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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.47593/2675-312X/20223502ecard06</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>What do Cardiologists Expect</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>What do Cardiologists Expect from the Echocardiogram in Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Murad</surname>
						<given-names>Ciro Mancilha</given-names>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-ingf01.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Marcondes-Braga</surname>
						<given-names>Fabiana Goulart</given-names>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-ingf02.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Moleta</surname>
						<given-names>Danilo Bora</given-names>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-ingf03.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">University of São Paulo</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">School of Medicine</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Clínicas</institution>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Heart Institute (InCor), Hospital das Clínicas, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">São José dos Campos Regional Hospital</institution>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">São José dos Campos Regional Hospital.</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Fabiana Goulart Marcondes-Braga •</bold> E-mail: <email>fgmarcondes@yahoo.com.br/</email>
					<email>fgmarcondes@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Authors’ contributions</bold></p>
					<p>Research creation and design: Marcondes-Braga, FG; Murad, CM. Data acquisition: Boleta, DB. Redação do manuscrito: Murad, CM; Marcondes-Braga, FG. Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Marcondes-Braga, FG; Boleta, DB.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Conflict of interest</bold></p>
					<p>The authors have declared that they have no conflict of interest.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>13</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>35</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>ecard06</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>31</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>12</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>26</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
				<kwd>Stroke volume</kwd>
				<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="18"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>The echocardiogram plays a central role in assessments of patients with heart failure (HF), contributing to its classification, etiology definition, severity stratification, hemodynamic assessment, and clinical follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> HF has been historically divided according to the echocardiographic parameter left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). The most recent classification divided it into preserved (≥50%), reduced (≤40%), and slightly reduced LVEF (41–49%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Different societies have recently proposed a universal definition of HF that involves the presence of symptoms and signs caused by structural and/or functional cardiac changes associated with increased natriuretic peptide levels or objective evidence of congestion. The authors also highlight the importance of classifying HF according to LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>) This article will describe the main parameters which the clinical cardiologist should pay attention on the echocardiogram of patients with HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) and how best to use them in clinical practice.</p>
			<fig id="f1">
				<label>Figure 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Universal definition and new classification of HF.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-gf01.tif"/>
			</fig>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Etiological assessment</title>
			<p>The echocardiogram may be the first method used to define the etiology of HFrEF (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). Segmental contractility changes suggest ischemic etiology, especially if associated with inactive electrical areas on the electrocardiogram. However, they can also occur in other heart diseases. Severe valvular dysfunction associated with morphological changes suggests a valvular etiology. The presence of a digitiform apical aneurysm, inferior or inferolateral contractility changes, and right ventricular dysfunction are frequent in Chagas heart disease. Echocardiographic parameters can also be useful to define the etiology of resctrictive cardiomyopathies, which may present with decreased LVEF in advanced stages. Right and left ventricular wall thickening and a myocardium with a granular aspect and preserved apical contractility are suggestive of amyloidosis. The presence of posterior and/or septal wall thickening with mitral regurgitation and a left ventricular outflow tract obstruction suggest hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, especially when the degree of hypertrophy is not explained by arterial hypertension. Finally, increased lateral and apical trabeculations are suggestive of noncompaction cardiomyopathy.</p>
			<fig id="f2">
				<label>Figure 2</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Use of echocardiography to classify and define the etiology of HF. A: LVEF calculation by the Simpson’s method. Apical two-chamber view, final biplane LVEF of 36.3%. B, C, and D: Examples of the use of echocardiography to define HF etiologies. B: Apical two-chamber window demonstrating the apical “ballooning” pattern of a patient with Takotsubo syndrome. C: Long-axis parasternal window demonstrating apical obliteration in a patient with endomyocardial fibrosis. D: Left-ventricular GLS final polar map (bull’s eye) demonstrating segmental heart disease in the territory of the anterior descending artery.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-gf02.tif"/>
			</fig>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Prognostic assessment</title>
