much attention has been given to the subepicardium for several reasons, including its proposed distinct embryologic origin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Its pivotal role in preserving left ventricular geometry in the face of non-transmural ischemic injury or infarction is well recognized. If by contiguity, the preferential subepicardial localization of myocarditis associated injury can be explained by immediate adjacency to the pericardial space and leaflets. However, this contiguity hypothesis does not explain the other patterns, which not infrequently associate with viral myocardial disease. In addition, it does not take into full consideration the extent of infection and inflammation across the entire myocardium, frequently documented in processes associated with most pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2. Other pathways would have to be invoked to address those questions. In this regard, animal models of viral myocarditis do not reproduce the entire spectrum of disease typically seen in patients, highlighting the importance of clinical phenotypic COVID-19 studies during acute infection and convalescence. In the past, important pathophysiologic insights from endemic myocardial diseases, like Chagas heart disease, provided important insight into the pathogenesis of cardiac disease caused by diverse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Initial observations from patients with COVID-19 or convalescing from SARS-CoV-2 infection suggest that the magnitude of pericardial involvement accompanied or not by subepicardial myocardial injury deserves further study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>In conclusion, our hypothesis places emphasis on the pericardial inflammation as a possible answer to subepicardial injury in myocarditis, based on the findings in post-COVID patients. By analogy, pericardial and subepicardial involvement from myocardial diseases caused by other viruses and infectious pathogens should also be further investigated.</p>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
<p>Editor responsible for the review: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
    <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abcimg.20230001</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
    <subject>Editorial</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Hip&#xF3;tese Sobre a Patog&#xEA;nese de Les&#xE3;o Subepic&#xE1;rdica Associada &#xE0; Miocardite</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8756-6995</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Lima</surname><given-names>Jo&#xE3;o A. C.</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<role>an&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role>
<role>reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<role>revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8323-8086</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Bluemke</surname><given-names>David A.</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<role>an&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role>
<role>revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7751-5032</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Hare</surname><given-names>Joshua</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>an&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role>
<role>revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4958-5145</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Wu</surname><given-names>Katherine</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>1</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4050-1729</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Sara</surname><given-names>Leonardo</given-names></name>
<role>an&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role>
<role>reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<role>revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>2</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4505-3344</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Rochitte</surname><given-names>Carlos E.</given-names></name>
<role>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
<role>obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados</role>
<role>an&#xE1;lise e interpreta&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos dados</role>
<role>reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito</role>