			<p>LVEF is one of the best-known prognostic factors for HFrEF. Several studies reported lower survival rates among patients with a lower LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A sub-analysis of patients in the Candesartan in Heart failure: Assessment of Reduction in Mortality and Morbidity (CHARM) program showed that the risk of death from all causes increased by 39% for every 10% decrease in LVEF, starting from a 45% LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> An LVEF below 30% is also one of the criteria used by the European Society of Cardiology and the Brazilian Society of Cardiology to define advanced HF, i.e., it helps identify patients who would benefit most from treatments such as heart transplantation or long-term circulatory support devices.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Right ventricular dysfunction associated with HFrEF is also considered a marker of adverse prognosis and signals advanced-stage disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A recent study reported that right ventricular global longitudinal strain (GLS) was the best predictor of adverse outcomes, even compared to cardiac magnetic resonance imaging parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> On the other hand, simpler parameters such as the tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) and the TAPSE/pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) ratio are also related to worse prognosis and may be useful in clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Cardiac chamber size, the presence of pulmonary hypertension, and secondary mitral regurgitation are also recognized predictors of adverse prognosis in HFrEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Hemodynamic and fluid overload assessment</title>
			<p>In addition to classification, signaling possible etiologies, and assessing prognosis, echocardiography plays a key role in hemodynamic assessments and por volemia definition in HFrEF (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). Right atrial pressure (RAP) can be estimated noninvasively by assessment of the diameter and respiratory variation of the inferior vena cava.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A diameter &lt; 2.1 cm with a respiratory variation &gt; 50% correlates with a RAP of 0–5 mmHg, while a diameter &gt; 2.1 cm with a variation &lt; 50% correlates with a RAP of 10–20 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> The absence of hepatic vein inspiratory collapse, right atrial dilation with left interatrial septum deviation, and tricuspid valve E/e’ ratio &gt; 6 are adjuvant parameters also correlated with a higher RAP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> These data may indicate systemic congestion in clinical practice and thus help with its clinical management.</p>
			<fig id="f3">
				<label>Figure 3</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Use of echocardiography to define HF etiology. A: Two-dimensional M-mode echocardiogram demonstrating an inferior vena cava measuring 2.4 cm without significant inspiratory collapse suggestive of an increased right atrial filling pressure. B: Inferior vena cava collapsing on inspiration suggestive of a low right atrial filling pressure. C: Apical four- and two-chamber windows demonstrating left atrial dilation. D: Tissue Doppler demonstrating an increased E/e’ ratio suggestive of an increased left atrial filling pressure.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-gf03.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>Increased left-atrial filling pressures suggest pulmonary edema and can be noninvasively estimated by echocardiography. A study of intensive care unit patients correlated a mitral valve E/e’ ratio &gt; 15 with a pulmonary capillary pressure (PCP) &gt; 15 with 86% sensitivity and 88% specificity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> However, this method is less accurate in patients with valve disease or mitral calcification, left bundle branch block, or under resynchronization therapy. Anderson et al. developed an algorithm to estimate left-chamber filling pressures with better accuracy than the use of isolated variables alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> In this algorithm, a mitral valve E/A ratio ≥ 2 or two changed parameters (maximum indexed left atrial volume &gt; 34 mL/m<sup>2</sup>, peak tricuspid regurgitation velocity &gt; 2.8 m/s, E/e’ &gt; 14) have 87% accuracy for predicting a PCP &gt; 12 mmHg<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>. In addition, cardiac output can be estimated by pulsed Doppler in the left ventricular outflow tract, which has been increasingly used at the bedside to assess and adjust cardiogenic shock therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>New echocardiographic techniques</title>
			<p>New techniques for potential use in HFrEF have recently been described. One such technique is the strain measurement or myocardial strain index. Some studies already showed that left ventricle GLS is a better predictor of mortality than LVEF and other echocardiographic parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> It can also be used for cardiotoxicity monitoring and the diagnostic evaluation of some cardiomyopathies (e.g., the standard apical-sparing pattern in amyloidosis can be easily identified through a strain echocardiogram). Three-dimensional echocardiography is also more accurate for determining cardiac chamber volumes and function, including from the right ventricle, which has limited assessment on two-dimensional echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> It has already been used in clinical practice for cardiotoxicity monitoring and during invasive procedures such as the MitraClip<sup>®</sup>.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion and perspectives</title>
			<p>We believe that the role of echocardiography in HFrEF extends beyond LVEF and cavity size assessments (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). It is a widely available, noninvasive method that provides a vast set of information about the clinical condition of patients with HFrEF. The knowledge and correct interpretation of different echocardiographic parameters improves the diagnosis, prognostic assessment, treatment, and clinical follow-up of these patients.</p>
			<fig id="f4">
				<label>Figure 4</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Central role of echocardiography in HF.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-gf04.tif"/>
			</fig>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff3">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Instituto do Coração, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP</institution>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff4">
					<label>2</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São José dos Campos</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital Regional de São José dos Campos, São José dos Campos, SP, Brasil.</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Fabiana Goulart Marcondes-Braga •</bold> E-mail: <email>fgmarcondes@yahoo.com.br/</email>
					<email>fgmarcondes@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Contribuição dos autores</bold></p>
					<p>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa: Marcondes-Braga, FG; Murad, CM. Obtenção de dados: Boleta, DB. Redação do manuscrito: Murad, CM; Marcondes-Braga, FG. Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante: Marcondes-Braga, FG; Boleta, DB.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Conflito de interesses</bold></p>
					<p>Os autores declaram não terem conflitos de interesse.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Insuficiência cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Volume sistólico</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>O ecocardiograma tem papel central na avalição de pacientes portadores de insuficiência cardíaca (IC), contribuindo para sua classificação, definição de etiologia, estratificação de gravidade, avaliação hemodinâmica e seguimento clínico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Historicamente, a IC é dividida em diferentes fenótipos clínicos, de acordo com um parâmetro ecocardiográfico: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE). Em sua classificação mais recente, é dividida em FEVE preservada (≥50%), reduzida (≤40%) e levemente reduzida (41 a 49%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Recentemente, diferentes sociedades propuseram uma definição universal de IC que envolve a presença de sintomas e sinais de IC causados por alteração estrutural e/ou funcional cardíaca associados à elevação de peptídeos natriuréticos ou à evidência objetiva de congestão. Os autores reforçam ainda a importância da classificação da IC de acordo com a FEVE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f5">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Definição universal e nova classificação da insuficiência cardíaca.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-gf01-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>Descrevemos aqui os principais parâmetros que o cardiologista clínico deve se atentar no ecocardiograma do paciente com IC de fração de ejeção reduzida (ICFER) e como melhor utilizá-los na prática clínica.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Avaliação etiológica</title>
				<p>O ecocardiograma pode ser o primeiro método utilizado para definição etiológica na ICFER (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>). Alterações segmentares de contratilidade sugerem etiologia isquêmica, principalmente se associadas a áreas elétricas inativas no eletrocardiograma, todavia também podem ocorrer em outras cardiopatias. Disfunções valvares graves, associadas a alterações morfológicas, sugerem etiologia valvar. Aneurisma apical digitiforme, alterações de contratilidade inferior ou inferolateral e disfunção de ventrículo direito são achados frequentes na cardiopatia chagásica. Parâmetros ecocardiográficos também podem ser úteis na busca de etiologia de cardiomiopatias restritivas, que evoluem com queda de FEVE em fases mais avançadas. Espessamento das paredes dos ventrículos direito e esquerdo e miocárdio de aspecto granular com contratilidade apical preservada são sugestivos de amiloidose. Espessamento de parede posterior e/ou septal com insuficiência mitral e obstrução de via de saída de ventrículo esquerdo, especialmente quando o grau de hipertrofia não é explicado por hipertensão arterial, são sugestivos de cardiomiopatia hipertrófica. Finalmente, aumento de trabeculação lateral e apical são sugestivos de miocárdio não compactado.</p>
				<fig id="f6">
					<label>Figure 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Uso do ecocardiograma para classificação e definição de etiologia na insuficiência cardíaca. (A) Cálculo de fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo pelo método de Simpson. Janela apical de duas câmaras, resultado biplanar: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo 36,3%. (B, C e D) Exemplos do uso do ecocardiograma para definição de etiologias da insuficiência cardíaca. (B) Janela apical de duas câmaras demonstrando padrão de “balonamento” apical em paciente com síndrome de Takotsubo. (C) Janela paraesternal, eixo longo demonstrando obliteração apical em paciente portador de endomiocardiofibrose. (D) Mapa polar final (bull's eye) do strain longitudinal do ventrículo esquerdo demonstrando cardiopatia com acometimento segmentar em território da artéria descendente anterior.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-gf02-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Avaliação prognóstica</title>
				<p>A FEVE é um dos fatores prognósticos mais conhecidos da ICFER. Uma série de estudos demonstrou menor sobrevida em pacientes com menor FEVE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Em subanálise dos pacientes do programa CHARM (<italic>Candesartan in Heart failure: Assessment of Reduction in Mortality and morbidity</italic>), o risco de morte por todas as causas aumenta em 39% para cada queda de 10% na FEVE, partindo de uma FEVE de 45%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>. Fração de ejeção ventricular esquerda abaixo de 30% também é um dos critérios usados pela <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic> (ESC) e pela Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (SBC) para definir IC avançada, ou seja, ajuda a definir pacientes que teriam maior benefício de terapias, como o transplante cardíaco ou dispositivos de assistência circulatória de longa permanência.