<role>revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>3</sup></xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Baltimore</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">MD</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="US">Estados Unidos</country>
<institution content-type="original">Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD &#x2013; Estados Unidos</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Goi&#xE2;nia</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Centro de Diagn&#xF3;stico por Imagem (CDI), Goi&#xE2;nia, GO &#x2013; Brasil</institution>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">S&#xE3;o Paulo</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#xE3;o Paulo (InCor - FMUSP), S&#xE3;o Paulo, SP &#x2013; Brasil</institution>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Leonardo Sara</bold> &#x2022; CDI (Centro de Diagnosticos por Imagem). Tomografia e Ressonancia Cardiovascular. Avenida Portugal, 1155. CEP: <postal-code>74150-030</postal-code>. Setor Marista, Goi&#xE2;nia, GO &#x2013; Brasil. E-mail: <email>leosara@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold></p>
<p>Declaro n&#xE3;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p></fn>
</author-notes>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Resson&#xE2;ncia card&#xED;aca</kwd>
<kwd>miocardite</kwd>
<kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
<kwd>les&#xE3;o epic&#xE1;rdica</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<p>O padr&#xE3;o t&#xED;pico da inj&#xFA;ria mioc&#xE1;rdica e da fibrose subsequente em pacientes com miocardite viral &#xE9; subepic&#xE1;rdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Entretanto, outros padr&#xF5;es de inj&#xFA;ria e les&#xF5;es, conforme detectados pelos estudos utilizando resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca, tamb&#xE9;m ocorrem comumente, incluindo a inj&#xFA;ria subendoc&#xE1;rdica, que reproduz o padr&#xE3;o da doen&#xE7;a card&#xED;aca isqu&#xEA;mica, e les&#xE3;o circunferencial no meio da parede, vista com mais frequ&#xEA;ncia em pacientes com doen&#xE7;a avan&#xE7;ada e cardiomiopatias dilatadas. Nos pacientes com miocardite que apresentam arritmias malignas no cen&#xE1;rio de fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo (VE) preservada, n&#xE3;o &#xE9; raro encontrar o padr&#xE3;o de les&#xE3;o subepic&#xE1;rdica na presen&#xE7;a de fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica do VE normal ou levemente anormal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> No entanto, a patog&#xEA;nese da les&#xE3;o subepic&#xE1;rdica em pacientes com miocardite acompanhada ou n&#xE3;o por disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa do VE ainda n&#xE3;o est&#xE1; clara.</p>
<p>Al&#xE9;m da miocardite, a les&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica subepic&#xE1;rdica &#xE9; encontrada em associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o com v&#xE1;rios processos de doen&#xE7;as que n&#xE3;o s&#xE3;o considerados resultantes de inj&#xFA;ria mioc&#xE1;rdica induzida por v&#xED;rus. A lista inclui processos de doen&#xE7;as com etiologias d&#xED;spares, tais como as doen&#xE7;as de Duchenne e de Fabry, a cardiomiopatia chag&#xE1;sica e a doen&#xE7;a card&#xED;aca reum&#xE1;tica, entre outras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Portanto, teorias diferentes j&#xE1; foram propostas para explicar esse padr&#xE3;o de forma&#xE7;&#xE3;o de les&#xE3;o em pacientes com patologias diferentes. O aumento de tens&#xE3;o localizada excessiva e altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es de perfus&#xE3;o locais j&#xE1; foram postulados como mecanismos que contribuem para isso, mas n&#xE3;o s&#xE3;o suficientes para serem considerados mecanismos principais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A tens&#xE3;o da parede calculada &#xE9; mais alta no n&#xED;vel subendoc&#xE1;rdico, e defeitos de perfus&#xE3;o resultantes de isquemia geralmente s&#xE3;o subendoc&#xE1;rdicos. Ap&#xF3;s a forma&#xE7;&#xE3;o da les&#xE3;o, a perfus&#xE3;o &#xE9; diminu&#xED;da em propor&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE0; redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de densidade capilar (defeito corrigido), mas isso n&#xE3;o implica que a isquemia local seja o mecanismo patogen&#xE9;tico subjacente &#xE0; forma&#xE7;&#xE3;o de les&#xE3;o subepic&#xE1;rdica.</p>