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A disfunção ventricular direita, quando ocorre associada a ICFER, também é considerada marcador de prognóstico adverso e sinaliza doença em estágio avançado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Em um trabalho recente, <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global (SLG) do ventrículo direito foi o melhor preditor de desfechos adversos, mesmo comparado a parâmetros de ressonância magnética cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Por outro lado, mesmo parâmetros de obtenção mais simples, como a excursão sistólica do plano do anel tricúspide (TAPSE, sigla do inglês <italic>tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion</italic>) e a relação TAPSE/pressão sistólica da artéria pulmonar (PSAP), também estão relacionados a pior prognóstico e podem ser úteis na prática clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Além da função ventricular, a dimensão das cavidades cardíacas, a presença hipertensão pulmonar e a insuficiência mitral secundária também são reconhecidos preditores de prognóstico adverso na ICFER.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Avaliação hemodinâmica e volemia</title>
				<p>Além da classificação, da sinalização de possíveis etiologias e da avaliação prognóstica, o ecocardiograma tem papel primordial na avaliação hemodinâmica e na definição de volemia na ICFER (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>). A pressão do átrio direito (PAD) pode ser estimada de maneira não invasiva pela avaliação do diâmetro e pela variação respiratória da veia cava inferior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Diâmetro &lt;2,1cm com variação respiratória &gt;50% correlaciona-se com PAD entre 0 e 5mmHg enquanto diâmetro &gt;2,1cm com variação &lt;50% correlaciona com PAD de 10 a 20mmHg<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>. Ausência de colapso inspiratório das veias hepáticas, dilatação do átrio direito com desvio do septo interatrial para esquerda e relação E/e´ da valva tricúspide &gt;6 são parâmetros adjuvantes também correlacionados com maior PAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Na prática clínica, estes dados podem indicar congestão sistêmica e, assim, auxiliar no manejo clínico.</p>
				<fig id="f7">
					<label>Figure 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Uso do ecocardiograma para definição de volemia na insuficiência cardíaca. (A) Ecocardiograma bidimensional em modo M demonstrando veia cava inferior medindo 2,4cm, sem colapsabilidade inspiratória significativa, sugerindo elevação de pressões de enchimento em átrio direito. (B) Veia cava inferior colabando na inspiração, sugerindo pressões de enchimento baixas em átrio direito. (C) Janelas apicais quatro câmaras e duas câmaras demonstrando dilatação de átrio esquerdo. (D) Doppler tecidual demonstrando relação E/e’ elevada, sugerindo elevação de pressões de enchimento em átrio esquerdo.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-gf03-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>Elevação das pressões de enchimento de câmaras esquerdas são um indicativo de congestão pulmonar e também podem ser estimadas de maneira não invasiva pelo ecocardiograma. Em estudo conduzido em pacientes em unidade de terapia intensiva, relação E/e´da valva mitral &gt;15 correlacionou com pressão capilar pulmonar (PCP) &gt;15 com 86% de sensibilidade e 88% de especificidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Todavia, esse método tem menor acurácia em pacientes com valvopatia ou calcificação mitral, bloqueio de ramo esquerdo e ressincronizador. Andersen et al. desenvolveram um algoritmo para estimar pressões de enchimento em câmaras esquerdas, com melhor acurácia que o uso de variáveis isoladas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Nesse algoritmo, uma relação E/A da valva mitral ≥2 ou dois parâmetros alterados (volume indexado máximo do átrio esquerdo &gt;34mL/m<sup>2</sup>; pico de velocidade de regurgitação tricúspide &gt;2,8m/s ou E/e´ &gt;14) têm acurácia de 87% para predizer PCP &gt;12mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Além de avaliação da volemia, o débito cardíaco também pode ser estimado por meio do Doppler pulsátil na via de saída do ventrículo esquerdo, sendo cada vez mais utilizado na beira do leito em avaliação e ajuste de tratamento no choque cardiogênico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Novas técnicas em ecocardiografia</title>
				<p>Mais recentemente, novas técnicas com potencial utilização na ICFER foram descritas. Uma delas é a medida do <italic>strain</italic>, ou índice de deformação miocárdico. Alguns estudos já demonstraram que o SLG do ventrículo esquerdo é melhor preditor de mortalidade que a FEVE e outros parâmetros ecocardiográficos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Além disso, pode ser usado para monitorização de cardiotoxicidade e avaliação diagnóstica de algumas cardiomiopatias (por exemplo: o padrão <italic>apical sparing</italic> da amiloidose pode ser facilmente identificado por meio do ecocardiograma com <italic>strain</italic>). Por sua vez, o ecocardiograma tridimensional também tem maior acurácia para determinação de volumes e função das cavidades cardíacas, incluindo o ventrículo direito, cuja avaliação é limitada pelo ecocardiograma bidimensional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> O ecocardiograma tridimensional já tem sido usado na prática clínica para monitorização de cardiotoxicidade e durante realização de procedimentos invasivos, como o MitraClip<sup>®</sup>.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão e perspectivas</title>
				<p>Portanto, o papel da ecocardiografia na ICFER vai além da avaliação da FEVE e do tamanho de cavidades (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref>). Trata-se de método amplamente disponível, não invasivo e que fornece um conjunto vasto de informações sobre o quadro clínico dos portadores de ICFER. O conhecimento e a correta interpretação dos diferentes parâmetros ecocardiográficos otimizam enormemente o diagnóstico, a avaliação prognóstica, o tratamento e o seguimento clínico desses pacientes.</p>
				<fig id="f8">
					<label>Figure 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Papel central do ecocardiograma na insuficiência cardíaca.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2675-312X-dic-35-2-ecard06-gf04-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</sec>
		</body>
	</sub-article>
</article>