<p>A pandemia da COVID-19 pode apresentar, todavia, uma hip&#xF3;tese para explicar a patog&#xEA;nese de fibrose mioc&#xE1;rdica subepic&#xE1;rdica focal em pacientes com miocardite. O envolvimento card&#xED;aco na COVID-19 foi amplamente documentado por estudos de biomarcadores, eletrocardiogramas, ecocardiogramas e patologia conduzidos durante a infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica levando &#xE0; insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca clinicamente manifesta n&#xE3;o &#xE9; comum, mas pode ocorrer durante a infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o aguda por SARS-Cov-2. Al&#xE9;m disso, estudos de imagem por resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca realizados em pacientes convalescentes da COVID-19 com graus diferentes de envolvimento sist&#xEA;mico e pulmonar durante a fase aguda demonstraram tipos, extens&#xF5;es, distribui&#xE7;&#xF5;es anat&#xF4;micas e graus de gravidade de inj&#xFA;ria card&#xED;aca diferentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>&#x2013;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Frequentemente, nesses estudos, ambos os folhetos peric&#xE1;rdicos aparecem hiper-real&#xE7;ados entre 10 e 20 minutos ap&#xF3;s a administra&#xE7;&#xE3;o do gadol&#xED;nio, o que sugere inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o peric&#xE1;rdica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>). Em alguns pacientes, a camada mioc&#xE1;rdica subepic&#xE1;rdica cont&#xE9;m &#xE1;reas de realce tardio localizadas, refletindo fibrose e/ou inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o. Essas anormalidades podem persistir em imagens repetidas posteriormente no per&#xED;odo de convalesc&#xEA;ncia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>), e se parecem com a inj&#xFA;ria subepic&#xE1;rdica comumente vista em pacientes com miocardite devido a outras etiologias virais. Elas sugerem que o dano subepic&#xE1;rdico possa estar relacionado &#xE0; inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o peric&#xE1;rdica em pacientes com miocardite. Isso pode acontecer como um processo inflamat&#xF3;rio originado no espa&#xE7;o peric&#xE1;rdico ou em associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE0; inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o peric&#xE1;rdica como marcadores de inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o pancard&#xED;aca. A combina&#xE7;&#xE3;o de inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o peric&#xE1;rdica e inj&#xFA;ria ou les&#xE3;o subepic&#xE1;rdica tamb&#xE9;m &#xE9; comumente vista em pacientes com doen&#xE7;a card&#xED;aca reum&#xE1;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Exemplo de paciente com quadro de miocardite p&#xF3;s-COVID &#x2014; &#xE1;rea de realce tardio e evid&#xEA;ncia de inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o ativa. Imagem de realce tardio ap&#xF3;s a infus&#xE3;o de meio de contraste baseado em gadol&#xED;nio (A e B) mostra &#xE1;rea irregular de realce subepic&#xE1;rdico na parede basal inferior (setas brancas). A imagem de precess&#xE3;o livre no estado estacion&#xE1;rio no eixo curto (C) mostra pequena efus&#xE3;o peric&#xE1;rdica, e a imagem ponderada T2 mostra discreto hiper-sinal (edema) mioc&#xE1;rdico na mesma regi&#xE3;o.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-36-01-e20230001-gf01-pt.tif"/>
</fig>
<p>A infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o viral que leva &#xE0; inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o peric&#xE1;rdica &#xE9; vista n&#xE3;o apenas na infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o por SARS-CoV-2, mas tamb&#xE9;m em diversos tipos de infec&#xE7;&#xF5;es card&#xED;acas virais, incluindo os v&#xED;rus de Coxsackie B, que reconhecidamente causam miocardite aguda que pode evoluir para cardiomiopatia dilatada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Al&#xE9;m disso, a pericardite aguda clinicamente manifesta tamb&#xE9;m &#xE9; atribu&#xED;da &#xE0; infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o viral, que &#xE0;s vezes leva &#xE0; pericardite constritiva cr&#xF4;nica. &#xC9; importante destacar que a miocardite viral pode estar desassociada da disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xF3;lica ventricular. Portanto, a preval&#xEA;ncia real do envolvimento card&#xED;aco viral subcl&#xED;nico na comunidade, como no caso da infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o por SARS-CoV-2, ainda permanece amplamente desconhecida. Na COVID-19, apesar de o envolvimento card&#xED;aco grave em pacientes n&#xE3;o hospitalizados parecer incomum, a preval&#xEA;ncia real do envolvimento card&#xED;aco e tamb&#xE9;m pulmonar na comunidade ainda n&#xE3;o foi estabelecido. Muitas das informa&#xE7;&#xF5;es obtidas de indiv&#xED;duos n&#xE3;o hospitalizados v&#xEA;m de estudos de resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca realizados em atletas antes de retomarem a atividade f&#xED;sica intensa ap&#xF3;s a infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o por COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Achados desses estudos sugerem que o envolvimento mioperic&#xE1;rdico, bem como da pleura e do par&#xEA;nquima pulmonar, &#xE9; comum, embora sua signific&#xE2;ncia cl&#xED;nica de longo prazo ainda n&#xE3;o seja conhecida.</p>
<p>A hip&#xF3;tese apresentada aqui, como todas as hip&#xF3;teses, nos leva a fazer mais perguntas. Por que a les&#xE3;o subepic&#xE1;rdica, caso se estenda para dentro a partir dos folhetos peric&#xE1;rdicos por contiguidade, ou como marcador de inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica, ficaria limitada ao subepic&#xE1;rdio com tanta frequ&#xEA;ncia? Muita aten&#xE7;&#xE3;o foi dada ao subepic&#xE1;rdio por diversas raz&#xF5;es, incluindo sua origem embriol&#xF3;gica distinta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Seu papel cr&#xED;tico na preserva&#xE7;&#xE3;o da geometria do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo face &#xE0; inj&#xFA;ria ou infarto isqu&#xEA;mico n&#xE3;o transmural &#xE9; bem reconhecido. Se for por contiguidade, a localiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o preferencial da inj&#xFA;ria associada &#xE0; miocardite pode ser explicada pela adjac&#xEA;ncia imediata aos folhetos e espa&#xE7;o peric&#xE1;rdico. Entretanto, essa hip&#xF3;tese da contiguidade n&#xE3;o explica os outros padr&#xF5;es, que com frequ&#xEA;ncia se associam &#xE0; doen&#xE7;a mioc&#xE1;rdica viral. Al&#xE9;m disso, ela n&#xE3;o leva em considera&#xE7;&#xE3;o totalmente a extens&#xE3;o da infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o e da inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o em todo o mioc&#xE1;rdio, frequentemente documentada em processos associados &#xE0; maioria dos pat&#xF3;genos, incluindo a SARS-CoV-2. Outros trajetos teriam que ser tra&#xE7;ados para tratar dessas quest&#xF5;es. Nesse sentido, modelos animais de miocardite viral n&#xE3;o reproduzem todo o espectro da doen&#xE7;a geralmente visto em pacientes, o que refor&#xE7;a a import&#xE2;ncia de estudos fenot&#xED;picos cl&#xED;nicos de COVID-19 durante a infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o aguda e no per&#xED;odo de convalesc&#xEA;ncia. No passado, &#x201C;insights&#x201D; fisiopatol&#xF3;gicos importantes de doen&#xE7;as mioc&#xE1;rdicas end&#xEA;micas, como a cardiopatia de Chagas, representaram uma vis&#xE3;o importante sobre a patog&#xEA;nese de doen&#xE7;a card&#xED;aca causada por etiologias diversas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Observa&#xE7;&#xF5;es iniciais de pacientes com COVID-19 ou convalescentes da infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o por SARS-CoV-2 sugerem que a magnitude do envolvimento peric&#xE1;rdico acompanhado ou n&#xE3;o por inj&#xFA;ria mioc&#xE1;rdica subepic&#xE1;rdica requer estudos posteriores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
<p>Em conclus&#xE3;o, nossa hip&#xF3;tese coloca &#xEA;nfase na inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o peric&#xE1;rdica como uma poss&#xED;vel explica&#xE7;&#xE3;o para a inj&#xFA;ria subepic&#xE1;rdica na miocardite, com base nos achados em pacientes p&#xF3;s-COVID. Por analogia, o envolvimento peric&#xE1;rdico e subepic&#xE1;rdico em doen&#xE7;as mioc&#xE1;rdicas causadas por outros v&#xED;rus e pat&#xF3;genos tamb&#xE9;m precisa ser melhor investigado.</p>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn5">
<p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo n&#xE3;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
<p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o Acad&#xEA;mica</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o deste estudo a programas de p&#xF3;s-gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
<p><bold>Aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xC9;tica e Consentimento Informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo n&#xE3;o cont&#xE9;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
<p>Editor respons&#xE1;vel pela revis&#xE3;o: Daniela do Carmo Rassi Frota</p></fn>
</fn-group>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
